JÖ N K Ö P I N G I N T E R N A T I O N A L BU SI N E SS SC H O O L
JÖ N KÖ P IN G U N IVERSITY
C orruption in Small Pacific
Island States
- A Case Study of Vanuatu
Master Thesis within Political science
Author:
Marie Vaadre
Tutor:
Jönköping
Mikael Sandberg
Spring 2009
REPUBLIC OF VANUATU
Source: Vanuatu Financial Service Commission
i
Acknowledgements
This thesis has been written as a Minor Field Study (MFS), sponsored by the Swedish International Development Agency, SIDA.
The requirements set by SIDA for a MFS-study is that the thesis
should be written in a developing country. Due to developed circumstances in Vanuatu and with respect for my own safety I spent
the last weeks of my study in New Zealand. Tough, I have fulfilled
a MFS study concerning corruption.
When I started to write this thesis in the beginning it was supposed
to be about coconut oil, and how successful the project about driving with coconut oil has been on the small island developing country Vanuatu. But when I arrived in Vanuatu things became not
what it was supposed to be, and it was my very first connection
with corruption…
This became an extraordinary life experience…
ii
Master’s Thesis within Political science
Title:
Corruption in Small Pacific Island States
- A Case Study of Vanuatu
Author:
Marie Vaadre
Tutor:
Associate Professor Mikael Sandberg
Date:
2009-05-24
Subject terms:
Pacific Islands, Vanuatu, tribes, public and political
administration, corruption
Abstract
Corruption is defined as the abuse of public office for private gain. Often, corruption has devastating consequences, the two main consequences of which
are economic and social. Unfortunately corruption exists most in developing
countries, where people already live under hard economical and social conditions. The Pacific Islands are a region where corruption is a problem. Some
countries are doing better than others, some have improved and some have got
worse. But almost all of the Pacific island countries have faced cups or riots,
breakdown of law and order as a consequence of corruption. The region is
unique and characterized by ecological and cultural diversity, colonization,
tribes, a human history rich in epic ritual, travel, narrative, and innovation. This
thesis has examined one small Pacific Island country, Vanuatu which is a typical example of an island country in the region. 76 % of the people lives on 83
different islands and have little contact with the central island and its public
and political administration. The purpose was to examine why corruption exists in the region with the help of different corruption theories. The result was
that many Islands in the Pacific have been colonised and have had very little
time to build up a stable public and political administration. Results also
showed that the islands have a strong tribal tradition and people lives isolated
on islands far away from the “real political life”, there is also a culture which
accepts e.g. bribery and the general attitude is that parliamentarians should look
after their original tribe rather than the entire country.
iii
Magisteruppsats inom Statsvetenskap
Titel:
Korruption i små stillahavsländer- fallstudien av Vanuatu
Författare:
Marie Vaadre
Handledare:
Docent Mikael Sandberg
Datum:
2009-05-24
Ämnesord
Stillahavsöar, Vanuatu, stamkultur, politisk och offentlig administration, korruption
Sammanfattning
Korruption definieras som missbruk av offentliga medel för privata ändamål.
Ofta, har korruption förödande konsekvenser, de två alvarligaste är ekonomiska och sociala. Tyvärr förekommer korruption mest i utvecklingsländer, där
befolkning redan lever under svåra ekonomiska och sociala förhållanden. Stillahavsöarna är en region där korruption är ett problem. I Vissa länder är problemet mindre och i vissa större. Men nästan alla av stillahavsöarna har råkat ut
för kupper och upplopp på grund av korruption. Regionen är unik och karaktäriserad av ekologiska och kulturella skillnader, kolonisering, stammar, en historia rik av storslagna ritualer, resande, berättarkultur och innovation. Den här
uppsatsen har utforskat ett liten stillahavsland, Vanuatu, som är ett typexempel
på en ö i regionen. 76 % av befolkningen bor utspridda på 83 olika öar och har
lite kontakt med huvudön och den offentliga och politiska administrationen.
Syftet har varit att undersöka varför korruption existerar i regionen med hjälp
av olika korruptionsteorier. Resultatet visade att många öar i stilla havet har varit koloniserade och haft väldigt lite tid på sig att bygga upp en stabil offentlig
och politisk administration. Resultaten visade också att öarna har en stark tradition av stamkultur och de flesta bor långt bort från den ”politiska verkligheten”. Det finns också en kulturell acceptans för t.ex. mutor, och den generella
attityden visade att man tycker att parlamentariker borde först och främst se till
sin ursprungliga stams bästa och därefter till det allmänna bästa.
iv
Acronyms and abbreviations
ADB
-
Asian Development Bank
ANZUS
-
Australia, New Zeeland and United States Defence Treaty
Approx
-
approximately
CPI
-
Corruption Perceptions Index
Kastom
-
Vanuatu and Pacific island traditions including tribe
tradition, religion and magic
NAM
-
Non-Aligned Movement
Ni Vanuatu -
Citizens of Vanuatu
QoG
-
The quality of government institute
UMP
-
Union of Moderate Parties
VP
-
Vanua´ku pati
WB
-
World Bank
WBI
-
World Bank Institute
TI
-
Transparency International
v
Table of Contents
1 Research problem and approach ............................................ 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.6.1
1.6.2
1.7
The problem ...........................................................................................1
Purpose ..................................................................................................2
Questions ...............................................................................................2
Design of case ........................................................................................3
Method and approach.............................................................................5
Sources and material..............................................................................6
Research overview on corruption ...........................................................7
The interviews ........................................................................................8
Outline ....................................................................................................9
2 Theoretical framework ............................................................ 10
2.1
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
Corruption............................................................................................. 10
Reasons for corruption ......................................................................... 11
Public institutions and administration.................................................... 11
“The soft state” ..................................................................................... 14
Consequences of corruption ................................................................. 16
Poverty ................................................................................................. 16
Inequality .............................................................................................. 16
Credibility of the state ........................................................................... 16
3 Strategies for combating corruption ..................................... 17
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
The problems with change the particularistic administration in
developing countries............................................................................. 17
Increase political responsibility ............................................................. 18
Increase public participation ................................................................. 19
Make a competitive private sector ........................................................ 20
4 Case study Vanuatu ................................................................ 21
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
The Postcolonial heritage from Britain and France ............................... 21
Weak party system ............................................................................... 24
Isolated islands ..................................................................................... 25
The Cultural tradition of gifts and tribes ................................................ 27
5 Analysis ................................................................................... 29
5.1
5.2
5.3
Why corruption exist in the pacific island countries like Vanuatu .......... 29
Differences between corruption on Vanuatu and the general
explanations, theories........................................................................... 32
Methods to combat corruption in Pacific Island Countries .................... 34
6 Concluding discussion........................................................... 36
References ................................................................................... 38
Appendix ...................................................................................... 40
Interview questions ........................................................................................... 40
vi
1
Research problem and approach
The Pacific Islands are a region where corruption is a problem. Some countries are doing
better than others, some have improved and some have got worse. But almost all of the
Pacific island countries have faced cups or riots, breakdown of law and order as a consequence of corruption. The region is unique and characterized by ecological and cultural diversity, colonization, tribes, a human history rich in epic ritual, travel, narrative, and innovation.
1.1
The problem
Corruption is defined as the abuse of public office for private gain.1 Often corruption has
devastating consequences, two main are economic and social. Corruption can hinder both
domestic and foreign investment, it can reduce growth, restrict trade, distort the size and
composition of government expenditure, weaken the financial system and strengthen the
underground economy. Socially can corruption increase levels of poverty and income inequality.2
Unfortunately corruption exists most in developing countries where people already live under hard economical and social conditions. Many times is it contacts or money which decides if public employees carry out the public politics.
3
Not only political scientists, but
also economists and sociologists have identified quality in an administration as the crucial
factor to achieve development within democracy and welfare in the third world. 4
Transparency International (TI) has made a Corruption Perceptions Index where countries
are ranked in terms of the degree to which corruption is perceived among public officials
and politicians. Generally (with som e exceptions) north countries are ranked high, south
counties low and small pacific island countries in the middle. The small pacific island countries are very similar; they are former colonial countries, geographically isolated, they have
Transparency International. http://www.transparency.org 2009-04-13 time: 20:20
The World Bank. Anticorruption in Transition a Contribution to the Policy Debate., Washington DC, 2000.
.http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/17506/contribution.pdf 2009-04-14 time 20:11
3 Gunnarson, Carina. Jämförande politik. Uppsala universitet, 2005. p 12.
http://www.fhs.se/upload/Utbildning/Dokument/Material/ISS/jamforande_pol_2.pdf 2009-04-14 time:
16:05
4 Ibid. p 10
1
2
1
small number of inhabitants and most of these countries population lives on the outer islands and have limited contact with the main island.
Vanuatu is and represents a typical small pacific island country where 76% of the population lives on 83 different islands and have little contact with the central island and its political administration. On the islands is the access to newspapers, radio, television, phone or
internet very limited. 5 There is also an unfair disproportionate amount of money distributed to the capital city, compared to the provinces.6 Citizens on the outer islands miss their
civil rights since there is a lack of public administration on the islands. 7 On the main islands, self serving attitudes and decision making based on self-interest rather than national
interest are commonplace among politicians and officials. In Vanuatu, and the Pacific in
general, people are linked by strong tribal allegiances. They take actions or decisions to pay
back past favours or to store up future favours or rewards, such as jobs or contracts. The
attitudes have contributed to a political instability and inequality. 8
1.2
Purpose
The purpose of this thesis is with the example of Vanuatu, to analyse why corruption exists
in small pacific island countries. Vanuatu is chosen because it is not different from other
pacific island countries. The purpose is also to survey through which methods it is possible
to combat corruption
1.3
Questions
1. Why does corruption exist on the pacific island countries like Vanuatu?
2. Is it some differences between corruption on Vanuatu and the general explanations and
theories?
3. How can corruption be combated in pacific island countries?
Asian Development Bank & Vanuatu, fact sheet, 2008.
http://www.adb.org/Documents/Fact_Sheets/VAN.pdf 2008-07-07, Time: 12:45
6 Lee, O with others. Citizenship Education in Asia and the Pacific: Concepts and Issues. Spring, 2004. p181.
http://books.google.com/books?id=7V0ZTrzvIDcC&pg=PA175&dq=democracy+in+Vanuatu&hl=sv#
PPA181,M1 2009-01-06, time: 20:33
7 Gunnarson, Carina.
8 CPA Malaysia, Dealing with conflicts of interest and corruption in small states – Vanuatu’s experience. August, 2008.
http://www.cpa-conference.org/uploads/docs/Plenary%202%20-%20Conflict%20of%20Interest%20%20Vanuatu.pdf 2009-05-16, time 18:58
5
2
1.4
Design of case
The pacific islands are characterized by ecological and cultural diversity, tribes, a human
history rich in epic ritual, travel, narrative, and innovation. 9 The median population on
some islands is less than 100, 000. The region is divided into three major cultural areas
Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia. 10 Oceania was colonized by Europeans relatively late
in global terms, and the Pacific islands were also among the last to be decolonized. Since
1960s the process of decolonization has created nine independent countries and five entities that are self governing. Decolonization entailed for the islands liberation from direct
control by outside power. 11
Pacific people have today adopted a number of creative survival strategies in the face of
rapid cultural, social, political and economical changes. People live in multiple worlds that
might include both Christian and indigenous spiritual practices, western and indigenous
lifestyles, and western and traditional political and economic structures. In the opinions of
some scholars, scientists investors and journalists the Pacific typifies an extreme double
condition; paradise with postcolonial, political and economic chaos. The region is complex
Center for Pacific Island Studies. http://www.hawaii.edu/cpis/oceania_1.html 2009-05-17, time 17:11
Larmour, Peter. Culture and corruption in the Pacific Islands. Asia Pacific School of Economics and Government, The Australian National University, 2006. p 4
http://www.crawford.anu.edu.au/degrees/pogo/discussion_papers/PDP06-05.pdf 2009-05-23, time 10:16
11 Center for Pacific Island Studies.
9
10
3
and caricaturized by tourism reliance, failed states, geographical isolation, economic aid and
dependency abound.
12
The most difficult problem that the region deals with is corruption. Some countries are doing better than others, some have improved and some have got worse. But almost all of the
Pacific island countries have faced cups or riots, breakdown of law and order as a consequence of corruption.13
To better understand why corruption exists in the Pacific Islands I have chosen to make a
case study of one country, Vanuatu, since it represents a typical pacific island country. I
have personally been in the country, interviewed people and taken part in the countries culture and politics. I have also chosen Vanuatu since it was the country Swedish Foreign Department suggested as the safest country in the region. Due to limited access of money and
time I had no possibility to visit other countries in the region.
On the Vanuatu islands is the access to newspapers, radio, television, phone or internet
very limited. 14 There is also an unfair disproportionate amount of money distributed to the
capital city, compared to the provinces.15 Citizens on the outer islands miss their civil rights
since there is a lack of public administration on the islands.16 On the main islands, self serving attitudes and decision making based on self-interest rather than national interest are
commonplace among politicians and officials. In Vanuatu, and the Pacific in general, people are linked by strong tribal allegiances. They take actions or decisions to pay back past
favours or to store up future favours or rewards, such as jobs or contracts.17 The attitudes
have contributed to a political instability and inequality. 18
Center for Pacific Island Studies.
Larmour, Peter. Pacific Islands corruption a confusing picture. Asia Pacific School of Economics and Government, The Australian National University, July 2008. http://news.anu.edu.au/?p=538 2009-05-17, time:
18:18
14 Asian Development Bank & Vanuatu.
15 Lee, O with others.
16 Gunnarson, Carina.
17 CPA Malaysia.
18 Ibid
12
13
4
1.5
Method and approach
The method that is used in this thesis has been a qualitative study of corruption, with the
purpose to analyse why corruption exists in small pacific island countries with help of the
case study of Vanuatu. The purpose is also to survey through which methods corruption is
possible to combat in the region.
To clarify even more the method, two classical method questions are answered:
(1) What is the returning, general phenomenon one examine (case of what)?
(2) Why have one chosen to study the specific case selected?19
(1) The general phenomenon I have chosen to study is corruption in the small pacific island countries.
(2) I have chosen Vanuatu as a case since it is a typical small pacific island country
The research problem and questions are formulated on the theoretical level, corruption is
the concept, but it must be defined what is it, what it involves, and what consequences it
brings, in order to further understand why it exists and how to combat it.
The examination is made by observations, collection of data and information on the “operational” level. To measure why corruption exists in pacific island countries, a typical small
pacific island country, Vanuatu was chosen. The country is typical because it is a former colonial country, it consists of many isolated islands where a majority of the population lives
and two main island where the public and political administration is, and where corruption
is common. Due to lack of administration in the islands, people many times miss their civil
rights, like employment service, healthcare, access to schools, pension, benefits etc. On the
other hand, people on the main islands who have the political or public administrative
power, misuses the public finances for their own personal benefit.
This research strives after “the general” rather than “the unique or specific”. The aim is to
find a general answer on patterns, regularity and returning connections of why corruption
is common in the pacific island countries.
19
Esaiasson, Peter. Metodpraktikan. tredje upplagan. Stockholm, 2007. p 176
5
To make sure that the correspondence is good between the theory and the operational indicator we must define variables. The independent variable, (explanatory factor) influence/affect the dependent variable (the phenomenon which are supposed to be explained).
The independent variables (explanatory variables) are: (1) peoples isolation on the islands
and isolation from the political-public administration, (2) postcolonial heritage like western
and traditional political and economic structures, (3) tradition of giving gifts and put the
tribe (family members) first no matter what, (4) and weak party system, affects the dependent variable (the phenomenon which are supposed to be explained): (1) corruption in
Vanuatu and in pacific island countries in general.
Finally, when the conclusions are made, answers are suppose to be find in the theory.
This thesis is a most similar system design, which means that the purpose of the method is
to do a conclusion/comparison between cases (countries) which are as similar as possible
and relevant on the independent variables (explanatory variables). The keyword is to select
a case strategically on the basis of the “value” of the independent variable in order to explain the dependent variable. 20
1.6
Sources and material
In this thesis secondary and primary materials have been used. For the theoretical framework books, articles, internet, reports, are used. Fore the case study section in depth interviews have been used together with literature.
The sources about Vanuatu have a high validity since they are written by independent researchers, the material is written from a neutral point of view. I have used independent researchers like e.g. Michael G Morgan, Hank Nelson, Arch Puddington, William F.S Miles
and many others.
The theoretical framework consist of two main sources World Bank (WB) and Transparency international (TI). I have used those sources since they have the best information
about corruption and its consequences. Though can validity be questioned, since the two
sources have been criticised for different reasons. The World Bank has been criticised for
the veto right that USA have on all questions and that actions are made for US benefit.
20
Esaiasson, Peter. p 113
6
Transparency International has been criticised for its anticorruption methods, which some
critics mean is not suitable for all developing countries.
But I have used their material only on a basic level where corruption is described, why it
exists and what the easiest methods is to combat it. I have also used other independent
sources to confirm the material from WB and TI. Therefore I think the validity is quite
high.
1.6.1
Research overview on corruption
The material that is available about corruption consists mostly of brief essays and articles
from institutions or books.
I have used “The quality of government institute” (QoG), University of Gothenburg. The institute
conducts and promotes research about good governance and Quality of Government, that
is trustworthy, reliable, impartial uncorrupted and competent government institutions. The
research of the institute addresses the questions of how to create and maintain high quality
government institutions and how the quality of such institutions influences public policy. 21
One of the leading researchers in QoG is Bo Rothstein. He states that “most research
show that problems with democracy and economy in developing countries lie in the administration and that quality in an administration is the crucial factor to achieve development within democracy and welfare in the third world. Rothstein’s research focuses on the
public administration as the main problem to corruption.
Rothstein refers to Putnam and his work Making Democracy Work (1993). His conclusion is
“that the scientific study of politics (political science) must contain a large part of organisation and administration analysis to understand e.g. corruption”.
Gunnar Myrdal is another well known researcher and (Minster of Trade 19xx-) within corruption and developing countries. His research confirms both Rothstein’s and Putnam’s
conclusion that the most important is a god functioning public administration. What Myrdal contributes with that most developing countries is “the soft state”- which means that
the rules and laws that exist in a country are neglected. Many times is it contacts or money
21
The Quality of Government institute. University of Gothenburg. http://www.qog.pol.gu.se/ 2009-04-11,
time:15:09
7
which decides if public employees carry out the public politics. Which on the other hand
leads to corruption.
World Bank Institute (WBI) was one of the main sources. WBI is a vital source of financial
and technical assistance to developing countries around the world. The institution works
for developing individual, organizational, and institutional capacity through exchange of
knowledge. One of the central themes for the institute is corruption, nowadays hundreds of
governance and anti-corruption activities are taking place throughout the World Bank
Group. The focus is on internal organizational integrity, minimizing corruption, and assisting countries in improving governance. 22
One of the leading researchers about corruption in WBI is Maria Gonzales de Asis. Her research and works basically focuses on anticorruption programs and to learn out god governance methods to politicians, officials and the general public. Gonzales de Asis research
is also about legislation and how to prevent corruption on national and local level.23
I have also used Transparency International (TI) as a source since the organisation fight
against corruption trough different projects and research. TI fights corruption in the national arena in a number of ways. They bring together relevant players from government,
civil society, business and the media to promote transparency in elections, in public administration, in procurement and in business. The also use advocacy campaigns to lobby governments to implement anti-corruption reforms. TI has anticorruption department on
Vanuatu as well. 24
1.6.2
The interviews
The interviews that were made was delimited to ni-Vanuatu’s who were located on New
Zealand. I had to leave Vanuatu since I hade no possibility to fulfil my research there. We
were not allowed to interview Vanuatu inhabitants about the conditions of Vanuatu. If authorities would have found out that we interviewed people, we would have been deported,
therefore was the case study made in New Zealand. All interviewed were working in the
World Bank Institute http://.worldbank.org 2009-04-11, time:15:34
Gonzales de Asis, Maria. p2
24 Transparency International.
22
23
8
kiwi industry through the RSE25 (Recognised Seasonal Employee) scheme. The interviewed
were all Vanuatu citizens, 18 years old or older. You can find the interview questions as an
appendix in the end of this thesis.
1.7
Outline
Chapter 2, the next chapter is a theoretical framework about corruption and its consequences.
Chapter 3 provides the difficulties with combating corruption and methods from World
Bank and Transparency International of how to combat corruption.
Chapter 4 is the case study of Vanuatu which includes colonialism, weak party system, isolated islands, cultural traditions and interviews.
Chapter 5 is an analysis where the theoretical framework is tied together with the empirics
about Vanuatu.
Chapter 6 is a concluding discussion where the research question are summarized and the
method, theoretical framework and sources are discussed.
It is a policy that will facilitate temporary overseas workers to plant, maintain, harvest and pack crops in the
horticulture and viticulture industries. Department of labour, New Zealand, 2009.
http://www.dol.govt.nz/initiatives/strategy/rse/index.asp 2009-06-29, time 22:44
25
9
2
Theoretical framework
Since I have used sources like Transparency International and World Bank does
this theoretical framework define and explain corruption from a “Western” point of view.
2.1
Corruption
“Corruption is behaviour of public officials which deviates from accepted norms in order to serve private
ends.” Corruption exists in all societies but it is obvious that it is more common in some societies than others. Corruption is one measure of the absence of effective political institutionalization. Public officials lack autonomy and coherence. Corruption may be more
prevalent in some cultures than in others but in most cultures it seems to be most prevalent
during the most intense phase of modernization. 26
Transparency International (TI) further differentiates between "according to rule" corruption and "against the rule" corruption. “Facilitation payments, where a bribe is paid to receive preferential treatment for something that the bribe receiver is required to do by law, constitute the former. The latter, on the other hand, is a bribe paid to obtain services the bribe receiver is prohibited from providing.”27
Corruption is most common where institutional checks on power are missing, where decision making remains obscure, where civil society is thin on the ground, and where great
inequalities in the distribution of wealth condemn people to live in poverty. Corruption is
also alive where political, economic, legal and social institutions are well entrenched.28
Corruption, at first glance, according to TI, seems to confirm the stereotypical notion that
corruption is most predominant problem of the south. While Scandinavian countries in indexes come out top, most sub-Saharan Africa ranks at the bottom. Somalia and Myanmar
are the most corrupted countries in the world, but TI also states that there is no intent to
pit the North against the South. The issues of corruption are rather a tool to raise public
awareness and promote better governance. Corruption is as much a problem of the North
as of the South. Recent scandals in Germany, France, Japan, the US or the UK attest to
that. People are as corrupt as the system allows them to be 29
Huntington. P. Samuel. Political order in changing societies. Yale University, 2006. p 59
Transparency International.
28 Ibid.
29 Ibid.
26
27
10
Critics argue that the fight against corruption is just another case of the West trying to impose its views and values on the South. Some go on to say that gift giving and taking in the
public realm is a normal tradition in many non-Western cultures. Gift-giving is part of negotiating and relationship building in some parts of the world. But there is a matter of degree: there are limits in all cultures beyond which an action becomes corrupt and unacceptable. But cultural relativism ends where the Swiss bank account enters the scene. It is a
matter of degree: there are limits in all cultures beyond which an action becomes corrupt
and unacceptable.30 When Olusegun Obasanjo, now President of Nigeria, criticised the corrupt practices of the dictatorial regime of Sani Abach, he was imprisoned. He once commented that, in African tradition, "a gift is made in the open for all to see, never in secret. Where a
gift is excessive, it becomes an embarrassment, and is returned."31
2.2
Reasons for corruption
There are many different forms of government and social structures that exist in the world,
and it would be too difficult to find out every single factor of why corruption emerge.
Therefore, this chapter is more of a generalisation of why corruption occurs in some areas
of state public sections.
2.2.1
Public institutions and administration
Political processes and political systems can not be explained and understood without including analysis of the public administration. If parliamentary, government or other political decisions are meant to be implemented, must an organization be established to achieve
the decisions. Social security, pension, healthcare, childcare, and education requires largescale organisation. Even more traditional state assignments like defence, police, judicial system, voting and collection of taxes requires a comprehensive administration. The choice of
organisation form often affects how the final result of a decision will be. The administration staff does often have an impact on the decisions which are made by politicians. 32
The significance of an administration does not only concern welfare states but also other
political systems, e.g. international political systems and developing countries. Most research show that problems with democracy and economy in developing countries lie in the
30
31
Transparency International.
Olusegun, Obasanjo. Positive Tradition Perverted by Corruption, Financial Times,October, 1994.
11
administration. Not only political scientists, but also economists and sociologists have identified quality in an administration as the crucial factor to achieve development within democracy and welfare in the third world. 33
Most well known example of the importance of a god working administration is illustrated
by the American political scientist Robert D. Putnam and his work Making Democracy Work
(1993). The conclusion Putnam and his team made from 25 years research about democracy reform in Italy was that “the working democracy” used twelve different criterions, of
which not less then half of them was about how well the administration in different regions
functioned. A god working democracy does not only deal with correct implemented elections, ability to create representative and powerful governments and an extensive political
participation, but it is also about to have an administration characterized by competence,
high ethics and professionalism. The generalizing conclusion of this is that the scientific
study of politics (political science) must contain a large part of organisation and administration analysis. The classical political science question about who gets what, when and why
can not be answered without an administration analysis. 34
Gonzalez de Asis who works as a researcher on WBI believes that the common ground for
the misuse of public power for private benefits is related to three elements:
1. Basic unsatisfactory with a certain system
2. Lack of public information, administration and transparency.
3. Few cases of corrupted public employees are reported. 35
1.) Asis means that the risk for corruption increases when local officials are given new responsibilities and functions in a combination with a lower budget. Common examples of
unsatisfactory among officials can be lack of efficiency, low salaries, pressure from payments, low quality of public administration, lack of key sources of revenue, ties to family
and friends, and non merit based appointments/promotions. 36
Rothstein, Bo. Politik som organisation- Förvaltningspolitikens grundproblem. SNS Förlag, Stockholm, 2001. p 7
Ibid. p 10
34 Ibid. p 11
35 Gonzales de Asis, Maria. Reducing Corruption at the Local Level Word Bank Institute, 2000. p2
http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/governance/pdf/municipal_eng.pdf 2009-04-12 18:09
36 Ibid. p 3
32
33
12
2.) Further does Asis write that lack of public information, administration and transparency
leads to that employee can use the secrecy which prevails in e.g. institutions as a method to
receive bribes. If the risk for an official employee is minimal to get reported or punished if
he/she receives bribes, does also the risk and opportunity for corruption increase. If the
gain or profit with corruption is greater than the penalty, is corruption more profitable. 37
3.) Power without accountability could be an incentive for corruption. There is a saying that a
gun itself is neither good nor bad; it is the hand on the trigger that makes it so. It is the same with the
lack of accountability; if a good man strives to acquire or provide a bribe, he is likely to do
so if he knows that nothing will happen to him. Corruption in this sense is a rational choice
based on a calculation, a “crime of calculation”.38
Concerning elections are voters’ political opinion affected by their image of the public administration. The willingness to support a public administration can be affected by the voters own experience, basic ideological opinion or the picture media supply. Does the public
employee consist of professional persons with high ethics, working for the common good
and who loyally implement democratic decisions? Or does the public employees consist of
own interested, corrupted persons, without competence, who make their welfare through
taxpayers, and who sabotages the decisions which are made by publicly chosen politicians?
The answers to these questions have a large importance for the political public opinion.39
Gonzales de Asis, Maria. p 4
Ibid.
39 Ibid. p 16
37
38
13
2.2.2
“The soft state”
The issue concerning the public administration in most developing countries is what Gunnar Myrdal refers as “the soft state”- which means:
1.) Rules and laws that exist in a country are neglected.
2.) Many times is it contacts or money which decides if public employees carry out the
public politics.
3.) There is no accordance between how rich a country is and how much corruption the
country has. Some developing countries have little corruption and some developed
countries have much corruption.
4.) Formally does a state with democratic institutions exist, but the institutions do not
work properly. Administrations are influenced by arbitrary and personal domination.
5.) Administrations are strongly politically influenced, it is not unusual that ministers interfere in different cases, e.g. appointments and promotions.
6.) The Parliament lack influence over what administrations do. People are exposed to decision makers arbitrary.
7.) The State has little influence over peoples lives, the government make new laws which
seldom go through. The state is not legitimate.
8.) Instead of voting ideologically, voters vote for the person who has biggest chances to
function like a “protector”.
Source40
40
Gunnarson, Carina. p 13
14
To make changes in politics, in most north European countries is it natural to focus on the
institutions where the politics are shaped. But in many developing countries is it the opposite, the most significant political arena is the public administrations “meeting” with the
citizens. “Having a friend in city hall are immensely important aspects of political participation in developing countries. “ 41
A weakness with description and explanations of developing countries administration is
that they are a reflection of a postcolonial society, an international dependence, or the
countries economic situation. Most research shows that this point of view is quite problematic, researchers within “new institutional theory” means that the capacity of a state lies
in the administrations norms, rules, and organisation. But the public administration can
also be affected and explained through factors outside the state; how voters, interest
groups, classes affect the administration.42
One reason why most developing counties administrations are “soft” or particularistic is
their colonial origin. The administration weakness lies in that they where dominated by a
European power until recently. The dependence theory that was popular in the 1970s
shows that the former colonial countries are still dependent of the countries who once
ruled them. This dependence explains the specific with the state and administration in the
third world. The reason why administration behaves in a different way in developing countries and developed countries is that the class dominance is unclear. 43
Many researchers mean that the particularistic behaviour in several developing countries is
a dominating norm. One example of this is what Göran Hydén calls “togetherness economy”, an ethic where neighbours, relatives and friends help each other. It is also common
in public administration. If the administration would not share water, electricity or seed in a
village, it would be considered as an objectionable behaviour if public employees would not
help relatives and friends first. 44
Rothstein, Bo. p 217
Ibid. p 242
43 Ibid. p 243
44 Ibid. p 245
41
42
15
2.3
Consequences of corruption
Consequences of corruption can vary in many ways, but the two main consequences are
economic and social. Corruption can hinder investment both domestic and foreign, it can
reduce growth, restrict trade, distort the size and composition of government expenditure,
weaken the financial system and strengthen the underground economy. Socially can corruption increase levels of poverty and income inequality.45
2.3.1
Poverty
The most immediate and visible consequence of corruption for many individuals and families has been a decline in living standards. Poverty is usually connected to the administration in a country. The big issue is that poverty gives birth to corruption, because poor
countries have usually smaller resources to keep the administration public. The problem
can concern lack of public employees, low educational standard or lack of good working
computer systems. Corruption can lead to administrational misuse of unemployment or
disability benefits, delay pensions, weaken the provision of basic public services, and as a
consequence it is usually the poor who suffer most. Such corruption undermines the social
safety net and may deter the poor from seeking basic entitlements or public services. 46
2.3.2
Inequality
Corruption is also a consequence of inequality due to there is only a narrow elite who have
the “possibility” to take part in corruption activities, and the benefits of social and economic advantages. 47
2.3.3
Credibility of the state
Combating corruption requires a strong and credible leadership. The leadership is the first
factor to get affected hardest and fastest when corruption is revealed within public administration. Since corruption damages faith for public administrations and institutions, is it
even harder for the state to combat corruption. 48
World Bank. Anticorruption in Transition a Contribution to the Policy Debate.
Ibid. p 19
47 Ibid. p 21
48 Ibid. p 22
45
46
16
3
Strategies for combating corruption
This chapter explains first of all the difficulties to combat corruption in a particularistic system. Thereafter are some examples and methods given of how to combat corruption. The
methods are suggested by the World Bank.
3.1
The problems with change the particularistic administra-
tion in developing countries
The question is why developing countries do not change their “soft” and particularistic
administration if it entails many negative effects such as corruption, bribes, unreliability etc.
The India-American economist Pranab Bardhan has in his article given four reasons why
an institution is difficult to change.
First he means that “the collective actions logics” is prevailing, even if all individuals wants
to change a condition or institution is it uncertain if it can be made. It is about “costs” and
“profits” in a new system and how they are going to be divided. There is lot of situations
when people are willing to contribute with labour or money if also other people do it. E.g.
keep it clean on the public market, protect the rainforest from being devastated, and not
participate in corruption. But in these collective actions is there always a risk that someone
takes advantage and contributes with nothing or less than rest of the participants.49
Second, many participants are investing in the prevailing system (“sunk costs”) trough a
profession or political behaviour. The prevailing system is well known, knowledge and contacts are relevant. In other words, individuals have resources which run the risk of being
useless in a new system. 50
Third, in every society prevails systems of social sanctions tied to norms, which means that
social and political traditions can survival despite that many dislikes it 51
The fourth and last argument to why political institutions are difficult to change is “path
dependency”. It can be compared with computers keyboard, the “q w e r t y” system was
Bardhan, Pranab. The New Institutional Economics and Development Theory: A Brief Critical Assessment. World Development, Vol 17, No 9. University of California, 1989. p 1389-1395. http://www.gsid.nagoyau.ac.jp/sotsubo/Papers/The%20New%20Institution%20Economics%20and%20Development%20Theory,
%20A%20brief%20Critical%20Assessment.pdf 2009-03-22, time: 15:29
50 Ibid.
51 Bardhan, Pranab.
49
17
once introduced but is not logical at all, since it has always been that way is it very difficult
to change. It is hard to change a well established pattern where many actors are involved
despite that many dislike it and are losing on it. This kind of paradoxes in the society is a
product from research concerning collective action logics. A very good illustration is opinion
poll surveys in India, Which always shows that corruption is one of the three most important political problems, but despite that do most people in India participate in this activity.
In other words does everybody participate in the corruption poor or rich even if they know
that it would be better for everybody if the system stopped.52
3.2
Increase political responsibility
To make the public and political administration more reliable political responsibility must
increase:
a) Leave paper trail. During elections should all donations and other sources of party revenue
be made in public, donors and amounts of their donations should be identified in the public record. Candidate links with lobbyists, types, amount of support, and their purposes,
both before and after elections should be available for audit.53
b) The use of state resources for political purposes should be banned. Parties in government should
not use state funds, postal services, cars, computers, or other assets for political purposes
or in election campaigns.54
c) Limit expenditures. Party politics should be as inexpensive as possible, usually the demand
exceeds the supply of funds. 55
d) Consider public funding. Public funding reduces the scope for private interests to “buy influence”. 56
e) Build public service neutrality. Public service should be politically neutral and public servants
should neither allowed nor require making contributions to political parties as a way of obtaining public sector employment.
Bardhan, Pranab.
The World Bank, Political accountability. http://go.worldbank.org/ZZTD74REV0 2009-05-24, time 14:10
54 Ibid.
55 Ibid.
56 Ibid.
52
53
18
3.3
Increase public participation
According to Gonzales de Asis citizens’ participation and institutions openness is crucial to
combat corruption.57
Civil society must be empowered and realize its full potential which includes basic human
rights such as freedom of expression and freedom to establish nongovernmental entities.
Access to information and knowledge as well as the ability to attract talent is important.
Lack of well-educated and highly motivated people can not compromise the positive role
Civil society can play in combating corruption. 58
Civil society as an independent actor representing the interests of the general public is
uniquely positioned to investigate and bring to light cases of corruption. According to
“world bank” is there three different main ways to increase public participation to fight
corruption. 59
a) Creating public awareness about corruption, trough country surveys on corruption, surveys, and assessments are ways in which organizations can raise awareness of policy-makers
and the general public.60
b) Formulating and promoting action plans to fight corruption, trough seminars, conferences, and workshops. It is effective ways of publicizing information about the patterns
and severity of corruption, building coalitions amongst anticorruption. It is also important
to influence new legislation that will aid corruption control and lobby for new institutional
devices. Another civil society intervention can be advocacy for legal and juridical reform,
freedom of information, deregulation and privatization61
c) Monitoring governments’ actions and decisions is important to reduce corruption. Educate local monitors.62
Gonzales de Asis, Maria. p 5
The World Bank, Civil Society Participation http://go.worldbank.org/EGIHKIXTM0 2009-05-24, time 13:30
59 Ibid.
60 Ibid.
61 Ibid.
62 Ibid.
57
58
19
3.4
Make a competitive private sector
A fair, competitive, honest and transparent private sector is important for development.
Deregulation of prices and other aspects of production are important towards reducing
opportunities for corruption. Enhancing competition and clarifying ownership structures
are also important elements toward creating a vibrant and corruption free private sector.63
63
The World Bank. Competitive Parivate Sector. http://go.worldbank.org/FAW4ZXGJM0 2009-05-24, time
14:41
20
4
Case study Vanuatu
This chapter is “a case study” of why corruption exists in Vanuatu, it takes up four different possible reasons for corruption in the country: Vanuatu is a former colonial state, it has
a weak party system, many isolates islands and a tradition of gift giving.
4.1
The Postcolonial heritage from Britain and France
Two major conflicts which affect Vanuatu today is political conflict and conflicts related to
property and land rights, with roots in the past colonial era.
The political conflict started during the pre-independence era in connection with the struggle for power between Britain and France. The competition between the two powers led
to an establishment of condominium in 1906. The consequences became that protestant
(associated with the British) and Catholic (connected with the French) missionaries divided
the population. The Melanesian found them allied with either the French or British depending on their religious affiliation. 64
The Ni- Vanuatu’s were excluded from participation in all key political administrations until
independence 1980. Though, the first organised political movement emerged on the northern island of Santo already in 1970, the critical national issue became independence and religion became part of politics. 65
From the beginning of 1970s until the late 1980s Vanuatu’s political landscape was characterised by strong colonial rivalries between United Kingdom and France. Vanu´aku pati,
VP the first organised political movement by members of the Anglican and Presbyterian
clergy, junior British Administration bureaucrats and teachers. The party pressed for a rapid
decolonisation of Vanuatu, but was strongly opposed by foreign federalist agent movements from the south and north islands.66
Pcific-peace net. Project of the United Development Programme- Pacific Ocean. http://www.pacificpeace.net/countries/vanuatu/ (1-2) 2008-12-18, time 19:32
65 Ibid. (3-4)
66 Morgan, Michael G. Political fragmentation and the policy environment in Vanuatu, 1980-2004. Pacific Economic
Bulletin Volume 19 Number 3, 2004.
http://www.vanuatu.usp.ac.fj/sol_adobe_documents/usp%20only/vanuatu/morgan.pdf 2009-05-25, time
22:50
64
21
The Vanua´kus pati goals were to return alienated land, respect, kastom (Vanuatu and Pacific Island traditions including tribe tradition, religion and magic) as the basis of national
cohesion. The goals were conceived under “Melanesian socialism”. VP:s foreign policy
was based on its membership of the NAM, Non-Aligned Movement and focused on decolonisation of the remaining colonies in the Pacific Ocean and Melanesia. VP:s policy
played off one foreign power against another and rejected cold war alliances. In the decade
after independence Vanuatu offered fishing rights to the Soviet Union and hade trade and
training relations with Cuba and Libya. Vanuatu played risky and unexpected game, Vanuatu´s foreign policy was a real threat against the powerful ANZUS (Australia, New Zeeland, United States Defence Treaty and Council, a military pact).67
After independence VP became more centralised and faced hard opposition from federalists, Union of Moderate Parties, UMP, who favoured greater regional autonomy. In the beginning of 1988 Vanuatu’s political stabilisation started to erode. There were tensions
within the ruling party VP and the party lost office in 1991. Fragile collations were made
and tensions over the power prevailed. Opposition members were denied access to government resources or good positions. Intense political instability was a fact, several short
lived governments made political dramas parliament members sold state assets to themselves. Corruption became a means, a help for government members of parliament to seek
their own wealth. 68
The corruption behaviours all ended with that Vanuatu was virtually corrupt in 1997, and
Serge Vohor, then UMP prime minister began a comprehensive reform program, supported by Asian Development Bank and foreign aid donors. Though the pessimism from
NI-Vanuatu’s’ was strong since citizens believed that the Westminster democracy on
Vanuatu would hurt the origin people. The negative impact on structural adjustment programs came from a neighbour country Papua New Guinea People thought that people of
Vanuatu would “serve the interest of Australia and New Zealand”. Vanuatu had a deficit
estimated four billion vatu (34 million US dollar), Vanuatu was forced to accept a US 22
million loan from the Asian development bank, earmarked for the reduction of bureaucracy and the implementation of guidelines for public servants. 69
Morgan, Michael G. p 41
Ibid. p 42
69 Ibid. p 43
67
68
22
In February 2000 the most incredible happens, a Indian businessman , Amerendra Nath
Ghosh arrives in February in the capital Port Vila, with what is described as “possibly the
world’s largest ruby” and donates it to the people of Vanuatu (!). Gosh promised to initiate
a road project around the main island, build a walled complex for the Council of ministers,
and to build a new international airport etc. In return for the ruby, Gosh was to receive 300
million US dollars (from Prime Minister Barak) in bearer bonds from the Reserve Bank,
equal to 140 percent of Vanuatu’s gross domestic production. This quadrupled Vanuatu’s
debts. After the revealing Gosh was reported internationally wanted and Barak was imprisoned, sentenced three years in prison for forging government guarantees. Though Barak
continues his popularity and have won every election he has contested. 70
The post independence era had thereafter been dominated by conflicts, rivalry, violence,
corruption and breakdown of law and order. E.g. in October 1996 a group of officers in
the Vanuatu Mobile Force dissatisfied with pay arrested the president and forced the prime
minister to negotiate. In January 1998 a huge riot broke out after the ombudsman reported
extensive misuse of Funds in Vanuatu National Provident Found. 71 In 2002 was Prime
Minister Barak Sope sentenced three years in prison for forging government guarantees,
but he was pardoned by the president at that time, Father John Bani. In 2004 Alfred
Maseng Nalo was elected president while serving a two-year suspended sentence for corruption. He only stepped down when his criminal record was revealed.72
The issue about women should also be noted since it is much underrepresented group in
Vanuatu politics, in the latest election 2008, only 3, 85% of the parliament members were
women.73
Morgan, Michael G. p 44
Ibid. (5-6)
72 Puddington, Arch with others. Freedom in the World: The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties.
Rowman & Littlefield, 2007. p 876
http://books.google.com/books?id=xN5O15Xzm1cC&pg=PA876&dq=corruption+in+Vanuatu&hl=sv
#PPA876,M1 2009-01-07, time, 16:30
73 Inter parliamentary union. Parliamentary democracy http://www.ipu.org/parline/reports/2345_E.htm 200901-08, time 19:18
70
71
23
4.2
Weak party system
In western nations, parties stretch across a spectrum from left to right, from Marxists to
neo-fascists, and the ruling coalitions is formed from the groups near the centre, moving
slightly to either side. In the small pacific island countries, parties are only marginally related to ideology or even policy.
74
Parties are generally not tied to a particular place or
community. Most members in a party owe their election to their personal standing and to
their membership of a dominant clan or culture group.
Where there are many parties and independents, there is also a problem of forming a government and maintaining a majority. The absence of strong popular support for parties,
weak non-parliamentary structure and loose commitment to a philosophy and policy,
means that any form of parties and independence may come together to form a government. E.g. can a potential prime minister offer positions such as ministers and vice ministers, parliamentary secretaries, position on committees, government funded projects, material and cash that the member himself can disperse. The consequences are that public
money is putted in the hands of members of parliament rather than public servants.
75
Governments that are weak, have limited or no authority in various parts of the country
and do not meet the most basic expectations of the people, like health care, education and
sufficient food.76
Vanuatu does not have a strong political party system. Voter behaviour is more linked to
the support of persons rather than parties. Members of Parliament frequently switch parties, which make it very difficult for voters to rely on a vote that has been cast for a party
rather than a person. As mentioned before lack of clear policy differentiation weakens party
coalitions, as party coalitions are based on the similar policies. There are an increasing
number of parties, and independents in Vanuatu since independence and establishing new
parties continue. There are now laws of how parties receive funds or what those funds are
spent on. Some candidates have even used money to bribe voters just prior voting time.77
Nelson, Hank. Why the poorest countries are failing and what can be done about it? Oxford University press, 2007. p
5 http://rspas.anu.edu.au/papers/melanesia/working_papers/08_01wp_Nelson.pdf 2009-05-22, time
12:52
75 Nelson, Hank. p 6
76 Ibid. p 14
77 Ibid. p 18
74
24
The weak and confusing party system is confirmed by a voter from North Efate, Saama village: “I think it is too many parties now in Vanuatu, a long time ago, we had only two parties. I think
we now have almost 20 different parties, it is too many and people get confused and find it hard to choose
who you should vote for. In my opinion the best would be if we all in my community decided to vote for the
same candidate. We could get together and through a meeting decide who we all should vote fore, together. I
think that would be the best for all of us. Another thing is that I don’t think we should have political parties at all, because they don’t work anyway. We should officially have persons, because when we vote, we vote
anyway for persons who should sit in the government not parties.” 78
4.3
Isolated islands
In the pacific islands is it very hard to find an exact translation of the word corruption in local languages. Most people oppose corruption, though they often differ on what they regard it is. There are several words with proximate meanings in the small languages but with
a different meaning: “unkindness” or “uprightness”. From a study made by Australian National University of 14 different pacific island countries inhabitants on the islands defined
corruption very broadly to include e.g. “leaders who do not go to church and who party
and travel overseas frequently” or “personal as well as official indiscretions”. The common
attitude among Pacific island countries inhabitants is that power is connected with corruption and a way to get a better life. 79
A woman from Mangalilu Island on Vanuatu confirms the statement: “Often politicians start
to live “the good life” when they become parliament members, they have expensive cars, nice clothes and large
houses. Recently four parliamentarians were caught because they had stolen I think about 42 million VU.
I can not understand that, that would cover the undergraduate school fees for the whole Vanuatu population
for many years!” 80
Another woman from Tanna Island on Vanuatu says: “Most of ni-Vanuatus are really tired of
the elections. Because most of us know that the politicians only promise and promise that they will do certain
things, and when they then get the power they only think about themselves. We feel like if we vote fore someone, we only vote fore the person to get a better life for himself. Most of the politicians are more interested in
being out late in the night, dance, drink and have lots of nice women. They don’t care about us, just them-
Interview 9, question 8 and question 15.
Larmour, Peter. p 9
80 Interview nr 14, question 15.
78
79
25
selves, they buy nice houses, cars, etc. and live a good life. They spent money on everything else than the people of Vanuatu, it seems like they don’t care.“
81
It is a real challenge for Vanuatu to beat corruption and ensure the accountability of rulers.
This is confirmed from the interviews I have made. Almost half of the interviewed 11 persons82 out of 27, confirmed that they are dissatisfied with the rulers and think that politicians use their positions for their own personal advantages and that corruption is common.
One of the interviewed states that he thinks politicians forget why people have voted for
them. “Politicians do campaigning and promise a lot of things, but after the elections they don’t care about
what they have promised.” 83 “Many think that politicians have it too easy. If they do something wrong or
inappropriate they don’t lose their position. There is no justice, they can do what they want, and they still sit
in the parliament.”
84
The most relevant level of decision making for Vanuatu citizens and pacific people in general is in the village. Except for the village, citizens have limited involvement in the political
process, which creates a sense of both disaffection and disempowerment. 85
Citizenship, democracy and community well-being is based on traditional values which includes sharing of local resources, decision making, shared stories etc. At the same time is
there a desire to confront these harmonious agreements and to participate in something
else, therefore does the prevailing condition create dual communities; people living in rural
areas or in urban areas; those with work and those without work, children who can stay on
at schools and those who can’t, and the unfair disproportionate amount of money distributed to the capital city, compared to the outer provinces. People in Vanuatu most commonly refer to their origins as the Birth Island/ village. Citizenship and democracy framed
by the idea of political community, the nation state is a relatively new concept. 86
Twenty years of foreign aid projects and comprehensive reform of the entire public administration have not created an appetite for change in the general public. The population
Interview nr 18, question 15.
Interview nr7, Q1. nr9, Q15. nr11, Q4. nr14, Q15.nr 15, Q4. nr 16, Q4. nr 18, Q15. nr 16, Q4. nr18 Q15.
nr19, Q4. nr21 Q4, nr20 Q4. nr22 Q4.
83 Interview nr 7, question 1.
84 Interview nr 9, question 15.
85 Rajesh, Tandon with others. Citizens and Governance Toolkit: Creating Change by Making People's Voices Heard.
Commonwealth Secretariat, 2004. p21
http://books.google.com/books?id=UICTSKy9HVEC&pg=PA21&dq=democracy+in+Vanuatu&hl=sv
2009-01-06, time 19:27
86 Lee, O with others. p181.
81
82
26
itself is involved in a conflict of interest, chiefs and community leaders put their peoples’
votes up for sale at every national election. Candidates are offered the “guarantee” of block
of votes in exchange of money or jobs. Most people do not understand that their behaviour will lead to a lower standard of living tomorrow. Others are cynical and believe that it
does not really matter if the system collapses: people expect development partner countries
to come to rescue, like they have done many times in the Pacific Island countries. 87
“Mi stap nomo” – I just live, is a common philosophy among many Vanuatu citizens, lack
of regular employment is a difficult issue. Most citizens are fishing, do garden work, but
don’t actually bother to holding a job. “Work “is something one is paid to do; living of the sea or
land is just “being”. If one works it is usually for a limited length of time, or until ones has
achieved a specific financial goal. Lifetime of carer is relatively rare. 88 Although there are
signs that a ruling or a higher class is emerging, who for example sends their children
abroad to be educated. This in the long run can be problematic.89
4.4
The Cultural tradition of gifts and tribes
Proponents of cultural relativism often point to the way gifts maybe are mistaken for
bribes, and the critics mean that the mistake is only a “cultural excuse”. A mentioned earlier in this thesis, Olusegun Obasanjo, now President of Nigeria, commented that with "a
gift is made in the open for all to see, never in secret. Where a gift is excessive, it becomes an embarrassment,
and is returned." 90
Generally in Pacific Islands a gift or a “bribe” is expected and natural. It is mostly common
during elections and election campaigns. E.g. in Kiribati gifts of tobacco are expected by
visitors. In Samoa, politicians are expected to provide gifts of “food money and school
fees” to voters. In Niue candidates makes “donations”, in Marshall Islands “chiefs and elites are expected to offer services and gifts when available. In Tuvalu ministers give gifts
Ferrieux-Patterson, Marie-Noëlle. Conflict of interest –Vanuatu’s experience. Malaysia, 2008 http://www.cpaconference.org/uploads/docs/Plenary%202%20-%20Conflict%20of%20Interest%20-%20Vanuatu.pdf
2009-05-24, time 20:07
88 Miles, William F. S. Bridging Mental Boundaries in a Postcolonial Microcosm: Identity and Development in Vanuatu.
University of Hawaii Press, 1998. p178
http://books.google.com/books?id=iICOOs0UUeMC&pg=PA179&dq=economy+of+Vanuatu&hl=sv#
PPA178,M1 2009-01-07, time 12:03
89 Ibid. p 179
90 Olusegun Obasanjo.
87
27
between elections, for example when a minister visit an outer island, local people might offer a feast and expect something in return, etc.91
In Nauru is gifts a legitimate part of the electoral system. Gift giving is also spread beyond
the government, it is common with public ceremonies of “free gifting to churches” and
competition between villages occur over the size of gifts to retiring church ministers.92
And bribe is common in Vanuatu according to these two voters (in Vanuatu parliament
elections 2008): “In Vanuatu it is better to be friends with the politicians, because then you can affect
them much more. The politicians feel then that they have a responsibility to help their friends. But sometimes
you can be addicted to one politician, e.g. if you have lost your “blue card” (the card that gives you the right
to vote). You can then go to a politician and ask if he/she can buy you a new one, but he/she will only do
that if you in return promise to vote for that certain candidate.” 93
“If you vote for a good candidate he can do a lot for you. There is a VRP (Vanuatu republican party)
candidate who I like very much. He has been in the parliament almost 50 years I think, but he does a lot
for the people in Vanuatu. E.g. we have a little women’s club and he has given us sewing machines, so we
will vote for him in this year’s election as well.”94
In Pacific countries have a strong tribal tradition. In Vanuatu people often use family
members or kin as go betweens in their dealings with bureaucracy (nepotism), in Tonga
relatives were often called upon to facilitate transactions with government. Political and
popular pressures on politicians may make them use their control of policy and implementation for political or personal purposes. Officials do not face re-elections, but they come
under pressure from relatives or people from their home islands. 95
Larmour, Peter. p 11
Ibid. p 11
93 Interview 16, question 4.
94 Interview 20, question 4.
95 Larmour, Peter. p 12
91
92
28
5
Analysis
In this chapter theoretical framework are tied together with the results from chapter 4 in
order to answer the research questions. Each research question are answered and discussed
separate. The structure chosen shows clear that the results in this chapter answer the purpose of this thesis.
5.1
Why corruption exist in the pacific island countries like
Vanuatu
To answer this question we must first understand the history of the pacific islands. Oceania
has been relatively anonymous during very long time of history, people have lived isolated
on islands with their own culture, traditions, tribes and rules. Pacific islands were among
the last to be colonized in global terms and the last to be decolonized. 1960 started the
process of decolonization, majority of the countries became free during late 70s early 80s.
On Vanuatu and other Pacific Island countries, was the original population excluded from
participation in all key political administrations until independence. This means that the
public administration and politicians are relatively new in their positions; they had no
chance to learn from the past or use knowledge. Colonists left religion and missionaries.
Though the missionaries was unfortunately not to any help to build a public and political
administration, rather an obstacle, since they divided the population with their different beliefs.
With no experience from public administration or politics Vanuatu and other pacific island
countries had a very difficult task; to build functioning countries. Obviously one keystone
in a country is rulers and politicians, which is a natural element for e.g. western people. It is
natural for west since we have had almost hundred years of a tradition with conservatism,
socialism and liberalism. But what if we had to start from cero? This was exactly what happened in Vanuatu after independence 1980, there were limited parties and new ones had to
be made.
VP was the biggest “underground” party before independence and advocated a political
culture with respect for kastom (Vanuatu and Pacific Island traditions including tribe tradition, religion and magic) as the basis of national cohesion. VP was visionaries and the
“Melanesian socialists”, they fought for decolonisation of Vanuatu and fought against for-
29
eign federalist agent movements, though many of the members were by themselves “foreign” e.g. junior British Administration bureaucrats and teachers. VP was very dominant,
allied with the Soviet Union, Cuba and Libya. Their vision was to decolonise all Pacific Islands. But after Soviets crash, new parties stared to develop in the Pacific and fragile government collations were made and tensions over the power started to prevail. At the same
time corruption became a means, a help for government members of parliament to seek
their own wealth.
Nowadays in Pacific Island countries, parties are only marginally related to ideology or even
policy. There are an increasing number of parties and independents in Vanuatu since independence and establishing new parties continue.
Most members in a party owe their election to their personal standing and to their membership of a dominant clan or culture group. Therefore is the pressure very hard on the
candidates and corruption almost impossible to avoid. If one have money and power it
must go to the tribe first.
The absence of strong popular support for parties, weak parliamentary structure and loose
commitment to a philosophy and policy, means that any form of parties and independence
may come together to form a government. E.g. can a potential prime minister offer positions such as ministers and vice ministers, parliamentary secretaries, position on committees, government funded projects, material and cash that the member himself can disperse.
The consequences are that public money is put in the hands of members of parliament
rather than public servants. “Corruption is behaviour of public officials which deviates from accepted
norms in order to serve private ends.” People are as corrupt as the system allows them to be
But those who don’t have a parliament candidate in their tribe or in their island do also
miss their civil rights. Because such governments where you have to have a personal connection with a parliamentarian, has limited or no authority in various parts of the country
and do not meet the most basic expectations of the people, like health care, education and
sufficient food.96
The problems with corruption in Pacific Island countries lies in the lack of an administrational tradition, there must be interacting economic, social, and political forces who works
for the common good for all citizens, not only for one tribe. At this point are almost all
30
Pacific Island countries what Gunnar Myrdal refers as “the soft state”- which means that
the rules and laws that exist in a country are neglected. Many times is it contacts or money
which decides if public employees carry out the public politics. Most significant political
arena is the public administrations “meeting” with the citizens. Having a friend in city hall
are immensely important aspects of political participation, which is referred to the tribal
way of thinking.
There must also be a change in defining of what corruption is, so that people on the outer
islands also understand that corruption are going to affect them as citizens. Due to tribal
tradition citizens are not citizens in a “western point of view”, inhabitants of Vanuatu are
rather citizens of their tribe, and have limited involvement in the national political process.
That makes it also more possible for the “elite” living in urban areas, with a work, who can
send their children to school, and who have left their island tribes to take part of “the good
life” in the city.
Since some people who get powerful political or administrational posts know that citizens
on the outer islands have limited knowledge, possibility, and insight in national funds and
money can it also be more tempting to use public finances for private use. But the misuse
of public finances has also been revealed and damaged the trust for politicians. The two
women from Mangaliliu and Tanna Island on Vanuatu explained in the interviews that
elections are rather a voting about who gets “a better life”.
Bribes are another element which is hard to define in the Pacific Island countries since it is
natural part of the culture. Is it OK or not? It can be a confusing question since most Pacific Islanders are expecting gifts from e.g. a campaigning politician. And if one politician
are giving gifts year after year to people and they vote for that certain candidate year after
year, is the bribe giving a kind of corruption. It can be compared with buying votes. Like
the little women’s club who said in an interview that hey would vote for a certain candidate
because he gives them sewing machines.
Or one example of that bribes/gifts are quite accepted in Vanuaut’s society is when the Indian businessman , Amerendra Nath Ghosh is trying to tempt Prime Minister Barak with
his donation of “possibly the world’s largest ruby”. And Ghosh actually succeeds to receive
31
300 million US dollars in bearer bonds from the Reserve Bank, equal to 140 percent of
Vanuatu’s gross domestic production.
5.2
Differences between corruption on Vanuatu and the gen-
eral explanations, theories
One of the theories which I have used in this thesis is by Gonzalez de Asis who works as a
researcher at WBI (Word Bank Institute), she believes that the common ground for the
misuse of public power for private benefits is related to three elements:
1. Basic unsatisfactory with a certain system
2. Lack of public information, administration and transparency.
3. Few cases of corrupted public employees are reported.
1.) Though, regarding “ordinary citizens” is basic unsatisfactory with a certain system not
relevant. Twenty years of foreign aid projects and comprehensive reform of the entire public administration have not created an appetite for change in the general public. The population itself is involved in a conflict of interest, chiefs and community leaders put their
peoples’ votes up for sale at every national election. Candidates are offered the “guarantee”
of block of votes in exchange of money or jobs. Most people do not understand that their
behaviour will lead to a lower standard of living tomorrow.97 Instead for “basic unsatisfactory with a certain system” is the problem that people are accepting the “unsatisfied certain
system”. Others are cynical and believe that it does not really matter if the system collapses:
people expect development partner countries to come to rescue, like they have done many
times in the Pacific Island countries.
But the risk for corruption can indeed increase like Asis stated when local officials are
given new responsibilities. A unsatisfactory can grow due to lack of efficiency, low salaries,
pressure from payments, low quality of public administration ties to family and friends etc.
2.) Further does Asis write that lack of public information, administration and transparency
leads to that employee can use the secrecy which prevails in e.g. institutions as a method to
receive bribes. If the risk for an official employee is minimal to get reported or punished if
97
Ferrieux-Patterson, Marie-Noëlle.
32
he/she receives bribes, does also the risk and opportunity for corruption increase. If the
gain or profit with corruption is greater than the penalty, is corruption more profitable. 98
In Vanuatu and in Pacific Islands does the lack of public information or administration not
matter for giving and receiving bribes, people do it anyway and openly. A gift or a “bribe”
is expected and natural. It is mostly common during elections and election campaigns. E.g.
in Kiribati gifts of tobacco are expected by candidate visitors. In Samoa, politicians are expected to provide gifts of “food money and school fees” to voters. In Niue candidates
makes “donations”, in Marshall Islands “chiefs and elites are expected to offer services and
gifts when available. In Tuvalu ministers give gifts between elections, for example when a
minister visit an outer island, local people might offer a feast and expect something in return, etc.99
And indeed the risk for an official employee is minimal to get reported or punished, because it is not seen as a crime.
3.) Power without accountability could be an incentive for corruption. There is a saying that a
gun itself is neither good nor bad; it is the hand on the trigger that makes it so. It is the same with the
lack of accountability; if a good man strives to acquire or provide a bribe, he is likely to do
so if he knows that nothing will happen to him. Corruption in this sense is a rational choice
based on a calculation, a “crime of calculation”.100
As mentioned earlier are tribal traditions very strong in the Pacific Islands and often parliament members are pressured to support the tribe in different ways. In a society where
that is common and everybody knows it, is it also difficult to report anyone. Since there
also is a lack of access to newspapers, radio, television, phone or internet, on the islands is
it very hard find out what happens with public funds.
Ibid. p 4
Larmour, Peter. p 11
100 Ibid.
98
99
33
5.3
Methods to combat corruption in Pacific Island Countries
First of all we have to clarify and conclude that Pacific Island states are “soft-states”, and
an institution is difficult to change. For developing states “costs” and “profits” in a new
system and how they are going to be divided is the main problem. It is always a risk that
someone takes advantage and contributes with nothing or less than rest of the participants.
Secondly, the prevailing system is well known, knowledge and contacts are relevant. In
other words, individuals have resources which run the risk of being useless in a new system.
The main problem is that in the Pacific Islands society does a system of social norms prevail, there is a tradition of how certain thing should be done. As long as the tribe system influence politics, can political traditions of e.g. bribes survive. It is a kind of “path dependency”. It is hard to change a well established pattern where many actors are involved despite that many dislike it and are losing on it. A very good illustration is opinion poll surveys in India, Which always shows that corruption is one of the three most important political problems, but despite that do most people in India participate in this activity. In
other words does everybody participate in the corruption, poor or rich even if they know
that it would be better for everybody if the system stopped.
Methods that can be used to combat corruption in Pacific Island Countries are increasing
the political responsibility, increase public participation and make a competitive private sector.
The political responsibility is most important, since politicians must start to work for the
common good and not only for the “tribes good”. Even if it is hard, bribery must get an
end, and during elections should all donations and other sources of party revenue be made
in public, donors and amounts of their donations should be identified in the public record.
Parties in government should not use state funds, postal services, cars, computers, or other
assets for political purposes or in election campaigns. There must be a division of what is
“the countries” and what is “private”.
Party politics should be as inexpensive as possible, public funding should be OK rather
than private funding. Public funding reduces the scope for private interests to “buy influence”.
34
Thereafter should public participation increase Civil society must be empowered and realize its full potential. Citizens should be aware of their situation and what is happening on
the main islands.
According to “world bank” is there three different main ways to increase public participation to fight corruption. 101
a) Creating public awareness about corruption, trough country surveys on corruption, surveys, and assessments are ways in which organizations can raise awareness of policy-makers
and the general public.102
b) Formulating and promoting action plans to fight corruption, trough seminars, conferences, and workshops. It is effective ways of publicizing information about the patterns
and severity of corruption, building coalitions amongst anticorruption. It is also important
to influence new legislation that will aid corruption control and lobby for new institutional
devices. Another civil society intervention can be advocacy for legal and juridical reform,
freedom of information, deregulation and privatization103
c) Monitoring governments’ actions and decisions is important to reduce corruption. Educate local monitors.104
It is also important that the islands have some form of fair, competitive, honest and transparent private sector. Deregulation of prices and other aspects of production are important
towards reducing opportunities for corruption. Enhancing competition and clarifying ownership structures are also important elements toward creating a vibrant and corruption free
private sector.105
The World Bank.
Ibid.
103 Ibid.
104 Ibid.
105 The World Bank. Competitive Parivate Sector.
101
102
35
6
Concluding discussion
In this chapter I will summarize the different research questions and the method, theoretical framework and sources used.
1. (Why corruption exists on the Pacific Island Countries)
The Pacific Island countries share many characteristics for the risk of political and administrative corruption. The countries are small, they are former colonial countries with limited
knowledge, or people with knowledge and experience from public administration. Governments dominates economic life, politics is more often about to take care of relatives and
family, rather than look after the nation and its citizens. Tribal traditions are very strong
and e.g. bribes are accepted and part of everyday life. The smallness and “everyone knowing each other” makes the act of ignoring illegal practices even easier. The weak party system, and a loose parliamentary system creates a structure where public money is putted in
the hands of members of parliament rather than public servants. Those who don’t have a
parliament candidate in their tribe or in their island do also miss their civil rights.
Pacific Island countries are what Gunnar Myrdal refers as “the soft state”- which means
that the rules and laws that exist in a country are neglected. Many times is it contacts or
money which decides if public employees carry out the public politics.
2. (Differences between corruption on Vanuatu and the general explanations, theories)
Asis theory about the common ground for the misuse of public power for private benefits
and that the risk for corruption increase when people have basic unsatisfactory with a certain system does not fit in on the Vanuatu conditions. Since the tribal tradition, chiefs and
community leaders put their peoples’ votes up for sale at every national election. Are candidates offered the “guarantee” of block of votes in exchange of money or jobs. Most people do not understand that their behaviour will lead to a lower standard of living tomorrow.
Secondly in Vanuatu and in Pacific Island countries does the lack of public information or
administration not matter for giving and receiving bribes, people do it anyway and openly.
Last but not least is corruption a rational choice based on a calculation, a “crime of calculation”. often parliament members are pressured to support the tribe in different ways. In a
society where that is common and everybody knows it, is it also difficult to report anyone.
36
3. (Methods to combat corruption in Pacific Island Countries)
For developing states “costs” and “profits” in a new system and how they are going to be
divided is the main problem. It is always a risk that someone takes advantage and contributes with nothing or less than rest of the participants. The problem is that in the Pacific Islands society does a system of social norms prevail, there is a tradition of how certain thing
should be done. As long as the tribe system influence politics, can political traditions of e.g.
bribes survive. Methods that can be used to combat corruption in Pacific Island Countries
are increasing the political responsibility, increase public participation and make a competitive private sector.
(Method, theoretical framework and sources)
I think the method used has been good in the view of circumstances. Corruption has been
described as a concept with help of Word Bank and TI. Despite the critique against those
two sources I think they have been good anyway since I have also confirmed and compared the information from the two sources with other more “independent sources”.
I think that the suggestions Word Bank are given to combat corruption fits quite good with
Vanuatu and Pacific Islands in general. WB suggests e.g. that to combat corruption political
responsibility and public participation must increase. People must start to “separate private
life and public life”. Politicians can not always only look after their own tribe and relatives,
they must look to the common good for every citizen. It is also something that citizens
must understand and accept people must understand what consequences favouritism has.
Private sector is also something that WB suggests and which is important to pacific island
countries. Since almost everything is imported is it very expensive, therefore is it also important with trade competition to keep prices low.
For the case study part of Vanuatu literature has been used from different Pacific Island researches and I have tried to confirm their results with stories direct from ni-Vanuatu’s. The
interviews was to a great help to keep a high validity I the study.
37
7
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39
8
Appendix
Interview questions
1. For how long have you worked here in NZ, for how long are you going to work here?
2. Which part of Vanuatu are you from?
3. Are you aware of that it is election in Vanuatu this year? (2008)
- How are you aware of that?
4. Do you think it is important to vote?
5. Are you going to be in NZ when the Election Day is in Vanuatu?
6. Do you have the possibility to vote, how?
- And how are they going to vote for you?
7. Who are you going to vote for? (optional question)
8. Has the Vanuatu consul informed you about the possibilities of how to vote, in case you
have not signed papers with the electoral office before you came here?
9. Is your community going to vote for the same person or are you going to vote individually? Can the chief affect your choice?
10. Do you know Wan Smolbag?106
11. Do you think WSB has a good reputation in Vanuatu, do many people know WSB?
12. Are you a member there?
13. Have you visited WSB, what where you interested in, what did you do in WSB?
14. Has WSB affected you or your community?
15. Would you like to add something?
A cultural non governmental organisation, very popular in Vanuatu, the purpose of questions concerning
WSB was to get the interviewed relaxed and more open before the very last question (15).
106
40