International Trends in Primary Education
INCA Thematic Study No. 9
Joanna Le Métais
This is one of a series of studies conducted as part of the International Review of Curriculum and
Assessment Frameworks (INCA) project carried out by the National Foundation for Educational
Research in England and Wales on behalf of the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority.
June 2003
First Published in 2003
© London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority
This report may be reproduced free of charge in any format or media for non-commercial
educational or training purposes only, without requiring specific permission. This is
subject to the material being reproduced accurately and not being used in a derogatory
manner or in a misleading context. Where the material is being published or issued to
others, the source and copyright status must be acknowledged.
The permission to reproduce QCA copyright-protected material does not extend to any
material on the INCA site that is identified as being the copyright of a third party.
Authorisation to reproduce such material must be obtained from the copyright holders
concerned.
The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority is an exempt charity under Schedule 2 of the
Charities Act 1993.
Qualifications and Curriculum Authority
83 Piccadilly
London
W1J 8QA
http://www.qca.org.uk
2
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
i
1.
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1
1
2
3
2.
3.
4.
5.
Background
INCA
Structure
Points to note
SUMMARY OF TRENDS AND TENDENCIES
4
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
4
5
5
5
6
7
7
8
Educational Reform
Institutional Control
Structure
Organisation
Curriculum
Assessment
Teaching and Learning
Teaching and Learning Materials
POLICY AND PROVISION
11
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
11
16
29
64
75
83
Control
Structure and Organisation
Curriculum
Assessing, Recording and Reporting Progress
Teaching Methodologies
Teaching and Learning Materials
INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR
96
4.1 Key Priorities
4.2 Issues
4.3 Trends and Visions for the Future
96
103
106
ANNEXES
110
Annex 1
Annex 2
Annex 3
Annex 4
Annex 5
INCA Thematic Studies and Probes
Seminar Programme and Participants
Primary Curriculum
TIMSS 1994-95
PISA Domains
111
113
116
119
122
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1
Recent education reforms
9
Figure 2
Levels of control and administrative organisation
13
Figure 3
Structure of early years and primary education
17
Figure 4
Access, internal grouping and progression in primary education
22
Figure 5
Organisation of learning time
25
Figure 6
Locus of curricular control
32
Figure 7
Curricular review and implementation
37
Figure 8
Curriculum formulation and requirements
42
Figure 9
Teaching of languages and literacy
46
Figure 10 Teaching of mathematics, sciences and technologies
50
Figure 11 Teaching of humanities, religious and moral education and citizenship
53
Figure 12 Teaching of the arts and physical, personal, social and health education 57
Figure 13 Cross-curricular areas
60
Figure 14 Assessment
66
Figure 15 Progression and transfer
72
Figure 16 TIMSS 1995: Primary results in mathematics and science
73
Figure 17 Control and choice of primary school textbooks
84
Figure 18 Production and provision of primary school textbooks
87
Figure 19 Primary results: Mathematics
119
Figure 20 Primary Results: Science
119
Figure 21 PISA domains
122
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I should like to thank colleagues around the world for their valuable contribution to this
study, and in particular for their enthusiastic participation in the seminar.
Grateful thanks are also due to Sharon O’Donnell, for preparing the Thematic Probe and
for reading and commenting on the drafts of this report, and to Julia Rose, for preparing
the text for publication.
i
ii
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
In 1996,1 the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) in England commissioned
the National Foundation for Educational Research (NFER) to conduct an International
Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks (INCA) to provide information on the
historical, geographic, social, economic, cultural, religious, structural and resource
contexts within which educational systems operate. The INCA project is intended to help
QCA interpret and understand the findings of comparative studies and use comparative
information to inform its work on curriculum development and review (see 1.2 below).
It is has become clear that countries involved in the INCA project are experiencing an
increase in the frequency and scope of education reform. The purpose of this thematic
study is to examine the scale and direction of reform relating to the primary phase (ages 512) during the past 20 years.
1.2 INCA
The International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks (INCA) is an
ongoing compilation of information on education structure and policy in 18 countries:
Australia, Canada, England, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, the
Netherlands, New Zealand, Singapore, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the USA and Wales.
It comprises an Archive of descriptions of mainstream and special educational needs
provision in these countries, with specific reference to:
♦
context and principles of education
♦
organisation, control and funding
♦
education structures (ages 3-19)
♦
institutional organisation
♦
curriculum content and organisation
♦
assessment frameworks.
1
The School Curriculum and Assessment Authority, which commissioned INCA, merged with the National
Council for Vocational Qualifications to form the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority in October
1997.
1
The online INCA Archive2 comprises information on curriculum and assessment intentions,
primarily drawn from legislation and regulations. It also provides access to comparative
tables and factual summaries3 (a brief overview of key aspects across the countries),
thematic probes4 (snapshot information on specific subject areas, for example, arts
education, science education) and thematic studies5.
Thematic studies aim to enrich descriptions of practice in the countries concerned, clarify
context, and contribute to an analysis of fundamental issues. They draw on the INCA
Archive, but also involve a questionnaire and an invitational seminar, which brings
together informed participants from the contributing countries. As with other elements of
the International Review, the Thematic Studies aim to respect and seek a deeper
understanding of the diversity within and between countries. Although they reflect the
priorities of the sponsor –in this case the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) –
the active involvement of educators from other countries in the seminars broadens the
perspective of the studies. Previously completed Thematic Studies are listed in Annex 1.
Readers should note that, within the United Kingdom, England, Northern Ireland, Scotland
and Wales have separate and distinct legislation and provisions in education.
1.3 Structure
This report summarises the provision of primary education in the 18 countries of the INCA
Archive. These countries are: Australia, Canada, England, France, Germany, Hungary,
Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Singapore, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, the USA and Wales. The report draws on the information in the Archive
along with oral contributions from participants at an invitational seminar held on 19-21
February 2003 (see Annex 2).
Following this introduction, the report includes a summary of trends emerging from the
study. Section 3 summarises policy and provision in the 18 countries, based on the
thematic probe, Primary Education: an International Perspective,6 and on the
contributions and documentation provided by seminar participants, under six headings:
2
O’DONNELL, S., LE METAIS, J. and SARGENT, C. (2003). INCA: The International Review of
Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks Archive. London: QCA. Online at: http://www.inca.org.uk
3 http://www.inca.org.uk/comparative.asp
4
http://www.inca.org.uk/thematic2.asp
5
http://www.inca.org.uk/thematic.asp
6
O’DONNELL, S. (2002). Primary Education: an International Perspective. Thematic probe. Online at
http://www.inca.org.uk/thematic_probe.asp
2
♦
control
♦
structure and organisation
♦
curriculum
♦
assessing, recording and reporting progress
♦
teaching methodologies
♦
teaching and learning materials.
Information on Northern Ireland has not been included, because the curriculum in that
country is currently in the midst of a major reform.
For details, see
http://www.ccea.org.uk/currreview.htm.
Section 4 of the report focuses on the international seminar held as part of this study. It
specifically reflects the views of the seminar participants on the key priorities in their
country, the issues surrounding the above aspects of provision and their vision for the
future.
1.4 Points to note
Whilst every care is taken with the collection and verification of information, in some
cases, documentation is only available in the national language(s) and may therefore not be
accessible to the compilers of the INCA Archive. For this reason, in the Figures used in
this study, blanks are left where specific information is not available.
Please note that, whilst all URLs of links from this report were functioning at the time of
publication, they may subsequently change or go out of use. Their inclusion in this report
does not necessarily endorse the views expressed within them.
The term ‘pupil’ has been used throughout this report, although several countries use the
term ‘student’, even for those of pre-school and primary school age.
3
2. SUMMARY OF TRENDS AND TENDENCIES
This thematic study is based on information on primary education provision and trends in
Australia, Canada, England, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, the
Netherlands, New Zealand, Singapore, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the USA and Wales,
as detailed in the INCA Archive and developed in the course of a two-day seminar (see
Annex 2). The seminar included representatives from Northern Ireland and Scotland, for
whom detailed information is not yet available in the Archive, but whose perspectives are
included in this summary, making a total of 20 countries.
The following summary derives from the information in the report and views expressed
during the seminar. It indicates the prevalence of particular policies and approaches in the
countries cited above and attempts to chart trends and movements during the past 15 years
or so. However, caution needs to be exercised because lack of information about the
situation prior to 1996 (when the INCA Project started) means that it may not be possible to
identify all aspects of current provision which have changed and thus contributed to a
trend. Moreover, it is not possible to quantify the level of political, professional and
parental support for existing or new policies from the information available.
2.1 Educational Reform
♦
There is a strong trend towards frequent and wide-ranging reform, covering the
governance, management, organisation, content and assessment of learning (see
Figure 1).
♦
There is an increasing tendency to refer to performance in international surveys (such
as the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)7 and the OECD
Programme for International Student Assessment8 (PISA) to explain or justify
national policy changes.9 In some cases, dissatisfaction with performance in
international surveys has led to specific programmes, especially in mathematics. It is
expected that the 2003 results of the Progress in International Reading Literacy
Survey10 (PIRLS) will have a similar impact.
7
8
9
10
4
http://timss.bc.edu/
http://www.pisa.oecd.org/
See Section 3.4d.
http://timss.bc.edu/pirls2001i/PIRLS2001_Pubs_IR.html
2.2 Institutional Control
♦
In 16 countries,11 responsibility for institutional control lies with school-level boards,
comprising a range of stakeholders. These responsibilities include, to different
degrees, finance, premises, staffing, equipment and the organisation and
methodology of teaching. This (relative) autonomy is accompanied in most
countries by formal accountability mechanisms such as the publication of schools’
aims and activities, as well as outcomes of pupil examinations and school inspections
(where conducted). Schools’ powers of management and governance have increased
in many countries since the 1980s.12
2.3 Structure
♦
♦
♦
All 20 countries offer non-compulsory early years education.13 Both provision and
(voluntary) participation have increased over the past 20 years. Around 50 per cent
of children now receive some early years education two years before compulsory
education and virtually all of them participate during the year preceding compulsory
education.
Primary education is divided into cycles in 12 countries.14 Whilst such structuring
has been a common feature for a long time, the linking of specific curricular
outcomes and assessment to these cycles has been a more recent trend.
There is a strong emphasis on reducing class sizes (subject to budgetary constraints)
in almost all countries, especially for the first two/three years of compulsory
education. The exception is Italy, where a slight increase from the current average
class size of 18 is expected.
2.4 Organisation
♦
There is a trend toward increasing school autonomy with respect to the organisation
of the school day and week, provided that centrally-determined minimum
entitlements are met.
♦
The five-day school week now exists in 14 countries, the most recent change being
introduced in Japan.15 The remaining countries – France, Germany, Italy, Korea, the
Netherlands and Switzerland – are showing signs of moving towards this pattern,
generally by increasing the number of weekday hours and abolishing Saturday
school.
11
Australia, England, France (consultative), Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Korea, the Netherlands, New
Zealand, Northern Ireland, Scotland (consultative), Singapore, Spain, Switzerland and Wales.
Most significantly in: Australia, Canada, England, Hungary, Italy, Korea, New Zealand, Northern Ireland,
Scotland, Singapore, Spain and Wales.
See Table 5 at http://www.inca.org.uk/comparative.asp
Australia, Canada, England, France, the Netherlands, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Singapore, Spain,
Switzerland, USA and Wales. See Figure 3 below
See Figure 5 below.
12
13
14
15
5
♦
There is an emerging trend towards adapting the school year to create learning
periods of more equal length, and consequently towards increasing the frequency of
holidays, notably in New Zealand, in ‘all-year schooling programmes’ in the USA
and Alberta (Canada), and in proposals for the six-term school year in England.
2.5 Curriculum
♦
All countries (except Scotland) have a statutory curriculum, prescribed by national or
sub-national authorities. In countries with a tradition of centrally determined
curricula,16 there is a strong trend towards increasing local flexibility within
prescribed time allocations. Four countries that have introduced a statutory
curriculum within the past 15 years – England, the Netherlands, New Zealand and
Wales – have recently reduced the level of prescription in favour of frameworks,
within which schools devise a curriculum to suit local circumstances. Conversely,
Italy, which had relaxed curricular control during the same period, has recently
begun to tighten control (2003). In Scotland, there are non-statutory curriculum
guidelines, which tend to be adopted by most schools.
♦
There is a tendency towards increasing review of curricula to reflect changing needs,
and most countries have undertaken major reforms of the primary curriculum within
the past 15 years.17 This has been accompanied by a trend towards the creation of
specialist curriculum (or curriculum and assessment) agencies, separate from
Ministries. These now exist in 11 countries.18
♦
In all countries, there are greater expectations in terms of skills and dispositions,
which are perceived as relevant to lifelong learning, employment and social
participation. As a result, curricula designed during the past fifteen years
increasingly stress the role of transferable skills and, in some cases, reduce
prescribed content.
♦
There is a trend towards formulating curricula in terms of learning outcomes.19 In a
few cases – Australia, Canada (Ontario) and England – these are linked to
achievement targets which specify the percentage of pupils who are expected to
achieve a given level have been linked to these learning outcomes.
♦
Language learning has traditionally been strong in 11 countries which have two or
more official languages20 and a foreign language is a compulsory part of the primary
curriculum (especially for older pupils) in all countries except England, Ireland,
Japan, New Zealand, the USA and Wales. There is an increasing trend towards
offering one or more foreign languages, and/or extending provision for younger
pupils, even where it is not mandatory.
16
France, Italy, Japan, Korea, Singapore, Spain and Sweden.
Australia, parts of Canada, England, France, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Korea, the Netherlands, New Zealand,
Northern Ireland, Scotland, Singapore, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and Wales. Individual states and
provinces in Australia, Canada, Germany, Switzerland and the USA may have made changes in addition
to those specifically indicated in the INCA Archive. See also Table 1 below.
Some states in Australia, England, Hungary, Ireland, Korea, the Netherlands, Northern Ireland, Scotland,
Spain, Sweden and Wales. See also Figure 6 below.
Australia, some Canadian provinces, England, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Northern Ireland, Scotland,
Sweden and Wales.
Canada, Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Singapore, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland and Wales. See also Figure 9 below.
17
18
19
20
6
♦
Citizenship is part of the curriculum in all countries, either as a separate subject, or
within the humanities, although it is not a statutory subject in all cases (for example,
at the primary level in England). In recent years, the status of this subject has been
raised in six countries.21 There is also a tendency to increase the emphasis on
personal, social and health education.
2.6 Assessment
♦
Pupils’ readiness for schooling is assessed by teachers in Germany, Hungary and
Sweden. Formal assessment of school entrants has been introduced in parts of
Australia, England,22 New Zealand and Wales, and provides a baseline for valueadded analysis.
♦
In all countries, teachers routinely assess and report on their pupils’ progress. There
has been a trend towards external assessment – both statutory and voluntary – during
the primary phase.23 This is intended to help teachers identify pupil progress, plan
their work and/or as an element of school accountability. Five countries limit
external assessment to sample populations.24 Korea and Wales have reduced the
amount of compulsory universal external assessment. There is a tendency to publish
results, either by school (England and the USA) or as anonymous trends (France,
New Zealand and Spain).
2.7 Teaching and Learning
♦
In all countries, there has been considerable investment, especially during the past
ten years, to equip schools and prepare teachers for the integration of Information
and Communication Technologies (ICT) into the classroom. This is intended to help
pupils develop ICT skills and to support independent learning.
♦
As most primary teachers are generalists, there has always been a degree of overlap
between subject areas. An integrated approach is now formally encouraged, even in
countries where the curriculum is structured in terms of individual subject areas.
However, the prevalence of assessment and ‘preparation for secondary education’
tend to reinforce a subject-based approach in core subjects such as the mother tongue
and mathematics, even where the curriculum is formulated in terms of learning areas.
♦
There is no single prescribed teaching style, and teachers in all countries use whole
class, group and individual learning according to needs. However, the demand for
transferable skills and the introduction of ICT are leading to greater emphasis on
group work and independent learning in virtually all INCA countries. These
21
22
23
24
Australia, England, Ireland, Scotland, Singapore and Wales. See also Figure 11 below.
A national system of assessment on school entry ('baseline assessment') which became compulsory in
September 1998, was replaced in September 2002 by the Foundation Stage Profile. This is a national
scheme for summing up the progress and learning needs of children at the end of the foundation stage.
See http://www.qca.org.uk/ca/foundation/profiles.asp
Australia, Canada, England, France, Hungary, Japan, the Netherlands, New Zealand, the Netherlands,
Northern Ireland, Spain, Sweden, the USA and Wales. See also Figure 14 below
Japan, Korea, New Zealand, Spain and the USA.
7
developments are closely linked to the introduction of Information and
Communication Technologies into the classroom25 and a reduction in class sizes.26
2.8 Teaching and Learning Materials
♦
25
26
27
8
There has been a considerable increase in all countries in centrally produced
guidance to support teaching and learning (for example, schemes of work, lesson
plans and ideas, exemplification of pupils’ work). There is a strong trend towards
publishing these materials in electronic formats.27
See Section 3.5b below.
See Section 3.2d below.
See Section 3.6.
Figure 1
Recent education reforms
Information on the decentralised countries (in italics) is limited to national initiatives and the scale of reform at sub-national level is not reflected.
Eng
Aus28
Can29
France
Ger
Hun
Ire
Italy
Japan
Korea
Neth
NZ
Sing
Spain
Swed
Switz
USA
Wales
General
framework
88/96/98
/02
n/a
n/a
89/94
49/71/90
/94/97
93/95/
96/99
1998
48/94/01
/03
1947/
02
49/73
69/85/
94
1989
57
90/02
85/94/
98
197030
89/94/
99/02
88/96/
97/98
Devolved
institutional
control
80/86/88
/93/96/
98/02
state
province
82/83
Land
90/93
/95/96
1998
72/97/
98/01/03
central
91/0132
33
1989
central
1957
78/85/95
/02
1991
canton
1874
State
88/93/
96/98
National
targets
88/96/00
/02/34
89/97/
99
n/a
89/94/
00
n/a
96
199935
m
m
92-9636
93/98/
0337
91/93
m
1990
199938
n/a
89/94/
99/02
National
curriculum
88/96/00
/02
89/91/
99/01
199340
89/94/
95
n/a
93/95/
99
m
03
89/941
92/9742
85/93/
98/03
91/93/
0243
97/044
90/02
94/98/
00
0245
n/a
m = is used when there is no evidence of a reform.
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
31
2000/01
39
88/95/
96/00
n/a = is used for decentralised countries when no national reform has been introduced.
Australia: States and Territories have responsibility for education but may voluntarily collaborate through the Ministerial Council on Education, Training and
Youth Affairs (MCETYA).
Canada: Provinces and territories control education, but there is some influence through the Council of Ministers of Education, Canada (CMEC), which is
chiefly responsible for national-level communication.
Switzerland: The 26 cantons have delegated power over education. 25 have signed the 1970 Agreement on the Coordination of Education.
Italy: February 2003 legislation increased centralisation of curriculum control and local adaptation of the curriculum will decrease.
Korea: In January 2001, the Ministry of Education was restructured and expanded to form the Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development.
The Netherlands: The Dutch Constitution entitles any independent body to establish a school and receive public sector funding subject to certain criteria of
quality and viability.
England: Targets have been set for 2004 and 2007.
Ireland: This includes targets for IT (for 2001) set as part of the Schools IT 2000 programme.
Korea: Seventh Socio-Economic Development Plan for the Republic of Korea.
The Netherlands: National attainment targets for primary and secondary education are set every five years.
Sweden: A new development plan is usually launched every two years.
Wales: Targets have been set for 2004 and 2007.
Canada: Under the Western Canadian Protocol (WCP) agreement, the four Western Canadian provinces and three northern territories have established some
common curricula (to ensure continuity of provision). Territories began to sign up in 1993.
Japan: Revision of curricula takes place around every ten years. The 1998 revision was implemented during 2000 to 2002.
Korea: The 1992 revision led to the Sixth National Curriculum, implemented from March 1995-99. The Seventh revision (1997) has been implemented
gradually since March 2000.
New Zealand: Revised curricula were developed between 1993-2000. A formal reflection (‘Stocktake’) was completed in 2002.
Singapore: Subject syllabuses revised during 2001 to incorporate three new national initiatives (thinking skills, information technology and a national
education programme - civics, social, family and community education).
Switzerland: In 2002, there was agreement on national output standards for mathematics, languages and science.
9
Information on the decentralised countries (in italics) is limited to national initiatives and the scale of reform at sub-national level is not reflected.
National
assessment
Eng
Aus20
Can21
France
Ger
Hun
Ire
Italy
88/96/
97
91/97
1989
Sec’y
only
85/89
n/a
93/95/
96/99
89/95
sec’y
77/96/
97
1998
n/a
n/a
1989
93/96
Lengthen
schooling
1973
n/a
n/a
m
n/a
Reform
pre-school
98/02
n/a
n/a
1989
Reform
primary
44/96/
97/98
n/a
n/a
Primary
curricula
95/97/
98/00
89/91
n/a
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
10
Neth
NZ
Sing
Spain
Swed
Switz
USA
Wales
91/93/95
/97/99/
97/01
1990/02
1995
68/94
69 39
0247
88/96/97
/99/01
48
n/a
1998
94
68/91
1947
69/82/
99
85
89/96/
01
m
1990
1991/9
8
93/9642
9849
99/0350
1947
49/97
1985
1993
m
1990
m
1970
n/a
1973
93/96
1996
9951
68/91
02
69/82
1985
89/96/0
252
200353
90/02
1998
9454
n/a
1998
89/90/9
8/99
1994
1993
90/ 03
02
1997
85
1989
0055
1990
m
1970
n/a
96/98
91/95/
02
1994
93/95/
99
85/91
89/99
92/97
93/95/
98/03
91/93
97/01
90/02
94/98
m
n/a
95/97/
00
m = is used when there is no evidence of a reform.
47
Korea
87/95
0046
Promote
pre-school
46
Japan
71/99
n/a = is used for decentralised countries when no national reform has been introduced.
New Zealand: The National Education Monitoring Project for small samples of primary age children began in 1995. Voluntary assessment on school entry
was initiated nationally in 1997. A National Assessment Strategy (for compulsory education) was introduced in 1999.
USA: The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) assesses pupils’ knowledge nationally in reading, writing, mathematics, science and other
subjects. President Bush’s 2002 national education reform strategy - No Child Left Behind - requires statutory testing in reading and mathematics in certain
Grades/Years of compulsory education throughout the USA.
Ireland: Specific programme to provide pre-school facilities for those from disadvantaged backgrounds/in disadvantaged areas and to encourage those in such
areas to use the facilities provided.
Ireland: 1998 Education Act makes provision for extended compulsory education from 15 to 16. It is not yet implemented.
Italy: The 1999 law extends compulsory education from 8 to 9 years (age 6-15), and requires pupils to remain in education or training to age 18. It is not yet
implemented. Legislation passed in February 2003 will enable children who become six before 28 February to begin compulsory education in the previous
September.
Ireland: The White Paper on Early Childhood Education sets out proposals on issues relating to education for children aged 0-6 years. This document remains
consultative. Early years (age 0-6) curriculum guidelines are currently being developed.
New Zealand: The Early Childhood Education Curriculum (Te Whariki) was introduced in 1996. A 10-year Early Childhood Education Strategy was
published in 2002.
Singapore: New pre-school curriculum framework introduced in January 2003.
Switzerland: A new general curriculum for pre-school education in all French-speaking cantons came into force in the 1994/95 academic year.
Singapore: Proposals currently under review.
3. POLICY AND PROVISION
3.1 Control
Control of primary education (governance and management, curriculum and assessment) is
shared by authorities at several levels (see Figure 2). In five federal countries – Australia,
Canada, Germany, Switzerland and the USA – responsibility for all aspects of primary
education is held by sub-national authorities. The information relating to these
‘decentralised countries’ is indicated in italics in all Figures, to alert readers to the potential
diversity between the states, provinces and cantons. A consequence of decentralisation is
that the extent of change in these countries tends to be under-represented in this study.
Of these decentralised countries, Australia, Canada, Germany and Switzerland have
established structures which allow the various states and provinces to reach agreement on
the adoption of common characteristics or curricular approaches.
Australia In 1990, the state/territorial and Commonwealth education ministers in
Australia established the Curriculum Corporation, a semi-autonomous body
with a charter to develop curriculum materials on a commercial basis. Its
purpose is to facilitate greater efficiency and effectiveness in curriculum
development and dissemination through sharing knowledge and resources,
especially through the development and publication of materials supporting the
‘Curriculum Statements and Profiles’ for Australian schools. States and
territories adapt the Curriculum Statements and Profiles according to their
circumstances.
Canada
Under the Western Canadian Protocol, the four Western Canadian provinces
and three northern territories (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, British
Columbia, Yukon Territory, Nunavut and Northwest Territories) have
established a common kindergarten to Year 12 curriculum. The aim – since the
project commenced in 1993/94 – has been to provide continuity of educational
provision across the age range and across the territories, reducing the problems
encountered by children who transfer from the education system in one
province to another. Specific territories are responsible for each curricular
area, for example, the English language arts (Manitoba) and mathematics
(Alberta). The programme is outcomes-based.
Germany The Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of
the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany (Kultusministerkonferenz, or
KMK) was founded in 1948 to secure, through collaboration, the necessary
measure of shared characteristics and comparability in the Federal Republic of
Germany’s education system to enable personal and professional mobility.
The KMK brings together the ministers and senators of the Länder responsible
for education and training, higher education and research, and cultural affairs.
11
It deals with policy matters that are of supra-regional importance and seeks to
form a common viewpoint, as well as representing common interests. KMK
Resolutions can only be adopted unanimously. They have the status of
recommendations – with the political commitment of the competent ministers
to transform them into law – until they are enacted as binding legislation by the
parliaments in the Länder. The Hamburger Abkommen (1964) remains the
cornerstone agreement underpinning the school system. It incorporates general
provisions on the beginning and duration of full-time compulsory education,
the dates for the start and end of the school year, the length of school holidays,
the designation and organisation of educational institutions, the recognition of
examinations and certificates, and the designation of grade scales for school
reports. In March 1999, the 16 Länder within the KMK agreed that the
collaboration would increasingly focus on agreed quality standards; the
simultaneous reduction of detailed formal regulations would, it was intended,
facilitate diversity and competition between the Länder. The KMK has
subsequently made quality assurance and performance measurement in schools
one of its central issues. The focus is on the participation of the Länder in the
OECD project, PISA.
Switzerland The Swiss Conference of Cantonal Ministers of Education (EDK/CDIP)
coordinates the 26 autonomous education systems on the basis of the
Agreement on the Coordination of Education (1970).56 Four regional
Conferences (French-speaking Switzerland and the Ticino, north-west
Switzerland, central Switzerland and eastern Switzerland) were created to take
into account the fact that certain groups of cantons wanted a particularly close
collaboration for linguistic, historical and geographical reasons. On a smaller
scale than that of the 26 cantons, they follow an important policy of
coordination, which includes drawing up common curricula, publishing
educational material and joint running of educational institutions, as well as
agreements on recognition of qualifications and admission to schools and
colleges. The curriculum is affected by the recent Concordat for School
Coordination’s definition of national standards for mathematics, languages and
sciences (Project HarmoS).
56
12
See particularly the section on Intercantonal Collaboration and Coordination of the Education System, at
http://edkwww.unibe.ch/
Figure 2
Levels of control and administrative organisation
Australia
National
Commonwealth
Canada
Confederation
England
Ministry
France
Ministry
Germany
(National) federal
Government
Hungary
Ministry
Ireland
Ministry
Italy
Ministry
20 regions
Japan
Korea
Ministry
Ministry
Netherlands
Ministry
47 prefectures
16 Municipal or
Provincial Education
Authorities or
Metropolitan Offices
of Education
Provinces
Municipalities
New Zealand
Singapore
Ministry
Ministry
Spain
Ministry
17 Autonomous
Communities
Municipal School
Councils
Sweden
Ministry
National Agency
for Education
(Skolverket)
Confederation
County
administrations
Municipalities
26 cantons
(collaboration
through EDK/CDIP)
50 states
c. 3000 communes
School
boards/teachers
Local district school
boards
Schools
Switzerland
USA
Wales
a)
Federal
Government
National
Assembly for
Wales
Regional
6 states and 2
territories
10 provinces and 3
territories
150 local education
authorities
30 académies
16 Länder
(collaboration
through the KMK)
3000+ municipalities
or counties (local
authorities)
22 local education
authorities
District
Districts
Institutional
School councils
Local school boards
Départements (c.
110) and communes
Local school districts
(Schulämter)
School governing
bodies
Schools
School council
(Schulkonferenz)
(Advisory) School
board (iskolaszék)
Provinces and
Communes
3000+ municipalities
c. 180 school district
offices of education
Boards of
management
School council
(Consiglio di istituto)
School management
committees
Competent
authorities
Boards of Trustees
School principals or
superintendents in
charge of clusters of
6/7 schools
Governing or
educational
coordination bodies
School principals
School governing
bodies
Devolution of Responsibility
Although there appears to be no clear evidence of a correlation between forms of control
and achievement, the trend in virtually all the countries towards devolved responsibility
within a national framework reflects a belief in the link between quality and management.
13
It further assumes that increased local autonomy will meet individual pupil needs more
effectively and builds on the principle of social participation.
Accordingly, there is a tendency for responsibility for finance, management and the
learning process to be devolved to school councils, boards of management and school
governing bodies. Their membership, rights and responsibilities are laid down in
legislation or regulations. These bodies normally include representatives of education
stakeholders such as parents, teachers and members of the local and business communities.
In denominational schools there is also church representation. In some cases (for example,
France) the national inspector who is responsible for the schools in the region, is entitled to
attend as an ex officio member.
Countries with school-level boards include: Australia, England57, France (consultative),
Germany, Hungary, Ireland58, Italy, Korea, the Netherlands, New Zealand59, Spain and
Wales60. Their powers vary, for example from France, where the school council has the
right to be consulted on all matters but has no executive power, to the Netherlands, where
the competent authority has powers extending to the establishment, change of nature and
disestablishment of the school. In Hungary, schools are distinct legal entities with rights
and obligations in terms of employment, public administration and pupil welfare. The
maintaining body (state, local government or private body) may delegate a considerable
degree of financial, professional and administrative autonomy, including the right to
dispose of property.
In most countries, the devolved powers cover some or all of the following:
♦
provision and management of the school’s financial and other resources, including
staff, premises, equipment and materials and use of school facilities by third parties
♦
approval (within the framework of (sub-)national regulations) of the educational
plan, including curriculum content, organisation and teaching methods and materials,
homework policy and additional educational and sports or cultural activities
♦
internal organisation of the school, classes and timetable (assigning teaching periods
to different subjects or areas of the curriculum)
57
For details see: http://www.dfes.gov.uk/governor/index.cfm
For details see: http://www.education.ie/servlet/blobservlet/padmin_bom_rules.doc
For details see:
http://www.minedu.govt.nz/index.cfm?layout=document&documentid=5634&indexid=1010&indexparen
tid=1072
For details see: http://www.learning.wales.gov.uk/scripts/fe/news_details.asp?NewsID=267
58
59
60
14
♦
staff appointment, development, appraisal and dismissal, subject to national
employment legislation and other regulations governing salaries and conditions of
service
♦
admission, rules of conduct, welfare and exclusion of pupils
♦
relationships between the school and outside organisations including educational
support organisations
♦
reporting on the school’s performance and, where appropriate, addressing areas of
weakness identified through internal or external school evaluation.
Some of these powers may be delegated to the headteacher or other staff, but overall
responsibility lies with the school board or its equivalent.
Devolved authority may not extend to staff appointments and promotion. In England,
Ireland and Wales, whilst the number and grade of staff employed is still largely controlled
through government funding mechanisms, the governing body or board of management
advertises vacancies and teachers apply direct to the school. Governors/managers select
the most suitable applicant, in accordance with employment regulations. In the
Netherlands, teachers apply to the competent authority (for example, the municipality,
association, foundation or church body) responsible for the school(s). Where the
competent authority controls more than one school, it may transfer teachers between them.
In countries where teachers are civil servants, for example, Australia, France, Germany,
Italy and Spain, it is the central or regional authorities who allocate teachers to schools,
although there are often procedures for teachers to express a preference. All appointments
are based on qualifications, experience and good character. Sometimes (for example, in
France, Italy and Spain) teachers must participate in a competitive examination at the
beginning of their career, which generally guarantees employment for life and a pension.
In Switzerland, there are considerable differences from one canton to another in how
schools are managed. On the whole, it can be said that most educational issues (size of
classes, compulsory curriculum, official teaching material, etc.) are dealt with in a
relatively centralised way by the canton, in particular as regards compulsory schooling.
Traditionally, headteachers were only appointed in schools with a large number of classes.
In general, there are no headteachers as such in the German-speaking part of Switzerland at
compulsory school level; the tasks of those who are appointed do not go beyond
organisation and coordination. However, in the French-speaking part of Switzerland, the
headteacher’s role is much more important, including supervision and pedagogical
responsibilities. In line with the devolution of some powers from communes to individual
schools, headteachers are now being appointed.
15
For further details of curricular control, see Control of the curriculum, Section 3.3b below.
An example of the flows of control can be seen in the trends in Switzerland. At national
level, the Swiss Conference of Cantonal Directors of Education is increasing control over
assessment by extending the Concordat for School Coordination to include the definition
of national standards for mathematics, languages and sciences (Project «HarmoS»).
Cantonal authorities are also tending to increase control over assessment through the
introduction of statutory control of performance assessment (for example. Project
Klassencockpit) and professional supervision of schools (quality control). However, they
are reducing direct control over schools by granting them increased autonomy with respect
to pedagogy, finance and organisation. At communal level, education authorities have
devolved control over schools through the introduction of school headteachers, but are
exercising more control over teaching by defining pedagogical guidelines for communal
schools. Headteachers have increasing control of school teams, but are subject to regional
or even national assessment.
b)
Accountability
Schools are held accountable to their stakeholders by means of reports, (self-) evaluation
and/or inspections which examine their work and children’s achievements (assessed by
teachers and through standardised tests) in the context of their circumstances and
resources. The findings are often made available to parents and other interested parties.
School planning or adherence to prescribed curricula may be subject to scrutiny in the
course of school inspections or external validations by national or regional authorities (for
example, England, Wales, France, Germany, Japan, Korea, the Netherlands, Singapore,
Sweden and Switzerland). However, external verifiers may be specifically prohibited from
‘encroaching on the pedagogical freedom of teachers’ (Germany). School principals may
also have responsibility for supporting staff in the implementation and, where applicable,
adaptation of the curriculum (guidelines).
3.2 Structure and Organisation
This section explores differences in the ages and organisation of compulsory education and
pre-compulsory provision.
a)
Early years provision
Most countries offer some publicly-funded early years education. Attendance is generally
optional, although in Hungary five-year-olds must attend kindergarten for four hours daily
16
and obtain a certificate to be admitted to primary school. In Maryland (USA), one year’s
kindergarten experience (age 5-6 years) is generally required, unless parents feel that this
would not be in their child’s best interests.
Figure 3
Structure of early years and primary education
Preschool
Australia
Canada
England
France
3-5/6
4/5-6/7
2+-4/561
2-6
Primary or basic
education
5/6 - 12/13
6/7 - 12/13
4/5-11
6-11
Subdivisions of primary education
Cycle 1
e.g. 4-8
5-9
5-7
3-5 (preschool)
Cycle 2
8+-12
9 - 12/13/14
7+-11
5-8
3-6
6 -10/1263
Germany
64
6
10/12/1465
3-6
Hungary
3-4/5
4/566-12
Ireland
3-6
6-11
Italy
3-6
6-12
Japan
3-6
667-12
Korea
4-8
8-12
0-4/5
4/568-12
Netherlands
3-5/6
5/669- 12/13
New
Zealand
3-6/7
6/7-12
6-10
10+-1270
Singapore
0-6
6-12
6-8
8-10
Spain
0-6/7
6/771 - 15/1672
Sweden
4/5 -6/7
6/7 - 10/ 11/12+
Switzerland
3-5/6
5/6 - 13/14
e.g.6-10
10+-12
USA
5-7
7+-11
2+-4/5
4/5-1174
Wales
Note: Blank cells indicate a lack of specific information, not an absence of policy.
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
Transfer to
post-primary
Cycle 3
−
−
−
8+-11
−
−
10-12
12-14
−
12/13
12/13
1162
11
10/12
10/12/14
12
11
12
12
12
12/13
12
12
n.a.
10, 11, 12
13/1473
11
England: Compulsory education begins the term after a child reaches the age of five. However, many
children begin school at four+ in nursery schools or classes, or in reception classes in primary schools.
England: Exceptionally, in some areas, children transfer to middle school at age eight or nine and move to
secondary level education at age 12 or 13.
Germany: In most Länder, secondary education commences at age 10. In some, it commences at 12.
Hungary: All five-year-olds must attend kindergarten for up to four hours per day.
Hungary: Traditionally, Hungarian secondary education started at 14+. Increasingly schools admit pupils
aged 10+ or 12+.
Ireland: Compulsory education begins at age six, but over 50 per cent of four-year-olds and almost all
five-year-olds attend publicly-funded infant classes in primary schools.
Korea: Exceptionally, some children may commence at age five if the school has places.
The Netherlands: Education is compulsory from age five, but 98 per cent of four-year-olds attend school.
New Zealand: Education is compulsory from age six but almost all children start school at age five.
Singapore: During the orientation stage pupils are streamed according to ability in English, mother tongue
and mathematics.
Sweden: Nine-year compulsory education begins at age seven, but municipalities must enrol those who
wish to do so, at age six. Entry may be deferred to age eight. Children who start at age six may leave
school at age 15.
Sweden: Provided in the all-through compulsory school (grundskola).
USA: In some states, children transfer to middle schools at age nine.
Wales: Compulsory education begins the term after a child reaches the age of five, but many children
start school at four+.
17
Pre-compulsory provision generally comprises two75 or three76 years of at least part-time
education (see Figure 3), often provided in schools offering compulsory primary level
education. Whilst this is generally provided free of charge, parents in some countries,
Germany for example, often have to contribute to the cost. Publicly-funded early years
provision commences at age two for children who are disadvantaged or have special
educational needs in France. In Spain, there is some public funding for the first cycle of
early years education (birth-3 years). In Sweden, municipalities must provide pre-school
education for children from around the age of one and parents usually contribute towards
the costs until age six, the year before compulsory education begins.
In England and Wales, publicly-funded part-time provision is available for children aged
four, if their parents require it; such provision is being extended to cover the two years
prior to compulsory education (age five). However, early years provision commences at
age two for children who are disadvantaged or have special educational needs.77
In all Swiss cantons, children have the right to receive pre-school education for at least one
year (sometimes two) before they start their compulsory education. An average of around
99 per cent of children in Switzerland receive pre-school education during the year before
they start school, 63 per cent attend for two years, and a small percentage attend for three
years. The average length of attendance at kindergarten is 1.8 years.
There has been an increase in early years provision, with a view to improving performance,
especially for disadvantaged children. For example, the Netherlands, where 98 per cent of
four-year-olds attend school, recently attempted to lower the school starting age from five
to four. This was considered necessary because the two per cent of children who did not
already attend came from disadvantaged backgrounds (socio-economic deprivation and in
some cases, not having Dutch as their language of habitual use) which, together with their
‘late’ enrolment at age five, placed them at an educational disadvantage as compared with
other pupils. However, the legislation was not passed, on the grounds that it unreasonably
removed parents’ freedom to decide what was best for their children.
Similarly, Italian provisions for early entry to school are based on the notion that early
participation in academic and formal education or activities will develop children’s
abilities earlier and better. This contrasts with the traditional principles of pre-school
75
76
77
18
Most Australian states, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, most cantons of Switzerland, and the USA.
France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Korea, Singapore and Spain.
The Sure Start programme in England targets children suffering deprivation. The special educational
needs regulations in both countries require local authorities to assess and, where necessary, make
provision for children from age two.
provision (catering for some 95 per cent of children), which focus on the importance of
social and emotional processes, and of exploration and play, to children’s cognitive
development.
b)
Primary education
There is considerable similarity between the INCA countries in the age of those designated
as ‘primary’ phase children, generally from around the age of 5/6 to 11/12 years. Notable
exceptions are Sweden, where children start compulsory education at age seven and there
is no formal distinction between primary and secondary education, and Hungary, where
primary children may include those up to age 14, depending on the institution attended.
c)
Structure
Schools
In the vast majority of the countries studied,78 there are dedicated primary schools.
However, pre-compulsory nursery schools or classes are often linked to, or part of, the
primary school which children go on to attend.79 In Spain and Switzerland, primary
schools may be part of a complex, which also includes early years provision and/or lower
secondary school facilities. In certain, essentially rural, areas of Australia and New
Zealand, and in some regions of Singapore, primary education can be provided in allthrough schools catering for children from 5/6 to 16+ years of age. Some primary school
classes in Switzerland may also be attached to a teacher training college to enable future
teachers to undertake supervised practical training.
In Hungary, primary level education is most commonly provided in eight-year general
schools for 6 to 14-year-olds, although some children may move on to secondary level
establishments at 10 or 12 years of age. In Sweden, the nine-year, all-through compulsory
school (grundskola) caters for 7 to 16-year-olds. However, many grundskola have
separate sections and it is common for children to change school or school building when
entering Year 6 or Year 7 (aged 12 or 13 onwards).
Cycles
The primary phase is often divided into cycles or stages. Primary education in Tasmania
(Australia), some areas of Canada, England, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Singapore and
78
79
Australia, Canada, England, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, the Netherlands, New
Zealand, Singapore, Spain, Switzerland, the USA and Wales.
For example, in Australia, Canada, England, France, Ireland and the USA.
19
Wales has two distinct cycles (or stages). Three cycles are found in Spain and in Kentucky
(USA).
England and Wales are the only countries in which the cycles (known as key stages) at the
primary level may be provided in separate schools: ‘infant schools’ for children aged five
to seven years in key stage 1, and ‘junior schools’ for key stage 2 children aged 7 to 11
years.
d)
Admission, grouping and progression
Figure 4 provides details of academic requirements for access to primary schools; the way
in which children are grouped (by age or according to general or subject-specific ability);
progression (whether this is automatic, ‘social’ promotion, or subject to children’s
performance); and requirements for transfer to post-primary education (automatic or
subject to achieving the necessary standards or certificate).
Access
In most countries, children are admitted to primary education when they reach the relevant
age. However, in Germany, Hungary and Sweden, children who reach the compulsory
school age but who are deemed to be insufficiently mature may, instead, attend special
classes attached to primary level schools (Germany and Sweden) or kindergarten classes
(Hungary) which aim to prepare them for entry, usually no more than one year later.
In contrast, children in several countries are admitted to primary schools for one or two
years before they reach the compulsory school starting age, because provision for this age
group is commonly made in primary schools.80 In Sweden, although pre-school activities
are available for all, some children start compulsory school before the compulsory age of
seven.81 This enables them to ‘bring forward’ their compulsory education: those who start
at six may leave school at age 15, rather than 16. In all other countries in the INCA
Archive, early entry does not entitle a child to leave early.
80
81
20
For example, England, Ireland, Korea (subject to places), the Netherlands, New Zealand and Wales.
They percentage of children doing so has dropped, possibly because municipalities are obliged to provide
a place in a pre-school class for all children from the autumn term of the year in which they turn 6. Preschool classes are intended to stimulate learning and development and lay the foundations for continued
learning.
Internal grouping
Children are generally grouped by age. Vertical grouping (mixed-age classes) occurs in
smaller schools to make efficient use of staff and accommodation.82 For example, in
England, 24.4 per cent of primary classes taught by one teacher in January 2002 were
mixed year group classes. In France, multi-age classes are often the norm in the numerous
small schools. Moreover, the 2002 primary school curriculum revision recommends some
multi-age groupings for all primary school children as this is believed to help younger
children, particularly in language acquisition. Even where schools do not have mixed-age
classes, older children may be brought in to work with younger ones on an ad hoc basis,
for example for reading or playing board games,83 to their mutual benefit.
82
83
For example, in Tasmania (Australia), England, France and Wales. In some remote locations in Italy
mixed-aged classes exist but, where this happens, classes should have between six and 12 pupils.
For example, in Tasmania (Australia) and England.
21
Figure 4
Access, internal grouping and progression in primary education
Access
Primary
Grouping
age/set *
Australia
Canada
England
France
Germany
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Open
Open
Open
Open
Open 84
Cert
Open
Open
Age/set
Age
Age/set
Age
Age/set
Age/set
Age
Age
Japan
Open
Age/set
Korea
Netherlands
New
Zealand
Singapore
Open
Open
Open
Age/set
Age89
Age/set
Pupil:Teacher
Ratio‡
(average)
18.5
23.3
21.1
11.685
86
10.5
20.9 (state and
private)
27
25.4
23.1
Class size‡
(average)
24
27.1
23
22.6
20
25-34
18; max
2587
28.9 (state)
(max 40 )
35
2590
20-2592
Progression
Access
Lower
secondary
Open
Open
Open
Open
Open/cert
Cert
Open
Cert
Social
Social
Social
Perf
Perf from 7+
Perf
Social
Social –
mostly
Social
Open88
Social
Perf 91
Social
Open
Cert
Open
Open
Age; stream
25
Perf
Cert
from age 10
Open
Age
17.7
Max 25
Perf
Open
Spain
Open
Age
13.1
Social /perf
n/a93
Sweden
Age/set
20
Perf
Cert
Switzerland Open
Open
Varies
Varies
Varies
Social /perf
Open
USA
Open
Age/set
21
25.6
Social
Open
Wales
*Set = grouping of pupils according to ability, usually by subject. Stream = grouping pupils by ability for all
subjects.
‡ The pupil:teacher ratio (PTR) and class size figures do not apply to the same year in all cases.
Social = automatic progression by age; Perf = progression subject to satisfactory performance.
Note: Blank cells indicate a lack of specific information, not an absence of policy.
Pupils may be grouped by ability for some subjects.94 For example, in Korea, pupils are
grouped by ability for Korean language in Years 1-6 and for English from Years 3-6.
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
22
Germany: Six-year-olds not deemed ready to enter primary education may be obliged to spend some time
in special preparatory classes.
Hungary: These figures are influenced by the large number of small schools.
Ireland: In 1999, one in every nine primary pupils was in a class with 35 or more children. Funding has
been agreed to provide more primary teachers in a bid to reduce class sizes and, since September 1999,
the Government has recommended a maximum class size of 30.
Italy: The normal minimum size for classes comprising children of the same age group is 15. This figure
is gradually being increased to reduce costs. A class including children with special educational needs,
has a maximum of 20 and a support teacher to foster integration and learning.
Japan: Children receive an elementary school leaving certificate, but usually progress automatically from
their local elementary school to their local junior high school.
The Netherlands: Children may be grouped by ability in some schools, but this is quite rare.
The Netherlands: The Secretary of State intends to reduce class sizes in the first cycle (Years 1-4, ages 48) to 20 by the 2002/2003 school year. The average class size for this group is 22.7.
The Netherlands: Repeating a year is at the discretion of the school, but is rare.
New Zealand: Many classes have over 30 children.
Sweden: Compulsory education is provided in an ‘all-through’ school (grundskola, age 6/7 to 15/16)
although the younger and older children may be taught in separate buildings.
For example, Australia, England, Germany, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, Switzerland and Wales.
Singapore is the only country where primary school children are formally streamed
according to ability for the final two years of primary education (the Orientation Stage).
The Foundation Stage (Primary 1 to Primary 4) focuses on building a strong foundation in
languages and mathematics. At the end of Primary 4 (aged around 10), pupils are streamed
according to their learning ability. Their performance in English, mother tongue
(Mandarin Chinese, Malay or Tamil) and mathematics is assessed and determines their
allocation to one of three language streams, namely EM1 (10-15 per cent of the highest
attaining pupils), EM2 (70-75 per cent of pupils), or EM3 (10 per cent of pupils).
Occasionally, a fourth stream (ME3) is created to cater for pupils who are performing
below the standard of EM3. All three streams emphasise the teaching of English, but
provide for different levels of proficiency in the mother tongue language. The
differentiated curricula and pace of learning aim to allow pupils to progress according to
their ability and to achieve to the fullest of their potential. There are opportunities for
lateral transfer of pupils between the streams according to their performance.
Publicly-funded primary schools are generally co-educational. In some cases, children
may be taught in single sex groups for some subjects, for example physical education or
language (Sweden). However, this decision may well be taken by individual schools or
teachers rather than as a matter of government or regional policy. In Switzerland, in
accordance with the principle of equal opportunities for girls and boys, single-sex groups
have been abolished. Nevertheless, there is a tendency toward some separate grouping,
based on research which seems to emphasise the advantages of temporary separation by
gender.
Class size
Class sizes vary, but there is a trend towards reducing the numbers in each class, especially
in the first two or three years of primary education. The exception is Italy, where
minimum class sizes are increasing from 15 for reasons of cost. Political commitment to
reducing class sizes sometimes undermines other initiatives. For example, in Tasmania,
some of the funding for the implementation of the new pilot curriculum framework – the
New Essential Learnings95 (see below) – has been reallocated to finance smaller classes.
95
For details see: http://www.doe.tased.edu.au/ooe/curriculumconsultation/
23
Progression within the primary phase
Social promotion, whereby children automatically move to the next class, is common
practice in nine countries. Where performance governs progression,96 the decision is
generally made by all the teachers of the relevant class/year group and includes
consultation with parents.
Transition to the post-primary phase
Transfer to the post-primary phase is generally automatic, except in Italy and Singapore,
where children must first have obtained the primary school leaving certificate. In
Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands and Switzerland, a child’s performance in primary
school affects the type of secondary school or secondary school course to which he or she
is admitted.
Japanese pupils have to complete the whole primary school curriculum before moving onto
secondary education. Although a certificate is not essential for transfer to junior high
schools, headteacher s have a statutory duty to give school leaving certificates to pupils
who have completed the whole course.
The most common ages of transfer are 1197 and 12.98 However, children may transfer at
age 10 (most states in Germany; some schools in Hungary and Switzerland), age 13 (some
parts of Australia, Canada, New Zealand and Switzerland) and age 14 (in the remaining
areas of Canada and, in most instances, in Hungary and the USA).
In Sweden, there is no formal transfer age, but some children change school building
within the all-through compulsory school (grundskola) complex at age 12 or 13.
Some countries offer a three-tier system, which aims to ease the transition from primary to
secondary school. For example, there are middle schools in some areas of England (for
8−12 or 9−13-year-olds) and the USA (age 10-14). In New Zealand, intermediate schools
cater for pupils aged 11-13, although there are also ‘recapitated’ primary schools (age
5−13) and extended secondary schools (age 11−18). The desirability of the three-phase
system in New Zealand is being reviewed.
96
97
98
24
France, Germany (from age seven), Hungary, the Netherlands, Singapore, Spain, Switzerland and, in
some cases, in Italy, Sweden and the USA.
England and Wales, France, Italy, frequently in New Zealand, sometimes in Switzerland and the USA.
Most states of Australia, two of Germany’s 16 states, sometimes in Hungary and Switzerland, and in
Ireland, Japan, Korea, the Netherlands, Singapore, Spain and some provinces of Canada and the USA.
e)
Organisation of learning time
There are interesting differences in the way in which learning time is organised (see Figure
5). In several countries this has been the subject of debate and some changes have been
introduced.
Figure 5
Organisation of learning time
Start
End
School year
Terms
Days
Hours
Australia
Canada
Mid-Feb
Sept
Dec
June
4
3
c 200
180-200
England
France
Germany
Sept
Sept
Aug
July
June
Jul
3 (6)
3 (5)
3 (6)
190
180
188-208
950
Alberta
not set
min 846
615-713
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Sept
Sept
Sept
June
June
June
3
3
185
183
200
varies
915
800-900
Japan
April
March
3
varies
Korea
March
Feb
2
min 175
170 in
Year 1
min 220
Netherlands
Aug
June
3 (5)
c 200
7520
(8 years)
New Zealand
Singapore
Late Jan
Jan
Dec
Dec
4
4
192
200
Spain
Sweden
Sept
Aug
Jun/Jul
Jun
3
2 (4)
180
178-190
Aug/Oct
Jun/Jul
810
6665
(9 years)
varies
5
5
6 weeks
9 weeks
6 weeks
5
4-5
5-6
9 weeks
13-14
weeks
6 weeks
5
5
5-6
5
25
27.55
Ontario
21 to 23.5
26
12.75 to
20.25
15 - 18.75
23
27-30
not
prescribed
c 6 weeks
10 weeks
6 weeks
5.5
4.5
22-25
6 weeks
4 weeks
6 weeks
11 weeks
10 weeks
5
5
25
25 to 27.5
5
5
25
Max 30
3.75 - 20 - 34/36
5.25
lessons
Sept
June
3
180
varies
8 weeks
5
varies
USA
Sept
July
3 (6)
190
not set
6 weeks
5
21 to 23.5
Wales
NOTE: The figures in brackets under ‘Terms’ indicate the number of learning periods separated by at least
one week’s holiday. Note: Blank cells indicate a lack of specific information, not an absence of policy.
Switzerland
182-200
varies
School week
Days
Hours
Summer
break
6 weeks
8 weeks
5-9 weeks
School year
The number of instructional days varies between 175 and 220. In most countries, the
school year runs from August/September to June. Exceptions are Australia, New Zealand
and Singapore (January/early February to December), Japan (April to March) and Korea
(March to February).
25
The length of summer holidays ranges from six weeks (most countries) to 13-14 weeks in
Italy. In Switzerland, depending on the canton, the school year comprises between 36.5
(Ticino) and 40 weeks. Accordingly, the summer holiday varies from five to nine weeks.
Most children have their longest holiday between successive grades. However, mid-year
breaks last for six weeks in Japan and Korea and four weeks in Singapore.
The school year has typically been divided into two semesters or three terms, but new
models are being adopted. In 1996, New Zealand99 changed from a three- to a four-term
year after pilot studies showed that shorter terms and more frequent breaks left children
less tired and better able to concentrate and work. In England, an independent commission
has recently recommended that a six-term year be introduced by 2005. This would ensure
that no term exceeded seven-and-a-half-weeks and provide breaks in October (two weeks),
Christmas (at least two weeks) and summer (at least five weeks).
In some states in the USA schools operate on a 12-month schedule. Children attend school
for 180 days, alternating 45 days’ (nine school weeks’) work with 15 days’ holiday. They
have a further week’s holiday in the winter and in spring, with an additional nine national
holidays. Some schools in Alberta, Canada are also providing year-round schooling or
other alternative timetables.
Since 1999, Italian schools have been able to set the dates of some holidays. Whilst the
traditional criterion had been teachers’ needs, now the needs of pupils and their families –
such as individual circumstances or the need to harmonise holidays for families whose
children attend different schools – are seen as pertinent. These arguments have been
echoed in the debate surrounding proposals to change the school year in England.
School week
In 12 countries,100 the school week runs from Monday to Friday, although in France,
Germany, the Netherlands and some cantons in Switzerland, part or all of Wednesday is
generally free.
99
100
26
For details see:
http://www.minedu.govt.nz/index.cfm?layout=document&documentid=3862&indexid=1010&indexparen
tid=1072
Australia, Canada, England, Hungary, Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Singapore, Spain, Sweden,
the USA and Wales.
In France, Germany, Korea and some cantons in Switzerland, there is usually school on
Saturday mornings. Schools in France are increasingly able to vary the organisation of the
school week and the most common pattern (all day Monday, Tuesday, Thursday and
Friday and Saturday morning) has been replaced in over a quarter of schools by a four-day
week and no Saturday morning classes, spread over a longer school year. In Hungary,
school takes place in the morning, but it may last for four hours (pupils aged 6−10) or five
hours (ages 10−12).
Schools in Japan formerly opened on at least two Saturdays each month. However, a fiveday school week was introduced in April 2002, ‘to [encourage] children to become more
involved in society and their communities and to help them develop social and family
skills, as well as foster independence’.101 The community appears to be exerting a similar
influence in Korea, where the five-and-a-half-day school week is designed to coincide with
the business sector. However, as this sector will shortly be adopting a five-day week, the
Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development may reduce the school week to
five days.
Further changes are being introduced, for example, in Tasmania (Australia) some schools
close for half a day each fortnight and make up the time by increasing teaching on the
remaining days. Similarly, in some states in the USA, four-day school weeks are
increasingly becoming the norm in remote districts. Teaching hours are increased over the
four days to allow schools to close on the fifth day.
Many schools in Germany and Italy open in the mornings only, but in such cases pupils
attend on six days a week. Half-day schooling aims to allow children to engage in
independent learning or homework, to participate in sporting and cultural activities (which
may be organised under the auspices of the school) or to spend time with their family.
This last factor has influenced the belief in Italy that time in school for primary pupils must
not exceed four hours a day. Accordingly, some administrators, teachers, parents and
politicians argue that school activities should focus on language, mathematics and science,
supported by homework and that other subject areas and activities (such as art education,
physical education, foreign language, music education) should be extra-curricular activities
chosen and funded by families and provided by private agencies. However, this view is
not supported by most teachers and researchers, who consider that art, music and physical
education contribute to linguistic and cognitive development and to the development of
101
FITZPATRICK, M. (1997) ‘Economy drives move for reform’, Times Educ. Suppl., 24 January, 16.
27
well-rounded individuals. Headteachers’ powers to organise the school week to suit local
need have recently been extended, and as a result, more schools opt to work five full days a
week.
A further dimension in the area of half- or whole-day schooling is the contribution which
communal eating makes to children’s development. Whilst many children traditionally
returned home for lunch, this practice is changing as mothers increasingly undertake paid
employment. In some countries (England and France), there is a long tradition of school
meals which, in addition to the nutritional benefits, provides opportunities for developing
social and inter-personal skills. In Switzerland, children normally go home at midday. If
they live too far from school the borough organises and supervises school meals. Over the
past few years there has been a trend towards children staying at school for lunch,
particularly in urban areas.
Singapore is the only INCA country to run double sessions in primary schools, with
different groups of children attending either from 7:30 to 13:00, or from 13:00 to 18:30,
Monday to Friday.
Instructional hours
As indicated in Figure 5 above, there is recommended or statutory guidance on the number
of teaching hours per day (four to five hours in Hungary), per week (England, France,
Ireland, Singapore and Wales), per year (Alberta (Canada), Japan and Korea), per cycle
(Spain) or per phase (the Netherlands and Sweden). Additional extra-curricular activities
may be undertaken outside these times.
In most of the countries, the number of instructional hours in the primary phase increases
with a child’s age and tends to average between four and five hours daily. In Australia,
New Zealand and Spain, the teaching day usually lasts for around five hours, whilst in
Germany and Hungary it could be as little as three hours. In the Netherlands, proposed
legislation will abolish the current maximum of five-and-a-half hours a day, and require
pupils to receive at least three hours of education on five days a week and a minimum of
7,520 periods spread over eight years. In Years 1 and 2 schools may introduce a four-day
week with a minimum of three periods per day, provided that the participation council (on
which parents are represented) approves and that the 7,520 periods are achieved by age 12.
The legislation is expected to come into effect on 1 August 2003.
Where stipulated, the duration of individual lessons varies from 30 minutes (Ireland and
Singapore) to 45 minutes (Germany and Hungary). In most other countries, lesson
28
duration is at the school’s discretion. In Japan, lessons used to last for 45 minutes, but the
revised curriculum introduced in April 2002 gives schools and teachers discretion to
determine time allocations per subject, provided that they respect the statutory minimum
number of hours per year for each subject. Although 40 minutes is the norm for class
‘hours’ in Korea, schools can increasingly vary lesson length to suit local circumstances.
3.3 Curriculum
a)
Expectations
Societies have ambitious expectations for their education systems. Demands may be
driven by economic needs as well as social issues such as political disaffection, social and
cultural inclusion, vandalism and violence. These aspects of personal and social
development are addressed implicitly across the curriculum but, in many countries, they
are explicitly included in religious/moral/ethics education and/or in personal, social and
health education (see 3.3e below).
Education provision therefore seeks to reconcile a range of demands, of which the
Netherlands provides an example:
♦
harmonious development of the individual child (autonomy, self respect, confidence,
esteem, creativity, imagination, emotion, pedagogical approaches)
♦
transfer of cultural heritage – the knowledge which we build up together; how we
address problems (technology); how we give meaning to our lives (values, norms,
morality, religion, and art and music); knowledge of our historical development,
which goes beyond western European heritages (subject knowledge, cultural
diversity and transfer, cognitive development); and safeguarding our (especially
economic and cultural) continuity
♦
preparation of young people to meet the uncertain future needs of society
(competencies, social behaviour, communication, problem solving, learning to learn,
lifelong learning, metacognition).
Japan also has adapted the curriculum to reflect changing circumstances. Curriculum
content has been reduced to make space on the timetable for experiential learning, which
encourages pupils to apply their knowledge in real life situations. The aim is to promote
integrated study, individual expression and positive engagement in the collection of
information and reporting discussion. There have been concerns about ‘abandoning the
content-led curriculum’, but the uniform transmission of knowledge is deemed
inappropriate for the post-industrial, merit-based society of the 21st century. Schools need
29
to focus on teaching basic skills and content and developing the individual’s capacity to
learn.
In some communities the development of a curriculum solely for the dominant community
(or in the dominant language) has caused problems. A specific curriculum was developed
for Maori-medium education in New Zealand, because a simple translation from English
was deemed inadequate to reflect the cultural differences. This subsequently led to a call
for further curriculum versions for other Maori language groups or Iwi. The Ministry of
Education is helping schools to reformulate the curriculum frameworks to meet the specific
needs of these schools.
In Northern Ireland, teachers have expressed a similar argument with reference to bilingual
education, namely that they cannot interpret the curriculum until it has been re-interpreted
(not simply translated) into Irish, so that they have the appropriate language and concepts.
However, there has been some resistance to the provision of curricula/education for
minority language speakers on the grounds of cost.
The tensions caused by these questions may become more important as global mobility
increases the diversity of cultures and languages as well as values, abilities and
dispositions within our communities and schools.
b)
Control of the curriculum
Devolved authority has often been accompanied by specific input (curriculum content) or
output (children’s achievement) requirements, to secure a minimum entitlement for all
children and to facilitate continuity for those who change schools. For this reason,
regardless of whether the overall locus of control is central, federal or local, the
fundamental curriculum framework, guidelines and/or outcomes appear to be centrally
defined at national, regional or local government level. There is, however, an increasing
emphasis on the provision of frameworks or guidelines, to be further developed and
adapted at local level in line with local needs and circumstances.
In Sweden, many responsibilities for school management were devolved to municipalities
in 1994. However, the state and the National Agency for Education (Skolverket102) set out
curricular goals along with criteria and national assessment requirements, although they do
not determine content, teaching methods and materials. In April 2003 a separate agency
was established which can disburse funds to municipalities for curriculum development
work.
102
30
For details see: http://www.skolverket.se/english/index.shtml
In most countries (England, France, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Korea, the Netherlands, New
Zealand, Singapore, Spain, Sweden and Wales), schools are specifically expected to adapt
state curriculum guidelines into their own educational programme that is appropriate to the
individual school’s circumstances and to the needs, aptitudes and interests of its children.
These programmes are variously known as the annual school plan (plean scoile,
Ireland103), piano dell’offerta formativa (Italy), the school charter104 (New Zealand), the
school curriculum (as distinct from the National Curriculum, in England105 and Wales106)
or the arbetsplan (Sweden).
France
While the curriculum, the major educational orientations and the skills to be
acquired by pupils in each cycle are defined nationally, each school has a
degree of autonomy concerning the most appropriate strategies. The school
plan (projet d’école) covers the concrete organisation of cycles and special
arrangements tailored to pupils’ needs and environmental resources.
Korea
As part of the decentralisation of curricular control, the Sixth and Seventh
National Curricula encourage schools (which have traditionally had little
autonomy concerning content or method) to modify the national curriculum or
to develop new subjects to meet the needs, circumstances and interests of the
school and local communities. It is hoped that greater autonomy will enable
schools and local authorities to devise curricula which are more appropriate for
individual schools and children and thus contribute to increased diversity of
educational programmes.
The Netherlands Every school must have a school plan, updated every four years,
describing the steps being taken to monitor and improve quality and indicating
the school’s policy on educational matters, staffing and internal quality
assurance.
Schools have some freedom regarding curricular content,
methodology and materials. However, in order to receive funding, schools are
expected to organise their teaching in such a way that pupils can achieve the
centrally-determined attainment targets by the end of primary education.
Intermediate targets and teaching guidelines for arithmetic and mathematics
and the Dutch language have been developed to provide additional support for
organising teaching in each year of primary schooling.
Steps are being taken to reduce the current number of attainment targets (what
pupils are expected to have learnt by the end of primary school) and make them
more concrete. This will make it easier for schools to gear their teaching
activities to the attainment targets. To give schools more freedom, the concept
of core and differential attainment targets has been introduced, whereby the
former are compulsory for all schools and occupy around 70 per cent of
teaching time, and the latter comprise additional targets which are selected by
103
104
105
106
See: http://www.education.ie/servlet/blobservlet/padmin_school_plan.pdf
See: http://www.minedu.govt.nz/index.cfm?layout=index&indexid=7847
See: http://www.nc.uk.net/home.html
See: http://www.accac.org.uk/schoolcurric/School_curric_in_Wales/school_curric_in_wales.htm
31
the school and set out in its school plan and prospectus. The new, concrete
attainment targets are due to be introduced in August 2003.
Singapore Autonomy is devolved to schools to take control of the planning and delivery of
instructional programmes, the adoption of teaching methods and the selection
of specific instructional materials, to better meet the needs, abilities and
interests of their students. Schools also critically evaluate their own processes
and results within the framework of the School Excellence Model (SEM), a
self-assessment model which guides schools to review and improve critical
processes that influence educational outcomes.
Spain
Legislation has granted schools autonomy to formulate their own proyecto
educativo, moving from a prescriptive curriculum to more open, flexible and
decentralised approaches, within the framework of the educational programme.
Time allocations for core curriculum subjects are nationally prescribed, leaving
a proportion to be determined at regional/local level.
There is evidence of reductions in centralised curricular control (for example, Italy, Japan,
Korea and Spain), whereas elsewhere central control has been strengthened (for example,
England, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Wales and parts of the USA). However, in
England, the Netherlands (see above), New Zealand and Wales, the detailed curriculum
specifications which were originally introduced have subsequently been simplified, as
curricula were perceived as being over-prescriptive and over-crowded. In England, this
has followed the setting of specific outcome targets, in terms of the percentage of children
expected to reach a given level in English, mathematics and science.
Figure 6
Australia
Canada
England
France
Germany
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Japan
32
Locus of curricular control
Agency
State/territory Ministers of Education advised by curriculum bodies e.g. the
Queensland Studies Authority (QSA), the Tasmanian Office of Education, the
Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (VCAA). The Curriculum
Corporation serves as a facilitator at Commonwealth level
Provincial Departments or Ministries of Education
The Secretary of State for Education and Skills, acting on the advice of the
Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA)
Ministry of Education, advised by the national curriculum council (Conseil national
des programmes – CNP)
Ministers of Education and Culture in the Länder and the Curriculum Development
Department of the Federal Institute for School and Adult Education
Ministry of Education has overall responsibility. The Centre for Curriculum
Development at the National Institute of Public Education is responsible for
curriculum development
The Minister for Education and Science, on the advice of the National Council for
Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA)
Ministry of Public Instruction (MPI)
Courses of Study are prepared by the Ministry (MEXT) and reviewed by the Central
Council for Education,, an advisory body to MEXT
Agency
The Curriculum Policy Division of the Ministry of Education & Human Resources
Development (MOEHRD), supported by the Korea Institute of Curriculum and
Evaluation (KICE)
The Ministry, supported by the National Institute for Curriculum Development (SLO)
The Ministry of Education controls curriculum development for schools
The Curriculum Planning and Development Division of the Ministry of Education
Ministry of Education and Science and the Departments of Education in the 17
Autonomous Communities. The Centre for Educational Research and
Documentation (CIDE)
Government. National Agency for Education (Skolverket)
No national body. Cantonal Ministries of Education
No national body. States and districts
The National Assembly for Wales (NAfW), acting on the advice of the
Qualifications, Curriculum and Assessment Authority for Wales (ACCAC)
Korea
Netherlands
New Zealand
Singapore
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
USA
Wales
Curriculum bodies
Central governments, through education ministries, retain overall responsibility for school
curricula, but their formulation frequently involves second or third level authorities
(Germany and Spain), advisory bodies (in 12 countries) and consultation with
professionals and the community (Switzerland). There is a trend – through mergers of preexisting agencies – to bring together curriculum development and assessment for the full
age range.
Australia The Curriculum Corporation107 is a national curriculum agency owned by the
Commonwealth, state and territory governments. Its purpose is to facilitate
greater efficiency and effectiveness in curriculum development and
dissemination through sharing knowledge and scarce resources, especially
through the development and publication of materials supporting the
Curriculum Statements and Profiles for Australian schools. The Curriculum
Statements and Profiles may be adapted for local use by the states and
territories.
Queensland: The Queensland Studies Authority108 was formed from the merger
on 1 July 2002 of the Queensland Board of Senior Secondary School Studies
(QBSSSS) for Years 11-12 (age 16−18) and Queensland School Curriculum
Council (QSCC) for Preparatory to Year 10 (age 5−16). The purpose of
syllabuses (curriculum documents) developed by the QSA is to provide a
framework for schools/educational institutions to develop curriculum including
subject content (‘valued learnings’), course structures and assessment
techniques. From a syllabus document, schools develop a curriculum that
meets the needs of the school community.
107
108
See: http://www.curriculum.edu.au/
See: http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au/
33
Tasmania: The Office for Curriculum, Leadership and Learning109 (OCLL) was
formed in January 2003. It determines educational policy relating to publicsector schools and colleges. It recommends curriculum for the pre-school
years and determines curriculum for the compulsory years of schooling for
public-sector schools. The OCLL provides curriculum implementation support
and is in charge of the curriculum consultation and the Essential Learnings
framework.
Victoria: The responsibilities of the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment
Authority110 include the maintenance of the Curriculum and Standards
Framework (CSF) and the conduct of state-wide testing.
England
The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA)111 is a guardian of
standards in education and training. It advises the Department for Education
and Skills (DfES) on the curriculum, assessment and qualifications – in early
years settings, schools, colleges and workplaces – publishes information and
guidance for early years practitioners, teachers and parents; and develops
criteria for qualifications to ensure their quality and consistency, both in
general education and vocational training.
France
The national curriculum council (Conseil national des programmes112 – CNP)
is a consultative body which advises and submits proposals (to the competent
Ministers) on the general concepts of education, important objectives to be
achieved, the adaptation of curricula and subject areas to achieve these
objectives, and their adjustment to developments in knowledge.
Germany The Curriculum Development Department of the Federal (National) Institute
for School and Adult Education is responsible for work on curriculum theory.
The Department consists of a main section (responsible for education and
teaching, educational research and school counselling), six specialised sections
(for the main subjects taught in schools), three coordination sections (for
primary, lower secondary and upper secondary schools respectively) and two
sections which deal with curricula for special schools (Sonderschulen) and
vocational training respectively. Since its creation in 1978, the Institute has
become the central agency for curriculum development activities and
continued/further teacher training.
Ireland
The Department of Education and Science113 (DES) oversees the
implementation of the curriculum through its Inspectorate. The National
Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) advises the Department on
curriculum development and review.
Japan
The curriculum is developed by the Ministry. In 2001 the Curriculum Council
was integrated into the Central Council for Education as a sub-committee.
109
See: http://www.education.tas.gov.au/ocll/
See: http://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/
111
See: http://www.qca.org.uk
112
See: http://www.education.gouv.fr/syst/cnp/histo.htm
113
See: http://www.education.ie/home/home.jsp?category=10917&language=EN
110
34
Since that time, the Courses of Study are reviewed by the Central Council for
Education
Korea
The national curriculum is, in principle, developed and implemented by the
Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development. In practice,
however, curriculum development research work is often conducted by
government-funded educational research institutes or, in some cases, by special
committees of academics and specialists who develop general frameworks or
curricula for specific subjects. The Korean curriculum is being developed into
a localised and school-based, child-centred curriculum, emphasising the
individual needs, interests and abilities of pupils. In 1998 the Korea Institute
of Curriculum and Evaluation114 (KICE) was set up to take over the research
involved in curriculum development and the assessment of pupils.
The Netherlands In formulating the national curriculum guidelines, the Minister of
Education, Culture and Science is required to consult the Education Council (a
permanent advisory board), and the Consultative Committee for Primary and
Secondary Education (POVO), which comprises representatives of the
competent authorities, headteachers, teachers, children and parents. The
National Institute for Curriculum Development (SLO) is funded by the
Government to give independent, professional advice on, and support for,
curriculum development and implementation. The end-users of SLO curricula
play an important role and a curriculum is only developed after the ‘field
advisory groups’ have issued their recommendations. These field advisory
groups include teachers from the various regions and educational phases, who
are sufficiently familiar with education practices to be able to identify needs.
Singapore Teachers, principals, lecturers from tertiary institutions, teacher trainers,
officers from the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate
(UCLES) in the UK and officers from the Singapore Ministry of Education,
such as curriculum specialists, inspectors, and examination officers, are
consulted on the decisions concerning the curriculum. Where relevant, people
in industry and business, religious organisations and politicians are also
consulted. The Ministry of Education115 determines the structure and national
goals for education.
Spain
114
115
116
The responsibilities of the State (central) Higher Inspection Service include
ensuring that curricula, textbooks and teaching materials are suitably adapted
to the core curriculum, and ensuring that the curriculum is taught in accordance
with state regulations on basic compulsory subjects. The Centre for
Educational research and Documentation 116 (CIDE), a body set up by the
Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport (MEC), assists in the development,
drawing up and dissemination of curriculum materials and in the preparation of
guidance materials for teachers.
See: http://www.kice.re.kr/english00/
See: http://www1.moe.edu.sg/
See: http://www.mec.es/cide/
35
Sweden
The Government and Parliament set out the foundation values, goals (aims to
be pursued and attainment targets to be achieved), tasks and guidelines for
compulsory education. The National Agency for Education (Skolverket117)
develops binding regulations which clarify what all children should learn in
terms of basic and relatively unchanging knowledge (subject syllabuses).
Syllabuses do not specify school organisation or teaching methods, but they do
determine the content of teaching and consequently define the conditions
governing teachers’ choice of methods and materials.
Switzerland Some cantons have an Education Council. In every canton, teachers have the
right – legally and in practice – to be consulted and, in particular in the
German-speaking cantons, to participate directly in the Education Council and
the local school authorities. Despite the high costs of curriculum development,
there has been formal coordination across the cantons.
USA
A National Council for Educational Standards and Testing was established
during the previous President Bush’s term of office, to explore the possibility
of creating a national curriculum and a national system of assessment. The
American Association of School Administrators118 (AASA) has a National
Curriculum Audit Center, which provides teams of external and independent
‘auditors’ to support school districts. Curricula are influenced by the
(independent) Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development119
(ASCD), through lobbying, materials and staff development, by regional
educational laboratories, through guidance, materials and consultants and by
research and development centres which are usually connected with
universities.
Wales
The Qualifications, Curriculum and Assessment Authority for Wales120
(ACCAC) is the National Assembly for Wales’ principal advisory body on all
matters affecting the school curriculum, examinations, assessment and
vocational qualifications, and is charged with keeping all developments in
these matters under review. ACCAC also advises on appropriate programmes
of research and development and, as part of its remit, commissions Welsh and
bilingual classroom materials.
c)
Review and implementation
Curriculum review
Figure 7 outlines the prescribed cycles and the tendencies concerning implementation of
changes.
117
118
119
120
36
See: http://www.skolverket.se/english/index.shtml
See: http://aasa.org/
See: http://ascd.org/
See: http://www.accac.org.uk/english.html
Figure 7
Curricular review and implementation
Cycle of review
No set period. Ten-yearly outline agreements serve as
a basis for State adaptations
Continuous
Canada
Continuous
England
No set period
France
No set period
Germany
No set period
Hungary
Continuous
Ireland
Three years
Italy
Ten years
Japan
Five to ten years
Korea
Five years
Netherlands
No set period
New Zealand
Six years with mid-term review
Singapore
Regular
Spain
No set period
Sweden
No set period – average ten years
Switzerland
Continuous
USA
Continuous
Wales
Note: Blank cells indicate a lack of specific information, not an absence of policy.
Australia
Implementation
Varies
All classes
Phased
Phased
Phased
Phased
Phased
All classes
Phased
Phased
Phased
All classes
In Queensland (Australia), the curriculum (syllabuses) remains current for five years and is
evaluated/reviewed over a period of three years. Revisions are undertaken in response to
the dynamic nature of the education system and to keep pace with the changing needs of
children and society. Subject content and the approach to assessment may change over
time, for example, to reflect the changing use of technology. However, while the Minister
for Education may direct the Queensland Studies Authority to develop a syllabus, the
direction may not be about the content of a syllabus or the approval of a syllabus. The
New Basics Project121, which entails a fundamental shift in curriculum organisers,
pedagogies and assessment, is undergoing a four-year trial in 20 school clusters.
In Canada, England, Ireland, Singapore, the USA and Wales, curriculum review generally
aims to be cyclical/continuous to ensure curricula remain relevant. In Ireland, for example,
the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment122 (NCCA) states that it is attempting
to establish the principle of aspects of the curriculum coming under review over time, with
curriculum review in general being viewed as a cycle, rather than an event. Curriculum
review in the USA is influenced by the regular reviews and reauthorisations of the main
federal Education Act – the Elementary and Secondary Education Act.
121
122
See: http://education.qld.gov.au/corporate/newbasics/html/library.html
See: http://www.ncca.ie/whoare.htm
37
Hungary established a national curriculum in 1989, which was revised in 1995. The
Education Act requires a review every three years, to strengthen the positive features of
previous curricula, address problems and contradictions and reflect changes, such as the
new meaning and place of knowledge in a technological society.
In Italy, the Ministry of Public Education123 (MPI) aims to review the national framework
curricula every three years to ensure that they remain current. The previous Government’s
move towards decentralised curriculum control was based on the idea that curriculum
should respect and reflect regional and local values and traditions. Schools currently have
autonomy to adapt 15 per cent of the curriculum to their specific circumstances. However,
the new Government has begun to tighten curricular control (February 2003).
In Singapore, the curriculum planning and review process has been reduced from an eight
to 10-year cycle, to a six-year cycle incorporating a mid-term review at the end of the third
year. This aims to ensure that the curriculum is responsive and future-oriented, remains
relevant in the context of Singapore’s economy and meets the needs, abilities and interests
of children.
Although the attainment targets for primary level education in the Netherlands are
reviewed in accordance with a five-year cycle, individual schools are expected to review
the curriculum they provide on a continuous basis.
In Spain, although there are no established cycles for curriculum review, it is expected that,
as the regional Autonomous Communities develop the curriculum at regional level, and
individual educational establishments adapt the regional curriculum to their specific
requirements, changes to/review of local curricula will happen on a more regular basis.
In Japan, since the mid 1950s there has been a centrally-established curriculum review
cycle of around ten years, involving research and evaluation. Curriculum revision in the
early 1990s was based on the assumption that education comprises not only the acquisition
of knowledge and skills, but also thinking, judgement and expressive skills, desire and
ability to learn further, and lifelong learning. Accordingly, the April 2002 curriculum aims
to help children acquire a broad range of abilities to survive in times of rapid change.
123
38
See: http://www.istruzione.it/
In Korea, the review cycle varies from five to ten years and is usually triggered by
changing demands on the education system. The curriculum is reviewed with increasing
frequency, providing an outline for developing what is perceived as ‘an educated person’.
In other countries, such as Australia, France, Germany, Hungary, New Zealand, Sweden
and Switzerland, there is no standard curriculum review cycle. The impetus for review is
often as a result of a change of government or government policy, or of a change in
ideology, education practice or other educational or social change.
Implementation of revised curricula
Implementation of revised curricula is gradual in some countries such as France, Hungary,
Ireland, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, Spain and Sweden. In others, including England and
Wales, it is introduced across all year groups of primary education at the same time.
Similarly, in the Netherlands, when revised primary level attainment targets are introduced
every five years (September 1993, 1998 and 2003), these are introduced across all primary
year groups at the same time.
Curricular changes have also affected emphasis and content. For example, the focus on
literacy and numeracy, especially following the results of the Third International
Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS, see 3.4d below), led to a ‘demotion’ of the noncore subjects in England, evident in, for example, the temporary suspension of aspects of
the non-core curriculum in the primary phase during the period 1998-2000. In Singapore,
the introduction of new teaching methods was accompanied by a reduction in curriculum
content, to enable teachers to manage the transition.
Support for implementation
The implementation of new curricula has been supported in a variety of ways, of which the
following are only examples.
♦
124
125
In recognition of research findings on the effective implementation of change,124
there is increasing involvement of stakeholders in the review of current provision and
the formulation and piloting of change.125 Wide-scale consultation (including by
electronic means) takes place on government proposals prior to their incorporation
For example, see: FULLAN, MICHAEL G. (1982). The Meaning of Educational Change. New York;
London: Teachers College Press. FULLAN, MICHAEL G. (1992). Successful School Improvement: the
Implementation Perspective and Beyond. Buckingham: Open University Press. FULLAN, MICHAEL G.
(1993). Change Forces: Probing the Depths of Educational Reform. London: Falmer Press.
For example, see Tasmania, Australia, http://www.doe.tased.edu.au/ooe/curriculumconsultation/
39
into legislation. The recent New Zealand Curriculum Stocktake126 (a formal
reflection on the revised curriculum) provides an example of how the perspectives of
teachers127, neighbouring countries128 and international ‘outsiders’129 were collected
and reported.
♦
Reductions in the subject content (Japan and Singapore), or changes in the emphasis
on subjects (England and Wales), are intended to release pressure on teachers while
they adapt to new requirements.
♦
Guidance on new requirements is provided through documentation and staff training
(England130, Ireland131, the Netherlands, New Zealand132 and Wales).
♦
♦
♦
♦
d)
Guidelines are provided for developers of curriculum materials (New Zealand133 and
Japan) and in some cases there is a delay before implementation (Japan) to provide
time for learning materials to be developed.
Practical classroom support is provided in the form of schemes of work and lesson
activities (England134 and the Netherlands135) and other resources. (See also Section
3.6.)
Several agencies support assessment through guidance (Tasmania136 (Australia) and
England137), information and sample test items (England138 and New Zealand) and
exemplars of children’s work (England139 and Ireland) to help teachers develop a
sense of what the desired outcomes ‘look like’.
Curriculum innovations and changes are monitored and evaluated (England140,
Ireland, Japan and New Zealand141) often involving extensive surveys of the views of
a wide range of stakeholders.
Formulation
Primary curricula generally aim to achieve a balance between the core essential skills
which children need as the basis for future learning and access to a broad and balanced
126
See: http://www.tki.org.nz/r/stocktake/index_e.php
See: http://www.minedu.govt.nz/index.cfm?layout=document&documentid=7491&data=l
128
See: http://www.minedu.govt.nz/index.cfm?layout=document&documentid=7473&data=l
129
See: http://www.minedu.govt.nz/index.cfm?layout=document&documentid=7258&data=l
130
See: http://www.nc.uk.net/home.html
131
See: http://www.ncca.ie/curr.htm
132
See: http://www.minedu.govt.nz/index.cfm?layout=document&documentid=3561&indexid=1004&
indexparentid=1072
133
See: http://www.minedu.govt.nz/web/downloadable/dl6813_v1/Guide(Mar02).pdf
134
See: http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes
135
Teaching guidelines provide a general framework for designing and organising learning and development
processes in a given subject area in the medium- to long-term. They include the following elements,
presented in relation to each other: the goals to be achieved and their sequence; appropriate subject
matter; the underlying approach to the subject; and educational and organisational pointers for achieving
these goals.
136
See: http://www.doe.tased.edu.au/ooe/curriculumconsultation/publications/learnteachassess.pdf
137
See: http://www.qca.org.uk/ca/5-14/afl/
138
See: http://www.qca.org.uk/ca/tests/
139
See: http://www.ncaction.org.uk/
140
See: http://www.qca.org.uk/ca/5-14/monitoring.asp
141
See: http://www.tki.org.nz/r/stocktake/index_e.php
127
40
curriculum. Ontario, Canada, for example, puts a strong emphasis on reading, writing and
mathematics, whilst appreciating that knowledge of Canadian and world history,
geography, civics and economics, the arts, and health issues and physical education is
essential to a well-rounded education. Similarly in Japan, the curriculum for primary
phase children broadens out beyond the key subjects of Japanese language, arithmetic, art,
music, physical education and moral education from Year 3 (age eight) onwards. The new
curriculum (2002) has introduced a new integrated subject area (General Studies) from
Year 3, which aims to allow child-centred project-type work focusing on non-traditional
topics such as society, media studies, information technology or the environment, to take
place.
In New Zealand, the literacy and numeracy strategies (see 3.3e below) require schools
providing the early years of compulsory education to focus on achievement in literacy and
numeracy, whilst still offering a broad curriculum. Children in Primary 5 and Primary 6 in
Singapore (aged 10 to 12 years) follow a slightly broader curriculum from that of Primary
1 to Primary 4 (aged 6/7 to 10 years). This trend looks set to be echoed in Spain, where
proposals which could take effect from the 2004-2005 school year, would lead to greater
emphasis on language, mathematics and the promotion of reading in the early years of
primary education.
Some countries (England, Sweden and Wales) formalise this emphasis by specifying
certain subjects (English, mathematics and science in England; Swedish, English and
mathematics in Sweden) as key or core subjects and others as foundation or broader
subjects. In others, for example Ireland, all subjects are explicitly given equal standing.
One of the most important changes brought about by the revised 2002 curriculum in France
is an increased emphasis on literacy, as teachers are expected to ensure that basic literacy
activities (reading, writing and speaking) are covered across all subject areas. This
includes the requirement to devote two-and-a-half hours daily across the whole curriculum
to reading and writing activities for children in the final pre-school year (aged 5−6 years)
and the first two years of elementary school (aged 6-8 years). In the remaining three years
of elementary school (aged 8−11 years), children are expected to spend two hours daily on
reading and writing skills. This concentration on literacy skills aims to provide children
with a good grounding and prevent future problems.
The benefits of holistic learning and the creation of links between subjects to promote the
transfer of learning are reflected in curricula which are explicitly formulated as areas,
rather than by subjects, for example, in Australia, Hungary, the Netherlands, New Zealand
and Singapore.
41
In Hungary, curriculum review has restructured requirements, abolished subject-based
learning and encouraged cross-curricular work. The primary curriculum in Singapore is
delivered through subjects in various areas of learning such as languages, mathematics and
science, citizenship education, aesthetics, and life skills and well-being.
The recent review of the 1985 primary curriculum in the Netherlands identified a problem
of overload. As a result, the curriculum content is to be reduced and structured in to three
blocks:
♦
mathematics, Dutch language and English, for which there will be a detailed set of
centrally steered core objectives and output standards (assessed through The National
Institute for Educational Measurement142 (CITO)
♦
orientation of mankind, nature and the world (which includes geography, history,
technology and science), for which there will be centrally steered global core
objectives, as a way of describing content
♦
art, music and PE – for which there will be a few very global objectives, with major
discretion left to schools.
Schools will be required to devise a curriculum around these blocks. Although there are no
prescribed time allocations for subjects or learning areas, textbooks and tradition will tend
to steer school choices.
Figure 8 summarises the curriculum formulation and requirements, as indicated in the
INCA Archive.
Figure 8
Curriculum formulation and requirements
Curriculum organisers
Australia
Canada
142
42
Eight Key Learning Areas
Six cross-curricular areas
New essential learnings
(Tasmania) New Basics
(Queensland)
Subjects and some ‘clusters’
See: http://www.cito.nl/
Statutory time
allocations
Non-statutory
guidelines in
some states
Learning
outcomes
Yes
(national)
Guidelines in
some provinces
only
Ontario
Specific strategies
Literacy and numeracy
for the whole primary
phase
Programmes for literacy
and numeracy/
mathematics education,
which target the early
years of primary
education
Curriculum organisers
England
France
Germany
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Korea
Netherlands
New
Zealand
Three core and seven
foundation subjects; key
skills, cross-curricular themes
and religious education
Subjects and clusters. From
age 8−11, some separate
subjects. Integrated arts;
science technology and maths;
humanities
Some separate subjects;
integration of science, social
sciences and technology
Ten cultural domains
Seven areas (of equal status),
some of which are subdivided. Strong emphasis on
integration.
Multi-disciplinary for Years 1
and 2 (ages 6−8); by subjects
Years 3−6 (ages 8+ to 12)
Subjects, increase in range
from Year 3 (age 8+)
Integrated clusters in early
years; subjects from Year 3
(age 8+)
Three-block framework for
subjects will be introduced in
August 2003, interdisciplinary
approach recommended
Seven essential learning areas
and eight groups of essential
skills
Statutory time
allocations
Non-statutory
guidelines
Learning
outcomes
Yes
Statutory
allocations
Specific strategies
Literacy and numeracy
for the whole primary
phase
Since 2002, emphasis on
literacy across the
curriculum and
promotion of modern
foreign languages
throughout primary
Guidelines by
percentages
Non-statutory
guidelines
Formal literacy and
numeracy strategy for the
whole primary phase.
Statutory
minima
Statutory
allocations
Statutory
allocations
Statutory
minima
Yes
No allocations
Yes
Singapore
In subjects, with some
integration. Eight core skills
and values
Statutory
allocations
Spain
Subjects with some
integration.
Sweden
Subjects
Statutory
allocations for
55−65 per cent
of the timetable
Statutory
allocations
Switzerland
Discretionary, except for
mathematics, foreign
languages and some aspects
of mother tongue Some
cantons have adopted
common syllabuses
Local variation but common
practice
Programmes for literacy,
numeracy/ mathematics
education specifically
target early primary
Programmes for literacy,
numeracy/mathematics
specifically target the
early primary years
Formal literacy strategy.
Non-statutory
guidelines in
some states
Three to four core and seven
Non-statutory
Yes
Wales
to eight foundation subjects
guidelines
Note: Blank cells indicate a lack of specific information, not an absence of policy.
USA
43
Time allocation
In England, Hungary, Ireland, the USA and Wales, and in some regions of Australia and
Canada, guidance/recommendations are provided to assist teachers in planning time
allocations for the various subjects of the curriculum at primary level. In Australia,
England, Ireland, the USA and Wales, such guidance is not a statutory requirement.
In Hungary and in Wisconsin (USA), the guidelines are expressed in terms of approximate
percentages, which schools are expected to follow. The Hungarian National Core
Curriculum (NCC) does not contain strict timetables but provides an approximate
distribution, on the understanding that schools will transform cultural domains into specific
teaching subjects in different ways and determine the time allocations accordingly. In
Spain, schools must ensure that the compulsory minimum core curriculum accounts for 65
per cent of curriculum time; the remaining 35 per cent is locally determined. In
Autonomous Communities with a second official language, the corresponding proportions
are 55 per cent and 45 per cent, including 10 per cent for the regional language or other
subjects, at the Autonomous Community’s discretion.
In France, Japan, Korea, Singapore and Sweden, statutory time allocations exist, although
increasing discretion is built in to such statutory frameworks for individual
schools/teachers. In Japan, the revised 2002 curriculum reduced the content by about 30
per cent and the minimum number of teaching hours by around seven per cent – in line
with the new courses of study and the five-day school week.
There is a statutory minimum number of overall teaching hours in Italy and the
Netherlands.143 The allocation of this time to individual subjects or areas is, however, left
to the discretion of teachers or schools.
In some provinces of Canada, and in Germany and New Zealand, time allocation is left
entirely to the discretion of individual schools or teachers.
Specific strategies or initiatives are often accompanied by time allocation guidance
(Australia, England and France). In Tasmania (Australia), for example, a numeracy policy
launched in August 1998 prescribed a minimum of 45 minutes daily dedicated to the
teaching and learning of mathematics and numeracy in classes from Preparatory to Year 6
(age 5−12 years). A literacy initiative, launched in March 1998, had already prescribed a
minimum of one hour per day for the teaching and learning of literacy in primary schools.
143
44
The Netherlands: 3,520 hours for Years 1−4 (age 4−8) and at least 4,000 hours for Years 5−8 (age 9−12).
In France, the revised 2002 primary level curriculum specifies that six- to eight-year-olds
(and five-year-olds in pre-compulsory education) should spend at least two-and-a-half
hours daily on reading and writing activities (across all subject areas). Similarly, pupils
aged 8 to 11 must spend two hours each day on such activities.
In Switzerland, timetables are generally organised along subject lines. Project work and
larger blocks of learning are used where circumstances allow. The flexibility to change the
timetable depends on the number of teachers involved with a single class. In the first three
years of compulsory education (age 6−9 years), teachers usually have more flexibility to
make use of larger blocks of learning.
Specific strategies
As mentioned above, literacy strategies or programmes are common in primary level
education. In some countries these programmes extend to early years education.
Australia, Canada, England, France, Ireland, New Zealand, Singapore and Spain have a
formal strategy, sometimes prescribing a daily recommended amount of time to be spent
on language work. In Canada, New Zealand and Singapore, these programmes specifically
target the early years of primary education, but elsewhere, the whole primary phase is
involved.
Australia, Canada, England, New Zealand and Singapore have similar programmes for
numeracy/mathematics education.
Learning outcomes
Many curricula are now formulated in terms of learning outcomes or attainment targets
(Australia, some Canadian provinces, England, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Wales).
In Australia, England and the province of Ontario in Canada, strategies such as the literacy
and numeracy initiatives mentioned above are closely linked to target setting initiatives for
the performance of children in specific school years.
e)
Content
There is a high degree of commonality across the INCA countries in the subjects studied at
primary level. These include the national, regional and/or mother tongue; mathematics;
science; art and music; physical education/sport; and some form of humanities (social
studies/civics, history, geography). These subjects are listed in Annex 3. However, the
summary disguises the variations in organisation and weighting. The Figures included in
45
this section seek to clarify these differences in terms of the presentation of the different
areas: languages and literacy (Figure 9), mathematics, sciences and technologies (Figure
10), humanities, religious and moral education and citizenship (Figure 11), and the arts,
physical, personal, social and health education (Figure 12).
Figure 9
Teaching of languages and literacy
Australia
National language(s) and/or mother tongue
English
Canada
England
English (French in some provinces)
English (literacy)
France
French (includes literature from age 8)
Regional language in some areas
Germany
Hungary
German
Hungarian or Mother tongue (up to 13
recognised) language and literature
Language (Irish (Gaeilge)/English)
Italian
Japanese language and literature
Korean language
Dutch (compulsory Frisian in Friesland)
Languages (English, Maori)
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Korea
Netherlands
New
Zealand
Singapore
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
USA
English and mother tongue (Mandarin
Chinese, Malay or Tamil)
Castilian (and regional) language and
literature
Swedish/Swedish as a foreign language for
pupils from the Sami population
French/German/Italian/Rhaeto-Romanic
Other languages offered
Languages other than English (LOTE), not
necessarily from Year 1
Not compulsory at primary level, but
encouraged from key stage 2 (age 8)
Foreign languages (formerly compulsory
for age 10−11 only; from 2002,
compulsory throughout primary)
Modern foreign language from Year 3
Modern foreign language
Modern foreign language from Year 2/3
English from Year 3
English from later years at least
Optional foreign languages (separate
curriculum guidelines)
Foreign languages from Year 3. Proposals
to make this compulsory from age 6.
English; a second foreign language
(schools decide when to introduce this)
French/German/Italian/Rhaeto-Romanic
English
Language arts (English grammar, reading
and writing)
Social sciences also includes literature
English
Welsh (as a first or second language)
Pilot projects for the teaching of modern
foreign languages for 7- to 11-year-olds
will be introduced from 2003-4.
Note: Blank cells indicate a lack of specific information, not an absence of policy.
Wales
National language(s) and mother tongue
Canada, France, Hungary, Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Singapore, Spain,
Sweden and Wales make express provision for children to study regional or minority
languages. At primary level, this may be through the offering of regional/minority
languages as optional subjects, as is the case in Canada and France, or as extracurricular/extended day subjects as in the Netherlands. In Hungary, Ireland, New Zealand,
Singapore, Spain and Wales, minority languages take on a more significant role. In
46
Hungary, for example, all 13 minorities have the right to education in their mother tongue.
Indeed, the language of instruction for language and literature, history, geography and
culture must be the mother tongue but, at the same time, minority children must have the
opportunity to become acquainted with the Hungarian language and culture. Similarly,
children who do not belong to the given minority should have the opportunity of
acquainting themselves with the culture of the local minority. In Ireland and Wales,
Gaeilge (Irish) and Welsh-speaking schools respectively are in existence; and in New
Zealand the education system is bilingual throughout. Maori language has to be provided
to all children/parents who request it. Demand may therefore mean that this subject is
offered from the beginning of primary education. There are Maori schools and all
curriculum statements are available in both English and Maori.
Additionally, in Singapore and Hungary, primary school children generally receive moral,
values and/or cultural education in the mother tongue, as it is generally accepted that such
subjects are most appropriately taught and understood in the mother tongue.
Medium of instruction
In Wales and Ireland, provision is made for (part of) the curriculum to be taught through
the medium of Welsh and Gaeilge respectively. In other schools, children learn these
languages but receive most of their education through the medium of English. In Sweden
and Hungary, children with Swedish/Hungarian as a second language are taught alongside
mother tongue speakers. In Singapore, the common language is English and children learn
their mother tongue (Mandarin Chinese, Malay or Tamil) as a second core subject.
Foreign languages
In 10 countries,144 the study of a foreign language (other than the first alternative national
or regional language referred to above) is compulsory for children in primary education,
typically from around the age of nine, although schools may offer this as an optional
subject for younger children. Foreign languages are also offered, but not mandatory, in
England, New Zealand and Wales,
Australia A foreign language is part of the languages other than English (LOTE) key
learning area, although the languages chosen and the extent of their teaching
throughout the primary phase vary between states.
144
Australia, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Korea, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and some parts of
Switzerland.
47
England
Foreign languages are not compulsory during the primary phase, although there
are non-statutory guidelines to help those schools who choose to offer it as part
of the curriculum. The Government’s (foreign) languages strategy intends that
‘Primary children at Key Stage 2 [age 7−11] should have an entitlement to
high quality teaching and learning that instils enthusiasm in learning
languages, is based on a flexible experience which makes the most of ICT and
sets a foundation for future learning and success’ (Department for Education
and Skills, 2002, page 9). 145
France
A foreign or regional language is now offered to children at primary level
(mostly from age eight at the moment). This is a relatively recent introduction.
Germany Some Länder, such as Baden-Württemberg, have begun to introduce foreign
language teaching to children in Year 1 (age six). Additional teachers are
employed and the Land aims to offer modern languages education to Year 1
children in its 2,500 primary schools from 2004. Traditionally, the optional
study of foreign languages in Germany has begun in Year 3 (age 8), but a
recent national agreement will introduce compulsory foreign language study
from Year 3 in all Länder from September 2006. This move has been
encouraged by the German Chancellor, Gerhard Schroeder, who has advocated
that English should be taught as an obligatory second language from the first
years of school. Where modern foreign languages are taught, English is the
most common, followed by French.
Italy
A foreign language is usually offered from Year 2 or 3 (from age 7 or 8).
Korea
Recent changes to the compulsory curriculum in Korea mean that the study of
a foreign language is compulsory from the start of Year 3 (nine-year-olds).
The Netherlands English is a compulsory subject at primary level, at least in the final two
years (age 10−12).
New Zealand A language other than English or Maori is increasingly offered to children
aged 10 onwards, although this is not mandatory. The recent Curriculum
Stocktake146 (formal reflection on the revised curriculum) has highlighted the
need to balance two competing forces, namely, the desire for a New Zealand
which includes people with understanding of languages other than their own,
and the tendency within (what schools perceive as) an overcrowded and
unattainable curriculum, to push aside non-compulsory foreign and
international languages.
Spain
145
146
48
Reform proposals currently before the Spanish Parliament look set to introduce
the study of a compulsory foreign language from the age of six starting in the
2004-05 school year. Some schools currently offer a foreign language option
DEPARTMENT FOR EDUCATION AND SKILLS. (2002). Languages for All Languages for Life. A
Strategy for England. London: DfES.
See: http://www.tki.org.nz/r/stocktake/index_e.php
to children from the age of three onwards, and foreign language study is
compulsory from age eight.
Sweden
English is mandatory as the first compulsory foreign language. Schools decide
when instruction begins but all require the same level of knowledge by Year 5
(age 11 to 12). In most areas, the teaching of English commences in Year 3 or
4, although by 1999, around one third of children had begun studying English
in Year 1 (age 7).
Switzerland Children have traditionally learned one of the country’s four national
languages (French, German, Italian and Rhaeto-Romanic [Romansch]) as the
first compulsory foreign language. Almost all primary age children learn a
second national language for one to three years, and the introduction of a
second foreign language (English) is encouraged, with schools in several
cantons voluntarily participating in trials of early English learning. Lengthy
discussions between the cantons regarding a possible agreement on first foreign
language study throughout Switzerland have not yet reached a decision.
Parents stress the economic and social benefits of English, but others are
concerned about the need to maintain and strengthen internal cohesion between
the different language communities within Switzerland. The canton of Zürich
has recently decided that, from the 2003 school year, all children from Year 2
(age eight onwards) will begin to learn English as the first compulsory foreign
language. Previously, the child’s first foreign language was French and study
began in Year 4 (age 10+). Zürich’s government believes that the early study
of English will benefit children later in the job market. All primary school
teachers have had language training and several schools are piloting the
teaching of some subjects (such as geography, history, mathematics and sport)
through the medium of a foreign language. Specialists are developing curricula
and textbooks for teaching English at primary school which have, indirectly,
influenced the curriculum and language teaching methodology. There is
limited evaluation of the outcomes of foreign language teaching but the
teacher’s competence in the foreign language appears to be a crucial factor for
success.
49
Figure 10 Teaching of mathematics, sciences and technologies
Mathematics
Sciences
Technology
Australia
Mathematics
Science
Technology
Canada
Mathematics
England
Mathematics
General
science/technology
Science
General
science/technology
Design and technology
France
Mathematics
Germany
Mathematics
Hungary
Mathematics
‘Discovering the world’
includes technology
From age eight
Integrated science
(Science, technology
and mathematics)
Sachunterricht includes
technology (along with
economics, social
studies, history,
geography, and science)
Life management and
practical studies
(technology, home
economics, career
orientation)
Ireland
Mathematics
Italy
Japan
Mathematics
Mathematics
‘Discovering the world’
includes sciences
From age eight Integrated
science (Science,
technology and
mathematics)
Sachunterricht includes
science (along with
economics, social studies,
history, geography, and
technology)
Man and nature (natural
studies, physics,
chemistry, biology, health
studies). Our earth and
environment
SESE: Social,
environmental and
scientific education
Science
Science (from Year 3)
Korea
Mathematics
Years 1-2 Intelligent life
Years 3-6 Science
Netherlands
Arithmetic and
mathematics
New Zealand
Singapore
Mathematics
Mathematics
‘Orientation on mankind
and the world’ includes
environment and nature
study
Science
Science from Year 3
Practical arts
(technology and home
economics)
‘Orientation on
mankind and the world’
includes technology
Spain
Mathematics
Sweden
Mathematics
Switzerland
USA
Wales
Mathematics
Mathematics
Mathematics
Knowledge of the natural,
social and cultural
environment
Sciences (biology,
physics, chemistry,
technology)
Discretionary
Science
Science
Sachunterricht includes
technology (along with
economics, social studies,
history, geography, and
science)
Informatics (computing
studies and library use)
ICT is intended to be used
in all subjects
Home economics and
general studies
Included in Home
Economics and in
Integrated Studies
In 2001, computer
education became
compulsory
Computers are increasingly
used, but schools determine
how
Technology
Information literacy skills
included in English. A
programme for crosscurricular use of ICT
Sciences include
technology
‘Practical arts subjects’
includes crafts (textiles,
woodwork and
metalwork)
Discretionary
Technology includes
design
Note: Blank cells indicate a lack of specific information, not an absence of policy.
50
ICT (Information and
communications
technology)
Increasing emphasis in
most curricula, usually
linked to other subjects
A separate subject in some
provinces
A separate subject and
across the curriculum
ICT is intended to be used
as a tool in the teaching and
learning of all subjects
Discretionary
Included in Technology
Mathematics
All primary level curricula feature mathematics or numeracy as a separate subject,147
except in France, where it is taught as part of science in upper primary (from age eight).
Numeracy has received special attention in many countries, particularly after the
publication of the findings of the Third International Mathematics and Science Study148
(TIMSS).
Science education
At primary level, the study of science usually incorporates aspects of biology, physics,
chemistry and sometimes astronomy and geology. Sweden is the exception to this general
rule, and the subjects are generally taught separately. In some countries, technology is
grouped with science. Science is not part of the core curriculum in the Netherlands or
France.
Technology
The place of technology in the curriculum varies. In some countries, it is integrated with
science as the application of science; in others it embraces craft and domestic science; in
yet others, it includes information and communications. Only in England and Wales is
design explicitly included.
Information and Communications Technology (ICT)149
In Hungary, computing studies and library use are combined as ‘informatics’. In England,
ICT is taught both as a subject in its own right and through other subjects. In the
Netherlands, whilst computers are increasingly used, their role in the curriculum (for
example, as sources of information, or for text processing) is determined by individual
schools. Elsewhere, in Australia, Canada and New Zealand for example, ICT is not
identified as a separate subject but taught as part of broader technology which may be
linked with mathematics (British Columbia, Canada), or science, or combined with
practical arts. Much of the access to information technology is provided outside the formal
classroom environment as extra-curricular activities. In France and Ireland, ICT is
intended to be used as a tool in the teaching and learning of all subjects across the
curriculum rather than as a subject area in its own right.
147
148
149
RUDDOCK, G. (1998). Mathematics in the School Curriculum: an International Perspective. London:
Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA). Online at: http://www.inca.org.uk/thematic.asp
See: http://timss.bc.edu/
ICT may be variously designated as IT, computer studies or informatics.
51
In some curricula, for example, the province of Alberta (Canada), ICT is a relatively recent
introduction. Elsewhere, such as Victoria (Australia), Korea and Kentucky (USA), recent
curriculum reviews have increased the emphasis given to ICT in the curriculum. The
Seventh National Curriculum in Korea, for example, increases the use and application of
ICT in elementary classrooms. The Ministry of Education and Human Resources
Development encourages teachers and children to use and integrate ICT into the
classroom, and recommends that at least 10 per cent of classroom activity should use
computers. However, not all teachers were trained to do so and the second phase of the
programme has seen considerable investment in establishing an ICT infrastructure to
support the implementation of this objective.
The delivery of primary education in Singapore is supported by an ICT-enriched teaching
and learning environment. Through the ‘IT Masterplan’ for the integration of ICT in
education, schools have been provided with computer hardware and teaching resources.
The aim is for ICT to be infused in the instructional programme to support the learning of
curriculum content. This, in turn, aims to help students to become confident users of ICT
who are able to harness its potential for effective learning.
In Kentucky (USA), the focus of technology education goes beyond its use to enhance,
support and extend learning in specific content areas. Pupils are, for example, expected to
use computers to conduct research, gather and analyse data, and create spreadsheets and
charts.
52
Figure 11 Teaching of humanities, religious and moral education and citizenship
Humanities
Australia
Studies of society and the
environment (SOSE)
Canada
Social studies includes history,
geography
England
History; geography
France
Discovering the world (sciences
technology and history-geography)
From age eight: integrated history
and geography; civics
Sachunterricht (economics, social
studies, history, geography,
science, and technology)
Man and society includes social
studies, economics, human studies,
history
Social, environmental and
scientific education (SESE)
History; geography; social studies
Germany
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Korea
Netherlands
New
Zealand
Singapore
Social studies
Social studies (includes history and
geography)
‘Orientation on mankind and the
world’ includes geography, history
Social sciences
Social studies
Religious education
(RE) (parents may
request exemption)
RE forbidden except
in Upper Rhine,
Lower Rhine and
Moselle
Religious education
Citizenship
‘Discovering Democracy’
from mid primary, since
1999
Social studies may include
civics. Citizenship
education is implicitly part
of the core curriculum
Non-statutory citizenship
guidelines
‘Living together’ (civics)
From age eight: civics
Sachunterricht includes
social studies
Man and society includes
civics
Religious education
Included in SESE
Catholic religion
(Optional)
Moral education
Moral education
Included in social studies
Civics and moral
education (taught in
mother tongue)
Included in social studies
‘We are the first graders’
induction programme
‘Orientation on mankind and
the world’
Included in social sciences
Civics and moral education
From 2001 citizenship is
part of the character
development programme
Included in knowledge of
the natural, social and
cultural environment
Social sciences includes
civics
Catholic religion
(Optional. Children
may do private study)
Social sciences includes
Social sciences
Sweden
geography, history
includes religious
studies
Discretionary
Discretionary
Discretionary
Switzerland
Social sciences includes history,
Social sciences
Social sciences includes
USA
geography, literature
includes ethics and
multiculturalism and
values, religion
contemporary issues
History; geography
RE (parents may
Non-statutory citizenship
Wales
request exemption)
guidelines
Note: Blank cells indicate a lack of specific information, not an absence of policy.
Spain
Knowledge of the natural, social
and cultural environment
Religious and moral
education, ethics
Humanities
Whilst single subjects (for example, history and geography) are taught in a few countries,
the humanities most frequently provide an opportunity for integrated and thematic study.
53
History and geography are elements common to all countries, but this area of study may
include literature, moral/religious education, social studies and even aspects of personal,
social and health education.
Religious education
In the USA, New Zealand and most regions of France, state schools are secular and
religious education is prohibited. Similarly, in Japan and Korea, only private schools
(which otherwise generally follow the compulsory curriculum for publicly-funded
schools), may offer religious education. In New Zealand, religious denominations which
run their own, formerly private, schools and have integrated into the state sector – so-called
‘integrated schools’150, and state-subsidised Roman Catholic schools in Australia, are
permitted to provide religious instruction.
In other countries, including Australia, Canada and the Netherlands, local school boards
may add religious or ethical instruction to the elementary school curriculum, but children
must be able to choose to withdraw from such lessons and be provided with suitable
alternative studies.
In England, Germany, Ireland,151 Italy, Spain and Wales, religious education is a statutory
element of the school curriculum. Although schools must provide religious education,
individual children (or their parents) may seek exemption, in which case children
undertake an alternative programme or private study. The Italian Government has recently
approved financial support for private (Catholic) schools, and the Minister is stressing
Roman Catholic religious values, for example, by requiring state schools to display the
crucifix and to celebrate Roman Catholic feast days.
Countries which proscribe religious education may consider values and issues in moral
education or ethics classes (Japan and Korea), or across the curriculum (France and New
Zealand). In Singapore, character education (values education) aims to ensure the holistic
education of the child with an emphasis on strengthening the instincts for the community
and the nation. One approach has been direct instruction through relevant subjects and
programmes, such as the ‘National Education’ programme or through social studies and
civic and moral education (CME). A second approach cuts across the curriculum. For
example, primary school children develop a concern for living things, and an awareness of
150
151
54
See: http://www.minedu.govt.nz/index.cfm?layout=document&documentid=6169&indexid=1072&
indexparentid=1000&goto=00-03#P143_4737
The curriculum for religious education is the responsibility of church boards, not the National Council for
Curriculum and Assessment.
their responsibility for the quality of the environment (through science), endurance,
sportsmanship and fair play (through physical education, sports and games), and
appreciation for local and ethnic art and music and a sense of pride in their national and
cultural heritage (through the arts). Character education is also a feature of many curricula
in the USA.
Citizenship education
Civics education has been a long-established part of the humanities or social studies
curricula in many countries, such as Canada, France and the Netherlands. However, there
has been a renewed interest in this area, which has led to the recent introduction of specific
(or revised) citizenship courses in Australia, England, Ireland, Singapore and Wales.152
This interest may be due to internal influences (such as a decline in voting numbers) or
external factors (for example, the International Association for the Evaluation of
Educational Achievement153 – IEA – study into citizenship 154).
In Australia, the Commonwealth Government initiative, ‘Discovering Democracy’
155
,
made the study of citizenship compulsory for all children from the mid-primary to upper
secondary years (age 9−18). Since 1999, children have begun to learn about democracy
and citizenship and are examined each year to test their knowledge of the history and
workings of government and the nation’s democratic foundations. They study topics such
as the history of the Australian constitution, the role of parliament, cabinet and the courts,
freedom of speech, religion, the role and responsibility of the governor general and the
history of indigenous Australians.
Citizenship education is implicitly part of the core curriculum for elementary and
secondary school children in each of Canada’s ten provinces and three territories. It
usually takes in such themes as human rights, diversity and inclusion, civic literacy and
active participation. It also acknowledges the complexities of the world’s rapidly changing
and interconnected communities. On the practical level, classes tend to emphasise
participatory forms of learning and seek to actively engage young people in real public
issues and meaningful civic engagement.
152
153
154
155
See KERR, D. (1999). Citizenship Education: an International Comparison. London: Qualifications and
Curriculum Authority (QCA). Online at: http://www.inca.org.uk/thematic.asp
See: http://www.iea.nl/
TORNEY-PURTA, J., LEHMANN, R., OSWALD, H. and SCHULZ, W. (2001). Citizenship and
Education in Twenty-Eight Countries: Civic Knowledge and Engagement at Age Fourteen. Amsterdam:
International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA).
See: http://www.curriculum.edu.au/democracy/aboutdd.htm#top
55
England has recently introduced a broad programme of citizenship and personal, social and
health education to primary schools. A non-statutory national framework has been
provided which sets out what children might be expected to know and be able to do, but
leaves details of content and delivery to schools. The aim is for seven-year-olds to know
the difference between right and wrong; consider simple social and moral dilemmas; learn
to share and cooperate; be able to recognise their likes, dislikes and justify their opinions;
name and manage their feelings; and understand that bullying is wrong. By 11 years of
age, children should study current affairs, basic law and democracy and discuss topical
issues, as well as understand puberty and the consequences of racism and bullying.
Social, personal and health education (SPHE) in Ireland aims to help children develop a
sense of social responsibility, a commitment to active and participative citizenship and an
appreciation of the democratic way of life. It also enables them to respect human and
cultural diversity and to appreciate and understand the interdependent nature of the world.
In Singapore, the character development programme (see also Religious education above,
and Personal, social and health education and well-being below) was introduced in 2001 as
a reaction to the fact that technological advancements had brought a knowledge explosion
and easy access to – good and bad – ideas and influences. In addition, globalisation had
led to families relocating and breaking away from their roots. The programme aims to
guide schools in providing a balanced programme for each child in three domains:
leadership, citizenship, and personal and social development. Under the citizenship
domain, activities are organised to help children acquire values such as loyalty and
commitment to nation. These are promoted under the National Education Programme156,
the Community Involvement Programme157 and Learning Journeys158.
Personal and social education (PSE) in Wales also includes elements of citizenship
education. PSE is currently non-statutory in Wales, but should become a statutory element
of the basic curriculum for all children in compulsory education in Wales from September
2003.
156
157
158
56
See: http://www1.moe.edu.sg/ne/
See: http://www1.moe.edu.sg/ne/CIP/Community.html
See: http://www1.moe.edu.sg/ne/LearningJourneys/LearningJourneys.html
Figure 12 Teaching of the arts and physical, personal, social and health education
The arts
Physical education
Health and physical
education (HPE)
Canada
The arts (includes dance, drama,
graphic communication, media,
music and visual arts)
The arts
Physical education
England
Art and design; music
Physical education
France
Physical education
and sports
Ireland
Art (including music).
From age eight: Artistic education
(music and art)
Art; music
Arts (singing and music; dance and
drama, visual arts, motion picture and
media studies)
Arts education
Italy
Japan
Art education; music education
Music; art
Physical education
Physical education
Korea
Years 1-2 ‘pleasant life’
Music; fine arts
Art orientation (drawing, art and
crafts, music, drama/promoting and
developing the use of language,
movement)
The arts
Fine arts includes
physical education
Art orientation
includes movement
Australia
Germany
Hungary
Netherlands
New
Zealand
Singapore
Spain
Sweden
Art and crafts
Artistic education; Knowledge of the
natural, social and cultural
environment
‘Practical arts subjects’: music, crafts
(textiles, woodwork and metalwork)
Social studies may include
personal and social
education
Non-statutory personal,
social and health education
(PSHE) guidelines
Sport
Physical education
and sport
Physical education
Health and physical
well-being
Physical education
Physical education
‘Practical arts
subjects’ includes
physical education
Discretionary
Physical education
Physical education
Social, personal and health
education (SPHE)
Included in PE, home
economics, and moral
education
‘Orientation on mankind and
the world’ includes
promotion of self reliance
and healthy behaviour
Health and physical wellbeing
Health education
‘Practical arts subjects’
includes health education
Discretionary
Health
Personal and social
education (PSE) guidelines
(statutory from September
2003)
Note: Blank cells indicate a lack of specific information, not an absence of policy.
Switzerland
USA
Wales
Discretionary
Art; music
Art; music
Health and personal
welfare
Combined as health and
physical education (HPE)
57
Arts education
The scope of activities embraced by ‘the arts’ varies.159 In Canada, France, Hungary,
Ireland and Spain, art(s) education includes at least the disciplines of visual arts (drawing,
painting, crafts etc), music and the study of drama; it sometimes includes dance and
occasionally media studies. In some curricula (for example, Singapore and Sweden), crafts
are linked to the arts, whereas elsewhere they may be classed as technology. Conversely,
drama may be included in language or language arts courses, and dance may be taught as
part of physical education. Where pressure is put on the curriculum to focus on particular
areas, for example, literacy and numeracy, the time dedicated to the arts tends to decrease.
Physical education and sports
Physical education is part of the curriculum in all countries and may be combined with
health education. Spain is the sole country where physical education is an examination
subject (at secondary level).
Education for personal, social and physical well-being
England has recently introduced a broad programme of citizenship and personal, social and
health education (PSHE) to primary schools. A non-statutory national framework sets out
what children might be expected to know and be able to do, but leaves details of content
and delivery to schools (See Citizenship education above).
In Ireland, social, personal and health education (SPHE) was introduced as a statutory new
curriculum area with the 1999 primary school curriculum, and in Wales, a programme of
personal and social education (PSE) has recently been introduced and will become
compulsory from September 2003.
In Japan, health and personal welfare are taught as part of several subjects. For example,
health is an important element of physical education, family life is taught in home
economics and moral character and social relationships are taught in moral education.
In Singapore, the character development programme (see also Moral Education and
Citizenship Education above), introduced in 2001, aims to guide schools in providing a
balanced programme for each child in three domains: leadership, citizenship, and personal
and social development. Activities in the leadership domain are designed to provide
159
58
See SHARP, C. and LE MÉTAIS, J. (2000). The Arts, Creativity and Cultural Education: an
international comparison. Online at: http://www.inca.org.uk/thematic.asp
opportunities for children to ‘lead as they serve and to serve as they lead’. In the social
and personal domain, children are exposed to activities that heighten their awareness of
self and relationships with others. From Primary 1 to Primary 4 (children aged 6/7 to 10
years), the study of health education topics is included in the learning of English language.
Some teachers set aside a period a week specifically for health education. In Primary 5
and Primary 6 (10- to12-year-olds), health education is allocated one period per week.
Aspects of personal, social and health education and well-being may be incorporated in
other curricular areas such as physical education (Australia), social studies (Canada),
‘orientation on mankind and the world’ (the Netherlands) and ‘practical arts subjects’
(Sweden).
Cross-curricular areas
Education constantly needs to pay attention to new topics or areas of social concern, such
as international understanding, education for the world of work, computer or information
technology, health education and environmental studies. As a result, the curriculum in
many countries complements the compulsory (and optional) subject areas with crosscurricular studies. Known as ‘cross-curricular areas’ in Australia, ‘common essential
learnings’ in Saskatchewan (Canada), ‘key skills’ and ‘thinking skills’ in England, ‘crosscurricular objectives’ in Hungary, ‘key issues’ in Ireland, ‘cross-curricular objectives’ in
the Netherlands, ‘essential skills’ in New Zealand, ‘core skills and values’ in Singapore,
‘cross-curricular themes’ in Spain, ‘areas of applied knowledge’ in Wisconsin (USA), and
‘common requirements’ in Wales, these statutory skills usually comprise a set of
interrelated categories which are considered important as foundations for learning in all
school subjects.
Across most countries the skills include communication/new media and/or literacy;
numeracy/application of number; information technology or technological literacy; and
personal and interpersonal/social skills (such as working with others, improving own
learning and performance, or independent learning, problem-solving and thinking skills).
In some countries they also include moral education; the environment; career and work
education; cultural and multicultural education; the spiritual dimension; physical/motor
skills; education for peace; sex equality; consumer education; and physical and mental
health. Figure 13 shows how such themes are covered in the curriculum structure.
In New Zealand, the curriculum also emphasises a series of attitudes and values. These are
identified as the values that underpin New Zealand society and which should be reflected
59
in the teaching of the curriculum. They are honesty; reliability; respect for others; respect
for the law; tolerance; fairness; caring or compassion; and non-sexism and non-racism.
Figure 13 Cross-curricular areas
Australia
Canada
England
France
Germany
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Korea
Netherlands
New
Zealand
Singapore
Spain
Sweden
60
Environment; information technology; personal and interpersonal skills; career and work
education; literacy; numeracy
(For example, Saskatchewan) communication; numeracy; critical and creative thinking;
technological literacy; independent learning; and personal and social values and skills
Financial capability, enterprise education, education for sustainable development, nonstatutory citizenship, personal, social and health education (PSHE) and key skills, including
communication, application of number and ICT (See also transferable skills below)
Competencies relevant to the child’s attitudes, his/her ability to develop fundamental
concepts of time and space, and methodologies for working
Linguistic education (encouragement of linguistic development); mathematical education, in
the sense of an introduction to logical thinking and problem-solving); media education
(using media in a critical way); aesthetic education (creative activities and sensory
experiences); using technology; movement education; encounters with foreign languages;
health and environmental studies and treating nature and one’s own body in a responsible
way; and the culture and perspective of one’s home country or region, combined with an
international outlook
Integration into Europe, career orientation, and environmental education
Examples of cross-cutting key issues for primary education include: literacy and numeracy;
a sense of Irish identity; the spiritual dimension; the European and global dimensions;
pluralism; information and communication technologies (ICTs)
Not specified
As well as being a compulsory subject area, moral education is a theme which permeates all
aspects of school life. The attitudes and values (kokoro) of moral education are emphasised
in all other subjects and in the daily ‘special activities’ which children carry out in groups
(for example, cleaning the classroom; serving school lunch; preparing the class newspaper;
looking after the class animals). Group work helps children learn how to cooperate with
and help each other; to contribute to the interests of other members and the group itself; to
discuss to reach an agreement; to guess and consider the implicit opinions and feelings of
other members
Moral, environmental, economic, work-oriented, health and safety, sex, careers and
(re)unification education, in compulsory subjects and extracurricular activities, through an
integrated approach to whole school programmes and by mutual cooperation between the
school, the community and the home
Attitude to work; working according to a plan; use of a diversity of learning strategies; selfimage; social behaviour; and new media
Environment, and culture and heritage and ICT; and eight essential skills: communication;
numeracy; information; problem-solving; self-management and competitive; social and
cooperative; physical; and work and study skills
Eight core skills and values: literacy and numeracy, information skills, thinking skills and
creativity, communications skills, social and cooperative skills, knowledge application
skills, self-management skills and character development
Moral education, education for peace, for health, for the equality of the sexes, environment
education and consumer education are also introduced during this phase. Some of the
themes such as education for peace and education for gender equality are fully introduced
during primary level education. Others, such as sex education and consumer education are
introduced simply as a foundation for future study
‘About this you must tell’ programme which aims to combat racism and focuses on modern
history and a multicultural society; study and vocational guidance
Switzerland
USA
Wales
Discretionary
Some States have recently begun to develop character education programmes as part of
their curriculum. Wisconsin includes reading and writing across the curriculum,
environmental education, computer literacy, an introduction to career education and
planning (from age 10 onwards) as cross-curricular aspects
Common requirements relate to communication skills, mathematical skills, information
technology skills, problem-solving skills, creative skills, and to the Curriculum Cymreig
(Wales-specific aspects of the curriculum), and personal and social education
Transferable skills
One important trend has been the increased emphasis on thinking skills, creativity and the
promotion of independent learning. These tend to be promoted across the curriculum, and
involve a range of teaching and learning styles, as indicated in the examples below. A
second strand is personal and inter-personal, or social, skills, which are developed in
personal, social and health education programmes, but also as part of the learning process
in all subjects, for example, when students are asked to work in pairs or in groups.
England
Problem solving, improving one’s own learning and performance and working
with others160 are embedded in the revised (2000) National Curriculum
framework as the ‘wider key skills’. Thinking skills (information processing,
reasoning, enquiry, creative thinking and evaluation) are intended to help
children to focus on ‘knowing how’ as well as ‘knowing what’, thereby
enabling them to learn how to learn.
Germany The ministers of the 16 Länder have recommended that, amongst the ‘skills to
be acquired in primary education’, schools should develop children’s creative
ability, capacity for independent learning, critical thinking and learning from
their own experience.
Ireland
The Primary School Curriculum 1999 is based on a pedagogical philosophy
that accords equal importance to the content and process of learning.
Crucially, it recognises that children learn in different ways. The curriculum
therefore comprises, for each subject, a detailed statement of content and the
outcomes to be achieved, but also a wide range of approaches to learning. The
primary curriculum envisages a particular relationship between the acquisition
of knowledge and the development of concepts, skills and attitudes at each
class level. Concepts and skills are developed through the exploration of the
content. Strong emphasis is placed on the ability to question, to analyse, to
investigate, to think critically, to solve problems and to interact effectively with
others.
Japan
Each curriculum revision since the late 1970s has considered and emphasised
the importance of developing creativity. Emphasis has been placed on logical
thinking ability, imagination and intuitive ability of the kind that will serve as a
source to generate new ideas. By giving teachers more control over their
160
For details see: http://www.qca.org.uk/nq/ks/wor_imp_pro.asp
61
teaching, the April 2002 course of study for elementary education aims to
foster more child-centred and creative learning through individual instruction
and group work. This revised course of study calls for education to produce
citizens who are creative and considerate and for a ‘unique system of
education, which will foster children’s willingness to learn in a relaxed
environment’.161
Korea
The Presidential Commission on Education Reform (PCER) recommended
that, in preparation for the 21st Century, the development of the child’s
creativity should be given high priority. The (current) Seventh National
Curriculum therefore increased schools’ discretionary time for optional
subjects, to be used mainly to encourage the child’s self-directed learning,
independent study and creative activities within school. Optional activities are
divided into subject-related activities and creative activities. While elementary
schools have some flexibility, the Ministry of Education and Human Resources
Development recommends that optional activities should emphasise creative
activities, rather than in-depth and further study of school subjects.
The Netherlands Primary schools are required to foster the development of social, cultural
and physical skills, including the skills of expressing oneself, listening to
others, working independently, and problem-solving (either independently or in
groups). The Revised Primary Education Act of 1998 states: ‘primary
education secures the continuous development of the children in its care’.162
Freely interpreted, this means that primary education should ensure that the
cognitive, social, emotional, physical and creative competencies of children are
steadily developed and increased. The current core objectives (attainment
targets) include expectations with regard to learning styles. Cross-curricular
objectives are grouped around six themes: attitude to work, working according
to a plan, use of a diversity of learning strategies, self-image, social behaviour,
and the use of new media.
Singapore Based on the need for children to learn to access information from various
sources, organise and analyse information, generate new ideas and perspectives
and make informed and considered decisions, the focus has shifted from how
much children know, to how they can apply their knowledge. Critical and
creative thinking skills have been systemically introduced in all subjects to
provide more opportunities for children to apply their learning to solving
problems. For example, in primary mathematics, children learn to recognise
and use mathematical thinking and problem-solving strategies and to apply
mathematical concepts to solve problems in everyday life. In primary social
studies, children learn to compare and contrast events and places, and to
identify causes, effects and constraints.
Similarly, as knowledge is not compartmentalised in the real world, it is
deemed increasingly important that children appreciate the inter-connectedness
of disciplines and see the relevance of classroom learning to their current or
161
162
62
SHIBUYA, T. (1998). ‘New study courses stress creativity’, The Japan Times, 19 November, 3.
KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS. STATUTES (1998). Revised Primary Education Act.
future interests. In order to break down the boundaries between subjects, the
Ministry of Education now makes the links within and between disciplines
explicit. For example, project work and interdisciplinary learning offer
children opportunities to bring together the knowledge and skills they have
acquired from different areas of learning. Similarly, the revised primary
science syllabus is based on a thematic approach (diversity, cycles, systems,
interactions and energy), which allows for the integration of scientific ideas
and encourages children to see how topics are linked across the scientific
disciplines.
Sweden
Schools have discretion with regard to school organisation, teaching
arrangements, class sizes etc. Children may be taught in mixed-ability groups
of the same age or as mixed-age groups. Topic-based and interdisciplinary
teaching is becoming more common. Schools seldom group children by ability
(in English, Swedish and mathematics) before the age of 12. Children may be
grouped by sex for some subjects, particularly physical education and Swedish.
The key principle is to ensure that schools use differentiated teaching
approaches to meet the individual child’s needs. There is a growing awareness
among teachers about individual learning styles, and this is an area increasingly
covered by in-service training and courses offered to teachers.
Wales
Communication skills, mathematical skills, information technology skills,
problem-solving skills, creative skills, personal and social skills and skills
specific to an understanding of the culture of Wales, are embedded in the
school curriculum through the ‘common requirements’.
Optional subjects
The category comprises time over which the school exercises discretion. In some
countries, such as Ireland, Korea, New Zealand, Spain and Sweden, optional subjects are
available at the primary level, very often to offer children the study of a regional, minority
or foreign language. In New Zealand, for example, some of the essential learning areas are
broken down into individual subjects, such as specific languages or specific sciences, and
offered as optional subjects. Opportunities for optional subjects tend to increase, however,
as children move through the early years to end of secondary continuum. In other
instances, optional subjects or discretionary curriculum time for schools aim to give
schools the opportunity to, for example, tailor the curriculum to the particular needs of the
individual child or groups of children; or to specifically reflect local or regional culture or
identity.
63
3.4 Assessing, Recording and Reporting Progress
a)
Forms of assessment
Assessment is an important part of the teaching and learning cycle and therefore intricately
linked to the curriculum in most countries. There are common understandings of the
purposes of assessment, although they may be expressed in different ways. For example:
♦
diagnostic, formative and summative assessment
♦
assessment for learning and assessment of learning
♦
assessment to improve teaching and learning; to report on achievement and to
monitor and assure quality.
From the pupil’s perspective, assessment may serve as a motivator, which rewards his/her
success and stimulates further effort, or as a deterrent to further learning, if (good or bad)
results expose the pupil to criticism or ridicule by teachers or peers.
Teachers assess a child’s learning in a range of ways: observation, question and answer,
written exercises carried out in the classroom or at home, and periodic tests. These
assessments are commonly supplemented by external or standardised assessments, which
constitute one way of holding the school to account to its local community.
There has been increasing interest in external and standardised assessment (see Figure 14),
to enable the national and sub-national authorities to monitor the implementation of the
curriculum requirements and/or the quality of educational outcomes. Attainment targets
(or desired outcomes of learning at given stages) have been set in eight countries
(Australia, England, France, Hungary, the Netherlands, New Zealand, some states of the
USA and Wales). In England and Wales, the Government has also set national
achievement targets, indicating the percentage of children who should achieve specified
levels in the English language (and in Wales, Welsh, where this is the pupil’s first
language), mathematics and science tests at age 11, the end of primary education.
In New Zealand, the underlying principle for assessment is that it can best contribute to
learning when:
♦
goals are clear and challenging, and linked to the curriculum
♦
shared understandings of quality are developed through staff development and the
publication of exemplars
64
♦
continuing and periodic assessment provide evidence for the learner (and others) of
his/her cognitive, affective, social, and physical growth and progression towards a
range of objectives
♦
teachers’ comments go beyond effort, quantity, presentation and surface features,
such as spelling, and promote conceptual development
♦
teachers and schools identify appropriate assessment strategies and gather, analyse
and use information to improve teaching and learning
♦
teachers are involved in development so that assessment requirements and materials
do not come as a surprise.
Accordingly, curriculum outcomes are expressed in terms of achievement outcome levels,
with less formal expectations of a child’s achievement at different stages of their
development. The lack of national targets and universal standardised assessment has not
proved to be an obstacle to effective learning.
The National Assessment Strategy adopted in New Zealand in 1999 aims to raise
achievement and reduce disparity in pupil performance for students from Year 1-10.
Schools set their own targets and plan for improvement over time. One strategy includes
changes in teacher-pupil interaction:
♦
scaffolds or reflective prompts: Read me the beginning/end of your story. What
have you done? I’ve linked my first and last sentence. Is that what you really
wanted to say?
♦
reminder prompts: What did the fur on the dog look like? How did it feel? For
whom are you writing this – what (else) would they want to know?
♦
example prompts: You can use one of these three examples or write your own.
Teachers have found that 80 per cent of pupils write their own because the examples
provide sufficient guidance/scaffold.
The National Education Monitoring Programme (NEMP) assesses three per cent of pupils
in Years 4 (age 8/9) and 8 (age 12/13) in two subjects each year, by means of paper and
pencil tests and video recordings of pupils at work. Now in second cycle, NEMP found
that reading has improved by 20 per cent in Years 1 to 4. New Zealand was also third in
the PISA163 survey.
Materials have been developed to enable teachers to compile tests to suit the subject matter
and abilities of their class, to analyse the results for individual students and the class, to
compare the results with national norms, and to identify learning gaps and problems.
163
See: http://www.pisa.oecd.org/
65
However, fears by some teacher associations that these materials may lead the way to
universal testing mean that they can only be distributed in response to teachers’ individual
applications.
Figure 14 Assessment
Standardised assessment
Australia
Canada
England
Compulsory
Yes
Yes
Yes
France
Germany
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Korea
Netherlands
New Zealand
Yes
No
Proposed
No
Singapore
166
Spain
Yes, sample
Sweden
Switzerland
USA
No
Yes, sample.
165
Voluntary
Yes
Published results
School entry164
Some
Compulsory at
age five
Attainment
Targets
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes, ‘league
tables’
Only as trends
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes, to schools
Yes, result trends
published
Yes, individual,
school and
national results to
schools
Anonymous
individual, school,
national
Yes
Yes
Yes, sample
Yes, sample
Yes
Yes, sample
Voluntary at age
five
Yes
Some cantons
Yes
Yes, league tables
increasing
Yes
Yes
Compulsory
Yes167
Wales
Note: Blank cells indicate a lack of specific information, not an absence of policy.
Yes, some
states
Yes
Compulsory assessment
The trend towards devolved financial and managerial autonomy to schools has tended to be
accompanied by an increased emphasis on external measurement of educational outcomes.
Twelve countries compulsorily assess primary achievement in literacy and numeracy and –
less commonly – science and social studies. Of these, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, Spain
and the USA assess a sample of children and/or schools to provide an indication of trends.
164
165
166
167
66
This is sometimes referred to as ‘baseline assessment’, as it provides a basis for comparing children’s
progress since their admission to school.
Primary school leaving exam is compulsory, but not necessarily standardised.
Pupils are assessed for streaming at age 10 and for the Primary School Leaving Certificate but these
assessments are not necessarily standardised.
Results are published for the country as a whole and by local educational authority only.
Australia (from 1998), most Canadian provinces, England and Wales test all children at the
end of key stages. In France, children have been assessed at the beginning of key stages
since 1989, to provide guidance for teachers. Universal assessment in core subjects is
being considered in Hungary, New Zealand and the USA. Two countries have reduced the
amount of external assessment: Korea, which replaced the standard assessment tests which
were compulsory for all Year 4 children until 1999 and Wales, which abolished the
external element of key stage 1 assessment (age seven) from 2001-2.
Since 2000, Korean schools have assessed pupil performance in mathematics and social
science (through written tests) every year and other subjects less frequently. Written
examinations have been retained in response to parental demand. Continuous assessment
includes portfolio presentation, practical workshop activities and oral tests.
New Zealand has chosen not to undertake universal assessment. It is felt that the current
monitoring scheme (NEMP, see above) provides information on national performance, and
that international surveys provide an indication of New Zealand’s position relative to other
countries. Schools are given control and support to review and develop their performance,
rather than ‘blame, name and shame’.
Singapore is unique in having a formal selection process during the primary phase (at age
10, Year 4) to stream children from Year 5.
Sweden has formulated goals for year five, which marks the mid-point of compulsory
education. Voluntary national tests for Year 5 pupils comprise Swedish, mathematics and
English. Although the tests are not mandatory, 90 per cent of municipalities have declared
them compulsory and require the results to be used for public reporting within the
municipality. Additional materials are provided for diagnostic testing.
Voluntary assessment
National or commercially produced standardised tests are offered in a number of countries,
to enable schools to compare the performance of their children with others. Examples
include England (interim assessment for eight-, nine- and 10-year-olds), France (diagnostic
assessments supported by 88 per cent of teachers of eight-year-olds and 75 per cent of
teachers of 11-year-olds), Hungary (tests in most subjects for 10- to 14-year-olds), Ireland
(for all age groups), the Netherlands (CITO168 tests, including the primary school leaving
168
The National Institute for Educational Measurement (CITO) develops tests, assessment systems and
examinations for use by pupils and teachers across the whole of the education system.
67
test, used by 86 per cent of primary schools in 2001), Sweden (Year 2 language and
arithmetic and Year 5 Swedish, English and mathematics), some cantons in Switzerland,
the USA (NAEP169 tests for those not included in the compulsory sample schools) and
Wales (optional assessment materials, or OAMs).
New Zealand has just released new voluntary paper and pencil tests. Teachers select items
from a CD-ROM according to subject area, topics and difficulty level. Pupils complete
test in 40 minutes and teachers enter results into an electronic programme, which provides
pupil results in relation to national norms, and indicates patterns of strengths and gaps of
the class as a whole and of individual pupils. Teachers can then download units of work
and activities to help fill gaps in pupil learning. The CD-ROM is supported by teacher
training.
England is the only country that offers special assessment for gifted children at primary
level, in the form of ‘world class tests’ in mathematics and problem-solving for the most
able ten per cent of nine-year-olds.
School entry assessment
Assessment of what pupils can do at the start of primary education (sometimes known as
baseline assessment) is compulsory in some Australian states (Victoria, since 1998),
England (since 1998) and Wales (since 1999). From the 2002-3 school year, baseline
assessment in England is being replaced by the ‘Foundation Stage Profile’, which
describes the child’s achievements in relation to the objectives for this phase (the
‘Foundation Stage’ Early learning goals for three- to five-year-olds). In New Zealand,
provision for voluntary diagnostic assessment of five-year-olds170 was introduced in 1997.
Although there is no formal baseline assessment scheme, teachers in Germany and Spain
are required to write a report on the child’s capabilities at the start of his/her school career.
In Germany, parents are increasingly seeking school admission for their children before the
age of six. In general, it is the headteacher who makes the decision concerning admission
on the basis of a medical report provided by a general practitioner responsible for the
medical screening of young children.
169
170
68
The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), a regularly administered, congressionally
mandated assessment programme, assesses representative national samples of the nation’s pupils
attending public and private elementary schools, junior high schools and high schools. See:
http://nces.ed.gov/
Whilst education is not compulsory until the age of six, virtually all children in New Zealand start school
on their fifth birthday.
Publication of results
Results of standardised assessment are published in England (by school and local
education authority – LEA), Wales (by local education authority and nationally only) and,
increasingly, in the USA (by school and district). This is intended to raise standards and,
in England, to inform parental choice of school. However, this approach is discouraged in
Alberta (Canada) and explicitly forbidden in France. In Wales, results are published for
the country as a whole and by local educational authority only and results for individual
schools or pupils are not available.
Results are sent to schools in the Netherlands, Singapore and (anonymously) in Spain, to
enable them to compare their performance with that of other schools. In New Zealand and
France, information on trends is published to alert schools to general weaknesses.
Impact of assessment on teaching
It is generally accepted that the introduction of ‘high stakes’ assessment leads to a degree
of ‘teaching to the test’. Tests in Sweden aim to be broad and multi-faceted to counteract
any narrowing of the curriculum. In two countries, there is evidence of specific
preparation to raise test performance. These are England, where government funding is
provided for ‘booster’ or revision classes for children who are judged to be at risk of not
achieving the expected level in the test, and Japan, where a sizeable minority of parents
(around 40 per cent) pay for their children to attend private schools (jukus or yokibos) to
enhance their chances of being admitted to the most prestigious secondary schools.
Reports from France suggest that assessment has a considerable influence on teaching in
class – in the sense that teaching is often adapted as a result of diagnostic assessment to
suit the specific needs of individual children – but that this type of assessment has little
influence on the programmes of study as such.
Only England provides separate funding to enable teachers to help children reach national
targets.
In Switzerland, the assessment of learning generally still takes place within the classroom.
Teacher assessment has not had an explicit impact on the curriculum. Several cantons
have introduced standardised tests to enable teachers to assess children’s achievement in
comparison with standards. Participation is voluntary but there are some indications that
the standardised tests reduce the official curriculum.
69
The effectiveness/impact of assessment depends on teachers’ ability to adapt their methods
in the light of what the test information reveals. This requires good subject knowledge.
Changes in testing to match new curriculum
It has already been noted that curricula place increasing emphasis on creativity, individual
learning, thinking skills and collaborative learning. These changes are reported to be
affecting the form of assessment in Canada, Ireland, Korea, Singapore and the USA to
include observation, self- and peer assessment, and portfolios.
Support for teachers
Teachers are supported in a range of ways to implement the curriculum and its
assessment.171 Numerous examples are outlined in Section 3.3, under ‘Support for
implementation’. In New Zealand, national expert panels set tasks and criteria (for
example, in science, oral work, drama, musical performance etc). Teachers carry out video
sampling yearly, during school hours. Pupils are set tasks which teachers video, assess and
mark. These videos are then available for external moderation. The tasks are kept for four
years – one third released to teachers. Teachers are trained (and paid) during their holidays
to use videos for this purpose.
b)
Recording and reporting progress
The countries represented in this study have a range of mechanisms for recording and
reporting pupils’ progress. These include levels of achievement (usually included in
curriculum documents), nationally agreed grading/marking schemes and certificates.
National grading schemes
National schemes of grades exist in Germany (1 down to 6; pass 4), Hungary (1 up to 5,
pass 2), the Netherlands (1 up to 10; pass 6) and Singapore (A* down to E and Ungraded).
The Swiss system of marks has been abandoned by many cantons. In England, New
Zealand and Wales, the curriculum outcomes are described in terms of levels of
achievement.
In Italy, a scheme of five levels to describe a child’s performance was introduced in 1996
and in Korea teachers are advised to use descriptions rather than grades. In Spain, grading
is left to the discretion of schools and teachers, but two grades are used to indicate
171
70
For example: http://www.teachernet.gov.uk/TeachingandLearning/resourcematerials/Resources/
performance in each subject as a child progresses to the next cycle: PA (performing
adequately) and NM (needs improvement).
In Sweden, marks are awarded at the end of each term from Grade 8 (age 14+). A final
grade, awarded at the end of compulsory schooling may be expressed as: pass with special
distinction (MVG), pass with distinction, or (VG) pass (G). The main focus is on the sixmonthly dialogue between teachers, parents and pupils to review achievements, the
potential and strategies for improvement and to create an individual development
programme.
Primary leaving certificate
Although a formal primary school certificate is only issued in Italy and Japan (based on
internally set assessment) and Singapore (by national examinations), satisfactory
completion of the primary or elementary phase is normally required for admission to the
secondary phase. The Singapore Ministry administers the national Primary School
Leaving Examinations (PSLE) and provides schools with guidelines for school-based
assessment of pupils.
In several countries, the headteacher, together with the teaching staff, draws up a report
providing information about the pupil’s performance and development during the primary
phase for his or her secondary school. A copy of the report is usually given to the child’s
parents. This may be particularly important in those countries where secondary education
is provided in different school types, such as Germany and the Netherlands and
Switzerland, and a choice needs to be made based on the child’s ability.
c)
Promotion and transfer
As indicated in Figure 15, most countries have a policy of ‘social promotion’ whereby
children automatically progress to the next class or cycle. Nevertheless, even where this is
policy, children may still repeat a class, for example in Ireland (10,000 children repeated in
1996), and the USA (between 15 and 20 per cent of children repeat each year; in urban
areas, 50 per cent of children will repeat at least once). In Sweden, progression is
described as automatic, but children may repeat or skip a grade.
Children whose performance does not meet the required standard may be required to repeat
the class in Germany (1.8 per cent), Hungary, Italy (exceptionally), the Netherlands (one to
two per cent per annum), Switzerland and some districts in the USA (for example.
Chicago). In Spain, children may currently be required to repeat a class and proposed
71
legislation will make this compulsory for those failing in three or more subjects.
Acceleration is allowed in Korea (up to two years within the primary phase).
Children in Italy, Japan and Singapore must hold the primary school leaving certificate and
those in the USA must have ‘completed elementary education’ for admission to secondary
school. Elsewhere, admission to secondary education is normally automatic. However, in
those countries which offer different types of secondary education (Germany, Hungary, the
Netherlands, Singapore and Switzerland), or special programmes for gifted children
(Korea), performance at primary school influences admission. In Japan, competition for
the high status secondary schools is very fierce and children attend special preparatory
schools outside their normal primary education.
Figure 15 Progression and transfer
Australia
Canada
England
France
Germany
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Korea
Netherlands
New Zealand
Singapore
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
USA
Promotion policy
Social
Social
Social (repeating is possible but rare)
Performance – repeat
Performance – repeat
Performance – repeat
Social – but repeating is possible
Performance – repeating is rare
Social
Social
Performance – repeating is rare
Social
Social – internal selection at age 10 for
streaming
Performance – repeat
Social – but repeating is possible
Performance – repeat
Mainly social – repeat in some districts
Primary certificate
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Primary certificate essential for transfer
Primary certificate essential for transfer
Issued
Primary School Leaving Examinations
(PSLE) essential for transfer
Children must have ‘completed elementary
education’
Social
No
Wales
Note: Blank cells indicate a lack of specific information, not an absence of policy.
d)
International surveys
It is difficult to quantify the precise impact on assessment and curricula of international
surveys. However, irrespective of the differences in national values, structures and
curricula, policy makers increasingly cite international surveys such as TIMSS and PISA
as evidence of good national standards172 or, conversely, to justify educational change.
Examples include the introduction or reinforcement of targeted literacy and numeracy
172
72
For example: The good performance of Singapore pupils in the Third International Mathematics and
Science Study is an affirmation of mathematics and science education in Singapore.
programmes following the publication of the Third International Mathematics and Science
Study (TIMSS) results (Tasmania in Australia, England, Wales), and policy reviews
following the PISA results (for example in Germany, Hungary and Switzerland). The
weight given to such surveys is considerable, even to the point that German Länder and
Swiss cantons are giving up some of their normally fiercely protected autonomy in the
field of education, to contribute to the preparation of national standards. For example, in
Switzerland, the PISA results are expected, primarily, to legitimise current reform
movements in the fostering of reading abilities and the development of national standards
for mathematics, mother tongue, foreign languages and science (project HarmoS).
The principal international surveys are indicated below.
TIMSS: Third International Mathematics and Science Study
TIMSS is the largest and most ambitious international study of children’s achievement
ever conducted. In 1994–95, it was conducted at five Grade/Year levels in more than 40
countries (the third, fourth, seventh, and eighth Grades, and the final year of secondary
school).173 For details of primary phase results, see Figure 16. For details of key findings
and high performing countries, see Annex 4.
Figure 16 TIMSS 1995: Primary* results in mathematics and science
Country
Third Grade
Fourth Grade
Mathematics
Science
Mathematics
Science
Average Score
Average Score
Average Score
Average Score
Australia
483
562
546
510
Canada
469
549
532
490
England
456
551
513
499
Hungary
476
532
548
464
Ireland
476
539
550
479
Japan
538
574
597
522
Korea
561
597
611
553
Netherlands
493
557
577
499
New Zealand
440
531
499
473
Singapore
552
547
625
488
United States
480
565
545
511
SOURCE: IEA Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), 1994-95. *Fourth and third
Grades in most countries. Countries shown in italics did not satisfy all guidelines for sample participation
rates, age/grade specifications or classroom sampling procedures.
173
The Grades relate to the USA school systems, and the survey therefore involved primary school pupils
aged 8 and 9 who may, in their home education systems have been if different Grades.
73
PISA: OECD Programme for International Student Assessment
PISA is based on a ‘dynamic model of lifelong learning in which new knowledge and skills
necessary for successful adaptation to a changing world are continuously acquired
throughout life’. Previous international assessments have concentrated on ‘school’
knowledge. PISA aims at measuring how well children perform beyond the school
curriculum. Although the first assessment domains (reading literacy, mathematical literacy
and scientific literacy, see Annex 5) are closely related to subjects learned at school, PISA
concentrates on the value of the skills acquired beyond the school gates, through applying
literacy in a broader sense. It tests performance in real-life situations. It might therefore
further influence the weight given to the transferable skills referred to in Section 3.3 above.
Competencies across disciplinary boundaries will have a growing importance in PISA as it
develops over time. PISA 2000 analysed the child’s ‘approaches to learning and beliefs in
their own abilities, motivation and engagement and other aspects of children’s attitudes,
under the heading ‘self-regulated learning’. In 2003, PISA will also specifically assess
children’s ability to solve problems.
PIRLS: Progress in International Reading Literacy Survey
PIRLS is an international assessment being conducted by the International Study Center at
Boston College (ISC) and the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational
Achievement (IEA). Thirty-five countries are participating in this study, which measures
reading literacy achievement of fourth grade children (ages nine and 10) and gathers
information about home and school factors associated with learning to read. Data
collection began in March 2001 for Northern Hemisphere countries, and in October 2001
for countries in the Southern Hemisphere. The PIRLS 2001 international reports can be
downloaded from http://timss.bc.edu/pirls2001i/PIRLS2001_Pubs_IR.html in PDF format.
The PIRLS 2001 Encyclopedia: A Reference Guide to Reading Education in the Countries
Participating in IEA’s Progress in International Reading Literacy Study174 describes the
context for reading instruction in each country, and is available in PDF format at
http://timss.bc.edu/pirls2001i/encyclopedia.html.
Ten of the countries in this INCA thematic study are participating in PIRLS, namely:
Canada, England, France, Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Singapore,
Sweden and the United States.
174
74
See: http://timss.bc.edu/pirls2001i/encyclopedia.html
3.5 Teaching Methodologies
Teaching methods are usually not prescribed. However, teaching practice may be
influenced by means of textbooks, the introduction of specific programmes (for example,
the literacy and numeracy strategies in England) or new curriculum requirements (for
example, the development of independent learning), especially where these are
accompanied by professional development and training, changes in the nature of
assessment, and/or inspection requirements or expectations.
a)
Current approaches
Australia Teachers use a range of teaching methods. The New Essential Learnings175, a
new curriculum framework which is being piloted in some 40 schools in
Tasmania, encourages theme-based, collaborative and individual learning. In
Queensland, the New Basics project, being piloted in 20 school clusters, entails
what are known as ‘productive pedagogies’176. There are based around four
dimensions: intellectual quality, connectedness, a supportive classroom
environment and a recognition of difference.
England
Teachers have discretion concerning teaching methods and most draw on a
range of strategies to support children’s learning. However, the Government
has introduced detailed teaching frameworks and training materials in the
National Literacy177 and Numeracy Strategies178. Although not statutory, these
frameworks are used by the large majority of primary schools in England. The
mathematics framework focuses strongly on mental arithmetic, learning the
times tables and on whole class teaching in which every child is fully engaged.
France
There has been much discussion in France regarding teaching to children’s
‘learning rhythms’. As a result, some schools teach mathematics and French
earlier in the school day, when children are believed to be at their most
receptive, and aspects of the broader curriculum later in the day. Teachers are
free to select their own teaching methods, but primary teachers are encouraged
to develop links between subjects/subject areas, such as ‘mathematics and
science’, ‘aspects of biological science and physical education and sport’,
‘music and foreign languages (songs)’, or ‘history and art (artists through the
ages)’. No research is available providing information on dominant teaching
approaches. Time in class is usually divided between whole class teaching
(predominant); active investigation and research by children (usually in
groups); and individual children working independently on teacher-set
exercises.
175
176
177
178
See: http://www.education.tas.gov.au/ocll/
See: http://education.qld.gov.au/corporate/newbasics/html/pedagogies/pedagog.html
See: http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/literacy/
See: http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/numeracy/
75
Hungary Although, in principle, teaching methods are a matter for the individual teacher
in Hungary, it appears that whole class ‘face-the-front’ teaching and
blackboard work are common, with children simultaneously following a
programme of planned exercises.
Ireland
The curriculum envisages an integrated learning experience for children. The
principles of learning underpinning the curriculum comprise: the child’s sense
of wonder and national curiosity; the child as an active agent in his or her
learning; the developmental nature of learning, offering the child the
opportunity, having dealt with particular knowledge, ideas and skills at a
simple level, to return to these at regular intervals in order to deepen his or her
understanding; the child’s knowledge and experience as a base for learning;
environment-based learning; learning through guided activity and discovery;
learning through language (talk and discussion); and perceiving the aesthetic
dimension in every area.
Italy
Although curriculum content is prescribed at national level, teachers decide on
teaching methods. Currently, classes are taught by a group of two or three
teachers specialising in language, maths and science and social sciences. In
addition to collectively having a broader level of expertise than a single
teacher, they also offer pupils a variety of communicative and teaching styles.
However, planning is crucial and teams of teachers meet regularly to discuss
programmes of work and to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching strategies.
As one of the aims of recent curriculum reforms in Italy is to encourage
creativity, stimulate children’s minds and heighten their critical powers, this
has significant implications for methodology. In mathematics, for example,
primary school children are encouraged to investigate and analyse problems,
seek solutions and draw their own conclusions. The same principles apply to
the teaching of Italian. When a child makes a spelling mistake, the teacher
draws attention to it by marking it with a small dot. It is then the child’s
responsibility to establish what is wrong and how to correct it. In addition to
syntax and spelling, language work includes language awareness and
sensitivity to different registers, plus a wide range of other forms of expression
such as images, body movement and mimicry. Teaching from the front of the
classroom is a thing of the past. A recent Ministry of Education booklet
advocates group work as encouraging ‘initiative, independence and personal
responsibility’.
The Government is currently proposing to revert to the practice of a single
class teacher, supported by only a few other specialist teachers, in the belief
that a single class teacher can develop a closer relationship with the children
and their families and consequently ensure greater consistency in educational
goals, curriculum and methodology. This practice would also be less costly.
Japan
76
As a matter of policy, classes in Japanese elementary schools are organised by
age and are of mixed ability, integrating slow learners and gifted children in the
same classroom. Teachers acknowledge that children learn at different rates
but lessons are planned, according to the course of study, so that all children
are working towards a common goal. The work is paced so as to be
manageable by the majority of the class, that is, teachers often teach ‘to the
middle’, with the result that the faster children spend much time ‘off task’,
while slower children may have hardly started an exercise before they are told
the correct answer(s) by the teacher. The temptation can then be to wait for the
correct answer(s) so that these can be noted down for revision purposes.
The most common organisational strategy is whole class teaching, with all
children working on the same task in the same subject. Strict discipline is
maintained and lecturing is often the dominant teaching style because it is
difficult, in a class of up to 45 pupils, for teachers to give individual attention.
A wide range of subjects is usually taught by the class teacher. Children may
sometimes work in pairs or small groups, but always with the same objective in
mind. Teachers often try to address individual needs through ‘group learning’,
that is by putting children into groups of four to six where, it is hoped, the slow
learner will learn from the group.
School textbooks serve as the main instructional material in the classroom and
all the contents of the course of study are faithfully reflected in the textbooks
and teachers’ manuals authorised by the Ministry (MEXT). MEXT provides a
‘commentary’ which gives guidance on teaching methods, including questions
to be asked and the time to be allocated to each aspect of each subject. The
prescribed curriculum (course of study) and the structure provided by
government-approved textbooks allow teachers to concentrate their planning
on pedagogy rather than on the design of the curriculum or the detailed
planning of content and activities. Although some supplementary materials are
used, the textbooks (provided in graded series) determine in very large measure
the curriculum as experienced by the child. Children are taken systematically
through the text until its completion at the end of the year.
The Netherlands The most dominant teaching method is whole class instruction, but this
alternates with several other ways of working, including group work and topic
studies. Increasing attention is paid (especially in teacher training institutes) to
the (originally Scottish) model of integrating content, known as the ‘Storyline’
approach to learning and teaching. This is based on constructivism and on
context-based theories about interactive learning and teaching. It is intended to
increase the child’s motivation.
New Zealand At primary level, children work in a wide variety of learning situations.
They are usually based in one classroom, but may join with other classes for
some activities. In the classroom, group activities help children to learn to
share and work cooperatively. At other times, they work alone on projects.
Singapore In the light of the three new initiatives currently being implemented – thinking
skills, information technology (IT) and national education – teaching and
learning strategies are beginning to change. Until recently, the most frequent
approach was whole class instruction with teacher-talk being dominant. There
is a gradual move from a teacher-centred to a learner-centred, collaborative and
more interdisciplinary approach. The teacher plays the role of facilitator to
promote thinking and problem-solving skills, encourage children to voice their
opinions and to think laterally, and to implement group work teaching
strategies to encourage children to take responsibility for their own learning.
77
Collaborative learning strategies, group work and child-led discussions are
becoming more widespread, as is the interdisciplinary approach intended to
help children see the links between topics and across subjects. There is also a
move towards a balance between whole class, group and individual learning.
Within lessons, whole class learning is complemented by group learning,
which allows for the development of collaboration and communication skills.
Project Work (PW) was specifically introduced in 2000 to provide
opportunities for children to explore the inter-relationships and interconnectedness of subject-specific knowledge, to apply creative and critical
thinking skills, improve communication skills, foster collaborative learning
skills and develop self-directed enquiry and lifelong learning skills. Teachers
use cooperative learning strategies to promote collaboration and foster
independent learning by encouraging children to acquire the habit of reflecting
on their learning and progress. At primary level, PW is implemented as a
learning activity. The increasing use of rubrics (descriptors of expectations of
a child’s learning and the behaviours which demonstrate attainment of the
expectations) promotes active, independent learning.
In addition, the
integration of information technology (IT) in teaching and learning and the
provision of IT-based learning resources are powerful tools in empowering
children to become active, independent learners. Structurally, the needs of
children with similar talents, abilities and learning styles are met through
streaming at the end of Primary Four (age 10), which aims to place a child in a
class/stream in which the content, learning pace and approach are most suited
to him/her, so that he/she can complete primary education successfully (at the
end of Primary Six, aged 12 years). In the classroom, teachers use a variety of
teaching methodologies and learning activities to meet individual learning
styles.
Sweden
Schools determine their organisation, teaching arrangements, size of classes
etc. Children may be taught in mixed-ability groups of the same age or as
mixed age groups. Although many schools choose to group children by ability
in English, Swedish and mathematics, this generally does not begin until age
12. Sometimes children are grouped by sex, particularly for physical education
and Swedish. The key principle is to ensure that schools use individualised
teaching approaches to meet children’s varying needs. There is a growing
awareness among teachers about individual learning styles, and this is an area
increasingly covered by in-service training and courses offered to teachers.
There is a general tendency towards less ‘teaching from the front’ and more
individualisation and group work, with teaching teams often also using crosscurricular teaching and learning, and problem-based learning. Topic-based and
interdisciplinary approaches are also becoming more common.
Switzerland The widespread belief that whole class instruction is the norm in Switzerland
has recently been discredited. Individualisation of teaching, cross-subject
learning, working groups, workshops and project work are broadly accepted
and practised in primary schools. There is a range of procedures for adapting
instruction to the needs of the individual child. At primary school level, the
class teacher teaches all subjects. He or she may, however, be assisted by
specialist teachers for physical education, art, etc.
78
USA
Teaching groups are organised at local level and vary widely in structure. In
elementary schools, children are usually grouped by age, regardless of ability,
although (differentiated) smaller groups may be formed for skill development
within the classroom.
The general philosophy in Kentucky is that children develop at different rates,
with different needs and learning styles. As a result, in Kentucky’s
kindergarten (aged 5−6 years) and primary classrooms (aged 6−9 years)
children are grouped, at least part of the time, based on their skills and abilities
rather than solely by age. Primary teachers typically guide children through
lessons that are appropriate for their skills and abilities and assign them to
hands-on learning centres around the room to reinforce the learning. For
example, one group of children might work on spelling words, while a more
advanced group writes sentences and a third group works on paragraphs.
Wales
b)
Teaching methods and learning materials are determined by the class teacher,
in consultation with the headteacher and subject coordinators (classroom
teachers, who, have a specific responsibility for guiding and supporting their
colleagues in the teaching of a particular subject area). Each teacher is
responsible for planning his/her lessons and for drawing up schemes of work to
ensure that the curriculum they provide meets the statutory requirements. The
teacher is also responsible for ensuring that there are sufficient opportunities
for differentiated work for children of all abilities. Differentiation is defined as
the process of providing learning experiences which are matched to the needs,
capabilities and previous learning of individual children.
Impact of ICT on teaching practice
The use of electronic whiteboards, intranets and managed learning environments/local
grids is being encouraged and financed by governments in most of the countries. It is
difficult to estimate the extent to which teachers are using new technologies to plan
teaching and record children’s progress. However, some impressions are outlined below.
England
179
180
ImpaCT2 (1999 and 2002) involved 60 schools in England and is one of the
most comprehensive investigations into the impact of information and
communications technology (ICT) on educational attainment so far conducted
in the United Kingdom.179 The ICT Test Bed Project180 (2003-2006) will
examine how effective use of fully integrated information and communications
technology (ICT) can support school improvement and reform. The outcomes
of this activity will be carefully evaluated. The project is also designed to
identify best practice across all the different areas of activity, both within the
Test Bed schools and across the country, for subsequent wider dissemination.
It will also provide a possible model for the longer term development of ICT in
schools as a whole.
See http://www.becta.org.uk/research/reports/impact2/index.cfm.
See: http://www.dfes.gov.uk/icttestbed/
79
France
It is generally accepted that the use of electronic formats for planning is
increasing rapidly, but there has been no research in this area. Research has
recently begun into the impact of ICT on teaching practice. Although the
results are not yet available, ICT is increasingly being used in primary level
education. For example, children use word processing packages to present
their work, the Internet or databases for research, and e-mail to correspond
within and outside their own school. The availability of ICT equipment can,
however, vary considerably between areas of the country/individual schools.
Ireland
The Primary School Curriculum 1999 includes a curriculum statement booklet
for each subject. In addition, there is a set of teacher guidelines for each of the
six primary curriculum subject areas (excluding religious education). These
guidelines include extensive exemplar material and incorporate suggestions on
using information and communications technologies (ICTs) for teaching and
learning. Although ICTs do not constitute a curriculum area in their own right,
a specific booklet of guidelines for ICTs for teaching and learning has been
developed to accompany the curriculum. This provides teachers with extensive
exemplars/suggestions on how ICTs can be used to enhance teaching and
learning.
The Netherlands The use of ICT is increasing in Dutch primary schools, but there is a
lack of good educational software and educational publishers do not consider
the market to be significant enough to warrant intensive development. The
Government is promoting the Kennisnet, which is an internet-based electronic
environment for teachers and children (see below).
Singapore The ‘IT Masterplan’ has created an IT-enriched learning environment in
schools and helped to nurture a teaching force that is able and keen to explore
the opportunities that technology offers. There is prevalent use of ICT in
teaching and learning.
Teachers integrate software packages, the
Internet/Intranet and electronic devices (such as digital cameras) into their
lessons to make teaching and learning more current, relevant and interesting,
and use e-mail to communicate with children outside the classroom. Some
schools subscribe to commercial e-learning services for use by teachers and for
children’s independent learning. Ministry of Education (MOE) evaluations
have shown that a significant percentage of teachers: express interest in further
training in the use of IT to enhance the teaching process; find preparing ITbased lessons worthwhile; and want to explore more ways to integrate IT into
their teaching. Evaluations have also shown that children find that the use of
IT has made lessons more interesting, improved their knowledge, improved
their learning, encouraged them to learn beyond the curriculum and allowed
them greater interaction.
The ‘School Cockpit System’, a web-based school administration system, is
being developed to provide an integrated IT environment to help school staff in
their planning, resource management and decision-making, and in managing
children better. It includes modules in lesson planning, timetabling, academic
results’ management and physical fitness test management, among others.
80
Sweden
c)
Computers and the Internet are more commonly used now than ever before.
Municipalities have spent considerable funds on computers and developing
resource centres. The Government has also allocated extra funds to ICT
provision (under the ‘Tools for Learning’ programme). National and
international video-conferences are used in some schools as a way of enabling
learners to meet, but also as a discussion forum for teachers.
Continuing professional development for teachers
Education reforms are supported, in most countries, by continuing professional
development (CPD).
England
Teachers are required to undertake five days of CPD per year. In some cases
these are specifically linked to new initiatives. For example, some teachers
received five days training in the literacy and the numeracy strategies and then
cascaded the training to colleagues. The requirement for ongoing professional
training is mirrored in health and public services. However, as teachers are
frequently required to give up their free time to undertake additional training,
they have high expectations in terms of content, presentation, materials and
new ideas. Most courses now invite written evaluation (forms).
Hungary The 1996 Modification of the 1993 Act on Public Education requires teachers
to undertake 120 hours of professional development over seven years. There is
a five-year training plan, which takes new trends into consideration and every
school has to provide CPD for its staff. The legislation protects this
requirement from political change. The increased focus on assessment and
curriculum development includes a two-year degree course for school leaders.
Ireland
Previously, teachers could undertake five days’ CPD during their holidays and
receive three ‘personal leave days’ during the year. Now, teachers undertake
six days of compulsory CPD. This includes two days off site, followed by four
days in the classroom, when external subject specialists help teachers
implement their off-site training. This has made a significant difference and
enjoys strong support from teacher unions.
Italy
A pilot scheme of courses has been introduced involving 20-30 teachers, who
focus on their identified needs and expectations, and use their materials,
videos, observations, documentation and student work. Initial experiences
have shown that about half of each group would change their approach in the
classroom. However, the high cost of such courses means that only a limited
number of teachers can be involved.
Japan
The Law for Special Regulations Concerning Educational Public Service
Personnel requires teachers to pursue permanent continuing professional
development. The minimum number of hours of training required per year is
determined by each local board of education. Systematic programmes are
conducted at various levels. At national level, the Ministry (MEXT) holds
‘central workshops ‘for the in-service training of principals, vice-principals,
and coordinating and advising teachers who play the leading role in different
81
subject areas at prefectural level. Prefectural boards of education are legally
responsible for planning and encouraging daily in-service training in local
public schools. Prefectural boards conduct periodic in-service training at
different stages of a teacher’s career, for example, after five years, 10 years and
20 years of service and send teachers to universities, research institutes, private
firms and other institutions for long-term training to improve their professional
competence and their social character.
Korea
The purpose of the in-service training of elementary teachers is to help to
improve educational quality, to establish desirable views of the teaching
profession, and to cope with the rapidly changing society of the 21st century.
It is offered in the following categories: training for certificates (30 days: 180
hours); general training (10 days: 60 hours); professional training; special
training (2–3 year programme); and overseas training.
The Netherlands Teachers are required to undertake professional development as part of
their professional engagement. All schools have a CPD budget; any unspent
allocation reverts to the Government. At present, services must be obtained
from the local Teachers’ Centre but, from 2005, schools will have a free choice
of training provider.
New Zealand Teachers are trained (and paid) during their holidays to use videos in the
assessment of student learning. It is generally accepted that teaching practice
can best be changed by providing support, within the classroom, to enable
teachers to develop student learning: by showing (corrective), by making
meaning (using teacher experience of when students are engaged, constructivist
approach) and by securing feedback in groups in a community of learners
(multiple conversations about an issue).
Singapore Teachers are entitled to 100 hours of CPD annually. This includes compulsory
courses to support education priorities (for example. ICT and curriculum
change), and optional courses in personal effectiveness, leadership and
management etc. Schools receive a budget for optional courses, some of which
are centrally funded.
Spain
CPD is not compulsory but it can influence a teacher’s promotion prospects
and salary. Courses, seminars and lectures take place outside school hours.
Sweden
Teachers are required to undertake 13 days of CPD per year, but schools fund
training and determine priorities. CPD is of variable quality; in school training
has traditionally been poor. As a result, the National Agency for Education
(Skolverket) had begin to offer courses to schools.
Switzerland Teachers are positive and enthusiastic about training, but research shows little
evidence of its effect on teaching.
82
3.6 Teaching and Learning Materials
Resources can have a considerable impact on teaching and learning. On the one hand, they
may serve as a guide (or requirement) concerning what is to be taught and how, and on the
other, a lack of appropriate books and other materials may inhibit children’s learning. The
resources considered here are: textbooks, materials to support specific curricular initiatives,
and online resources, which are increasing in number as ICT developments gather pace.
a)
Textbooks
In some countries (Japan and Korea) the textbook is the principal teaching tool. In Japan,
no textbook can be used without Ministry authorisation. This is intended to guarantee the
citizen’s right to receive (equality of) education and to raise standards of education. In
Singapore, the Ministry produces texts for certain subjects at primary level, such as mother
tongue languages, civic and moral education, and social studies. For other subjects, the
Ministry reviews and authorises materials produced by commercial publishers for use in
schools.
By contrast, New Zealand’s is not a textbook-based curriculum. Figures 17 and 18
(overleaf) outline the control and choice and the production and provision of textbooks,
respectively.
83
Figure 17 Control and choice of primary school textbooks
Australia
Canada
England
France
Germany
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Korea
Netherlands
New Zealand
Singapore
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
State approval of textbooks
No
Province or territory provides
recommended list of approved titles
No
State prescribes content and format, and
provides list of approved texts
Länder prescribe cost, content, format and
quality and provides list of approved
textbooks. RE textbooks are approved with
the agreement of the church authorities
State generally prescribes content and
provides approved list
No
State guidance on cost and frequency of
updates, but does not prescribe or approve
State approved, commercially-produced
books with prescribed content every four
years
Ministry compiles, authorises or approves
textbooks
Ministry prescribes educational attainment
targets, but does not prescribe – or produce
– specific teaching materials
Books are not subject to state approval
All books on the ‘Approved Textbook List’
are approved by Ministry for five years
No prescription, but the Autonomous
Community usually issues a recommended
list. Current proposals to end textbook
authorisation, although textbooks would
continue to respect the principles of the
Spanish Constitution and the core
curriculum requirements
No
Cantons prescribe content and provide
recommended lists for compulsory phase
USA
About half of the states recommend
textbooks.
Wales
The State does not approve or prescribe
textbooks
181
84
Choice of books for use in class
Teachers – free choice
District or school selects from
recommended list
Teachers’ choice181
Teachers choose from approved list
Teachers choose from approved list.
Sometimes subject to Schools Inspectorate
approval or consultation with
representatives of parents and children
Teachers choose from recommended list,
but can select additional material
Teachers – free choice
Council of teachers – free choice
Local boards of education choose books
from prescribed list
Single textbook now replaced by a range of
(government-copyrighted and approved)
textbooks for individual subjects, enabling
teachers/schools to choose
Headteachers and class teachers – free
choice
Teachers – free choice
Teachers choose from Approved Textbook
List
Schools/teachers choose, usually from
recommended list
Teachers – free choice
Apart from a few compulsory textbooks
(e.g. for language and mathematics)
teachers choose from a range
Teacher choice; in about half of the states
from approved list. In California, for
example, schools may only opt out of the
state-recommended textbook system with an
official waiver
Teachers – free choice (see footnote 180)
England and Wales: The programmes of study for English (and, in Wales, Welsh) contain criteria and
categories from which teachers select the range of reading.
Approval
Textbooks are not subject to state approval in Australia, England, Ireland, Italy, the
Netherlands, New Zealand, Sweden, about half the states in the USA and Wales. In the
USA, the large populations of children in California and Texas (and consequently their
textbook purchasing power) allow these states to have a substantial influence on textbooks
offered for sale in other states. In countries where textbooks are not prescribed, curriculum
guidelines, required learning outcomes and predominant teaching styles affect the content.
Moreover, the state may provide guidance on cost and frequency of updates (Italy) or
criteria for evaluating and choosing books (England, the Netherlands).
In the remaining countries,182 the national or sub-national authorities (state, province,
Land, Autonomous Community, canton) prescribe or approve school textbooks. Most
commonly, there is a list of approved or recommended titles, which is revised at intervals
ranging from one (Hungary) to five years (Singapore). In Japan, almost all of the
textbooks are produced by private textbook publishers subject to State approval. The State
produces a very small number of highly specialised books − 75 out of 1,135 in 2002 −
which commercial firms are unwilling to produce.
Selection of books for use in class
Teachers are generally free to choose textbooks for their children,183 although in Japan,
Korea, Singapore, Spain, Switzerland, and about half the states in the USA, the choice
must be made from a recommended or approved list. In Canada, choices from the
approved list are made at the district or school level. In Germany, the approval of the
Schools’ Inspectorate may be required and some Länder also have rules for consulting
representatives of both parents and children. In Korea, the practice of a single prescribed
textbook has been replaced by a system of multiple government-copyrighted and approved
textbooks for individual subjects, enabling teachers/schools to choose from a range.
Reviews in professional publications and suggested reading lists184 can influence schools’
or teachers’ choices.
182
183
184
Canada, France, Germany, Hungary, Japan, Korea, Singapore, Spain, Switzerland and about half the
states in the USA.
Australia, England, Italy, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Sweden, Wales and about half of the states in
the USA.
In England, the programmes of study for English at key stages 1-4 contain criteria and categories from
which to select the range of reading.
85
Criteria for textbooks
Several countries have produced explicit criteria according to which textbooks may be
evaluated. These criteria primarily relate to:
♦
relevance to, and compliance with, the curriculum (France, Germany, Hungary, Japan,
Singapore and Spain)
♦
appropriateness for the class for which they are intended (France and Spain)
♦
textbooks including activities to enhance the learning experiences of children of a range
of abilities, such as support and extension activities (Singapore and Spain)
♦
textbooks reflecting research findings (Germany)
♦
availability of teachers’ guides and other support materials (Singapore) or, conversely,
the ability of the textbook to stand alone (France), and
♦
presentation (Singapore), quality and price (Germany), and frequency of updates
(Spain).
The National Institute for Curriculum Development (SLO) in the Netherlands produces a
consumer guide to teaching materials to help schools compare existing and new products.
It is commissioned by the Government to analyse textbooks for mathematics and the Dutch
language on a regular basis. The results are published on the Internet. The analysis uses
the following criteria:
♦
Are the demands of the core curricular objectives addressed in the textbook?
♦
What is the didactic quality (that is, how useful is the textbook as a teaching and
learning aid)?
♦
Does the textbook allow for differentiated teaching within a group?
♦
Are there specific indications for evaluation and assessment?
♦
How does the textbook deal with the complexity of the multicultural society and the
different social and cultural backgrounds of children?
♦
What does the textbook say about gender issues, equity and equality?
♦
How manageable is the textbook for the teacher?
♦
How much time is required to complete the tasks required by the textbook?
86
Figure 18 Production and provision of primary school textbooks
Australia
Canada
England
France
Textbook production
Mostly commercial. Some Boards of
Studies publish support materials
Commercial (by approval). Provinces
produce and pilot test books in schools
Commercial
Commercial – state approved. Local or
regional associations and documentation
centres sometimes produce teaching
materials as a local supplement to those
published for national use
Germany
Commercial – approved by each of 16
Länder
Hungary
Commercial (state approved). The state
underwrites bank loans to publishing
companies
Ireland
Commercial. Department of Education and
Science provides guidelines and may
produce or commission materials for
distribution to schools
Commercial
State or commercial with state approval
Italy
Japan
Korea
Netherlands
New Zealand
Singapore
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
USA
Wales
185
State, or commercial with state
authorisation or approval
Commercial
Commercial textbooks are rarely purchased
for use in primary education. Learning
Media 185, a crown-owned company,
publishes a range of resources (school
journals, a Ready to Read series, etc.) free
to (mainly primary) schools. The use of
these texts is not mandatory
State and commercial with state approval
Commercial, under state supervision. The
Centre for Educational Research and
Documentation (CIDE) assists in the
development, drawing up and dissemination
of curriculum materials and teacher guides
Commercial
Cantons (compulsory phase)
Commercial dominated by about ten main
corporations
Commercial
Textbook provision
Parents generally buy books, or pay a levy to
schools for book hire
School usually provides books free of charge
School lends
Communes fund loan of primary school books.
About 10 per cent of parents pay. Credits not
used for textbooks can be used to purchase
other educational materials, such as audiovisual equipment, video cassettes etc,
especially that which is produced by the
Centre national de documentation
pédagogique (CNDP) (National Centre for
Educational Documents/Information)
School provides on loan. In rare cases,
children in publicly-funded schools make a
small payment
School grant covers 20 to 30 per cent of
textbook costs. Schools may subsidise the
cost for all students, or provide free books for
the most needy. State funds for minority
language education
Parents buy or rent books from schools. Some
state subsidies available
Provided free at primary level
Children in compulsory education receive new
books annually in every subject except PE,
free (to keep)
Ministry provides free books for primary
school children to keep
School provides at primary level on loan
School provides (loaned, parents contribute
for damage or loss). Parents buy
supplementary materials. (Parents providing
their children with approved home-based
schooling are given an annual grant to help
with the cost of learning materials)
Parents buy, free for needy
Parents buy (grants for families with low
incomes, large families, single-parent families,
orphans, and children with special educational
needs, were increased from 2002)
School provides
Cantons/municipalities provide
Schools usually provide books to children free
of charge. Some states (for example,
Wisconsin) charge all but the most needy
School provides on loan
http://www.learningmedia.co.nz
87
Production
As indicated in Figure 18, textbooks are produced by state or commercial publishers.
Government influence or control varies. Inevitably, even in countries where no formal
control is exercised (England, Italy, New Zealand, Sweden, Wales), curriculum regulations
or guidelines provide a steer. Elsewhere, texts are prescribed or subject to approval in all
or parts of the relevant country.
In most cases, education ministries or official education agencies provide guidance and
support materials for teachers, often free of charge. This is particularly the case where
specific curriculum initiatives are introduced, for example for literacy and numeracy
programmes in England, or for citizenship education in Australia (see b below). Such
materials are increasingly made available online (see c below).
In the overwhelming majority of countries, primary teachers may produce their own
teaching and learning materials, but most teachers use published materials. However, in
Switzerland, ‘do-it-yourself’ teaching-materials are illegal as the main basis for instruction.
Provision of books
In Australia, Singapore, Spain and some states of the USA, parents buy school textbooks,
although free or subsidised books may be available for the needy. Elsewhere, schools
provide the necessary textbooks on loan, and parents may be asked to pay if the books are
damaged or lost. Free textbooks are issued annually in Japan and Korea and children may
keep them.
b)
Resources for specific initiatives
Some materials are provided explicitly to support government initiatives or projects
commissioned by school authorities, or to bring about changes in teaching approaches.
Examples include:
Australia The implementation of the ‘Discovering Democracy’ programme was
supported by materials provided by central government. In Victoria, schools
have been provided with specially developed packages of materials to assist
teacher professional development in connection with the standardised
assessment Achievement Improvement Monitor (AIM) programme.
England
88
Some materials arise from government initiatives (for example, non-statutory
schemes of work and teaching frameworks for the National Literacy and
Numeracy Strategies).
France
With the introduction of the revised primary level curriculum from September
2002, which includes the study of either a foreign or regional language for all
primary school children, new teaching materials have been developed centrally
to support teachers in the implementation of this initiative.
Ireland
In March 2002, a new statutory body was established to promote Irish-medium
education and the teaching and learning of the Irish language in general. The
Council for Gaeltacht and Gaelscoil Education will have an advisory and
supporting role in Irish language (Gaeilge) education, in the planning and
coordination of textbooks and learning aids and in the development of policies
to facilitate education through the medium of Irish.
New Zealand Materials for teachers – to support classroom literacy and numeracy
programmes – are provided by central government (via the Ministry of
Education). The Ministry provides teachers with a school-entry assessment kit,
including a teachers’ guide and a video designed to provide on-going in-school
support. The kit is available in English and Maori for teachers of children in
Maori language immersion education.
Singapore Curricular change is supported by the provision of teaching and learning
resources, which are coordinated and funded by the Ministry of Education
(MOE). In the case of the national education (NE) programme, a compendium
of resources was provided and a website was set up to house information about
various events and programmes and as a repository of good ideas for teachers
to draw on. NE seminars are organised for personnel responsible for
developing and leading the implementation of NE programmes.
In late 2001, the Ministry of Education launched a multimedia resource
package (entitled ‘Curious Minds’) to enhance the teaching of sex education at
upper primary level (children aged 11 to 12 years). Including a video and CDROM, the resources have been developed following the October 2000
introduction of the ‘Framework for Sexuality Education’ for schools in
Singapore.
Sweden
The National Agency for Education (Skolverket) provided teaching resources
for the values education programme ‘About This You Must Tell’.
Switzerland New curriculum materials have been developed to support the teaching of
English in primary schools.
Wales
To help schools in Wales deliver the curriculum, the commissioning strategy of
the Qualifications, Curriculum and Assessment Authority for Wales (ACCAC)
seeks to improve the range of educational opportunity available through the
medium of Welsh, and increase children’s opportunities to enhance their
knowledge and understanding of the Wales-specific aspects of the curriculum.
The strategy includes provision for the development of information technology
materials.
89
c)
Online resources
An important trend since 1997 has been the development of Internet sites, by ministries
and curriculum bodies, to provide teaching and learning materials and guidance for
teachers. Some of these are listed below. These URLs were accurate and active on 28
May 2003.
Australia
♦
A network of teachers provides reviews of recommended curriculum resources to
AccessED, a branch of Education Queensland, which disseminates this information
to schools on a searchable database known as ‘Classroom Resource Reviews’.
[http://education.qld.gov.au/accessed/]
♦
In 2002, the Queensland Education Department (Education Queensland) launched
‘The Learning Place’, a gateway to online learning for teachers and children with
access to the latest software, online discussion forums and curriculum resources.
[http://education.qld.gov.au/learningplace]
♦
The Curriculum and Standards Framework (CSF) online curriculum resource,
entitled curriculum@work, offers course advice and curriculum support materials for
teachers in Victoria on the revised curriculum introduced in 2000 (CSF II).
[http://www.sofweb.vic.edu.au/catw/]
♦
The Victorian State Department of Education has provided professional development
resources for teachers, and information for parents, on the Early Years Literacy and
Numeracy Programmes: Preparatory to Year 4 classes (aged five to 10 years).
[http://www.sofweb.vic.edu.au/eys]
Canada
♦
The National Portal For Canadian Educators offers a wide range of online resources.
[http://www.teachcanada.ca/]
♦
Curriculum Services Canada (CSC) is Canada’s standards agency for the
accreditation of educational resources. [http://www.curriculum.org]
♦
Under the Western Canadian Protocol, the four Western Canadian provinces and
three northern territories (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, British Columbia,
Yukon Territory, Nunavut, and Northwest Territories) have established a common
kindergarten to Grade/Year 12 curriculum. [http://www.wcp.ca]
♦
The British Columbia ICT and Technology Resources website aims to help teachers
integrate technology into the classroom. [http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/technology/]
♦
The Ontario elementary school programmes of study are available online and include
exemplars, resource documents and sample year-end tasks and tests.
[http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/document/curricul/elemcurric.html]
♦
The Saskatchewan ‘Evergreen’ Curriculum site provides access to a range of
resources. [http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/evergrn.html]
90
England
♦
The official National Curriculum website provides access to the National Curriculum
programmes of study at all key stages and for all subjects, and links to relevant
teaching resources. Teachers generally use the programmes of study186 for each
subject area of the National Curriculum as the basis for planning schemes of work
for the children in their classes. [http://www.nc.uk.net]
♦
The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) produces optional schemes of
work for primary teachers for the teaching of science, information and
communication technology, design and technology, history, geography, art and
design, music, physical education (PE), religious education (RE), and for (nonstatutory) modern foreign languages at key stage 2, and citizenship education at key
stages 1 and 2 [http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes/]. QCA guidance and
ideas to support the planning and teaching of swimming activities and water safety as
part of the PE national curriculum are also available online.
[http://www.nc.uk.net/safeswimming/]
♦
The QCA National Curriculum in Action website is designed primarily for teachers
and senior managers working in schools, and uses children’s work and case study
material as examples of what the National Curriculum looks like in practice. It
exemplifies the standard of children’s work at different ages and key stages, and
shows how the programmes of study translate into activities.
[http://www.ncaction.org.uk/]
♦
The British Educational Communications and Technology Agency (BECTA) is the
focus for expertise in the use of technology in learning. [http://www.becta.org.uk]
♦
The National Grid for Learning (NGfL) initiative aims to provide a wealth of online
teaching and learning materials and research outcomes. [http://www.ngfl.gov.uk]
♦
The Department for Education and Skills’ Curriculum Online site is an online
catalogue of digital learning resources, including lesson plans, CD-ROMs,
interactive videos, simulation software, assessment materials and online services
organised by National Curriculum programmes of study, QCA schemes of work and
topics. [http://www.curriculumonline.gov.uk]
♦
TeacherNet has been developed by the Department for Education and Skills as a
resource to support the education profession. [http://www.teachernet.gov.uk/]
France
Most of the following information is in French.
♦
186
‘Bienvenue sur education.fr’ is a website portal providing access to various French
education ministry and agency websites, and to online teaching resources.
[http://www.education.fr/]
Programmes of study set out the minimum statutory entitlement for what children should be taught in
each subject and in each key stage.
91
Germany
Online resources in Germany are in the German language and provided by the Education
Departments in the 16 Länder.
♦
Baden-Wuerttemberg Education Department
[http://www.baden-wuerttemberg.de/land/lernen]
♦
Bavaria State Ministry of Education, Cultural Affairs, Science and the Arts
[http://www.stmukwk.bayern.de/]
♦
Berlin Education [http://www.berlin.de/bildung/]
♦
Brandenburg State Ministry for Science, Research and Education
[http://www.brandenburg.de/~mwfk/]
♦
Bremen und Bremerhaven Education [http://www.bildung.bremen.de]
♦
Hamburg [http://www.hamburg.de/]
♦
Hessen State Ministry for Education and Science
[http://www.hmwk.hessen.de/home/]
♦
Lower Saxony (Niedersachsen) Ministry of Education
[http://www.niedersachsen.de/]
♦
Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania State Ministry of Education
[http://www.kultus-mv.de]
♦
North Rhine Westfalia State Ministry of Education, Science and Research
[http://www.mswf.nrw.de/]
♦
Rhineland-Palatinate State Ministry for Education, Women and Youth
[http://www.mbww.rpl.de/web2/web/seiten/bildung/frameset/f_bild.htm]
♦
Saarland State Ministry of Education, Culture and Science
[http://www.bildung.saarland.de]
♦
Saxony Education [http://www.sachsen.de/de/bw/index.html]
♦
Saxony-Anhalt State Ministry of Education, Science and Culture
[http://www.mk.sachsen-anhalt.de/min/wiss_forsch/forschung/fofoe/index.htm]
♦
Schlweswig-Holstein State Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Research
[http://www.schleswig-holstein.de/landsh/mbwfk/index.html]
♦
Thueringen Education [http://www.thueringen.de/tkm/index.html]
Hungary
The author is unable to identify specific online learning support materials as the majority
of the web pages are in Hungarian.
♦
National Institute of Public Education [http://www.oki.hu/english.asp]
Ireland
♦
92
ScoilNet, an Internet network for Irish schools managed centrally by the National
Centre for Technology in Education (NCTE), aims to provide information, advice
and support to schools, teachers, children and parents on ICT issues generally.
[http://www.ScoilNet.ie/]
Italy
The author is unable to identify specific online learning support materials as the majority
of the web pages are in Italian.
♦
Ministry of Public Education website. [http://www.istruzione.it/]
♦
The Biblioteca di Documentazione Pedagogica, the library of educational
documentation. [http://www.bdp.it/]
Japan
Most of the following information is in Japanese.
♦
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) website.
[http://www.mext.go.jp/english/index.htm]
♦
The Japan Information Network’s website. [http://jin.jcic.or.jp]
Korea
Most of the following information is in Korean.
♦
The Korea Education and Research Information Service (KERIS) was established in
April 1999 to develop high quality educational software for use in schools.
[http://www.keris.or.kr/english/index.jsp]
♦
EDUNET is a free system for teachers, children and parents which provides access to
information on learning materials by theme, teacher guides, educational software,
research reports and theses, bulletin boards, education counselling facilities, open
discussion forums, information about educational organisations, and statistical data
on education. [http://www.kedi.re.kr]
♦
The Korean Educational Development Institute (KEDI) conducts fundamental and
comprehensive research on educational goals and methods and presents practical and
creative policy solutions, which address the present and future educational needs of
Korean society. [http://www.kedi.re.kr]
♦
The Korea Institute of Curriculum and Evaluation (KICE) is an organization which
functions to improve school education through comprehensive and systematic
research and development of school curriculum, textbooks, instructional materials
and educational evaluations, and to provide schools with practical and exemplary
programs and services for quality education.
[http://www.kice.re.kr/NEW2003/index.html]
The Netherlands
Most of the following information is in Dutch.
♦
Kennisnet (‘Knowledge Network’) is an Internet-based electronic network to which
all schools are linked. [http://www.kennisnet.nl]
♦
The Dutch National Institute for Curriculum Development (SLO) site provides
information on curriculum policy (such as the core objectives/attainment targets), as
93
well as teaching and learning materials and support for teachers. De Didactobank,
for example, provides materials and guidance on how to integrate ICT into lessons
across the curriculum. [http://www.slo.nl/]
♦
The National Institute for Educational Measurement (CITO). [http://www.cito.nl/]
New Zealand
♦
The Ministry of Education’s Online Learning Centre is a bilingual portal for New
Zealand’s schools, which offers access to curriculum-related materials from state and
commercial sources. [http://www.tki.org.nz].
♦
The Ministry has also produced an exemplification website for teachers to view
‘authentic samples of children’s work annotated to illustrate learning, achievement
and quality in relation to the levels described in the relevant New Zealand National
Curriculum Statement’ [http://www.tki.org.nz/e/assessment/] and a website to
support the literacy and numeracy strategy for children in Years 1 to 8 of compulsory
education [http://www.tki.org.nz/e/literacy].
Singapore
♦
As part of the ‘Singapore One’ programme, launched in early 1998 to provide a
single electronic network to serve everyone in Singapore, every child has been given
access to the national multimedia network, including access to the Internet, a range
of information sources and local television and video programmes. Further details
are available from the Ministry of Education IT website at
http://www1.moe.edu.sg/iteducation/
♦
Staff development resources are available through VITAL, the e-learning portal
which aims to allow beginning teachers, students from the Gifted Education
programme and some Ministry staff to learn ‘at their own time, own pace and own
place’. [http://www.vital.moe.edu.sg/intro/index.htm]
Spain
Most of the following information is in Spanish.
♦
The Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport’s website [http://www.mec.es/].
♦
The Centre for Educational Research and Documentation (CIDE).
[http://www.mec.es/cide]
♦
The National Institute for Quality and Evaluation (INCE). [http://www.ince.mec.es/]
Sweden
♦
94
The Swedish Schoolnet is the website for teachers, educators and children, provided
by the National Agency for Education (Skolverket). It aims to stimulate the use of
information and communications technology (ICT) in schools, by providing a
practical guide on integrating ICT into the classroom, and a source of information. It
is a ‘portal for schools, by schools, and about schools’, which aims to offer an
extensive choice of services and information. The contents are selected and checked
for quality and functionality; they must be relevant to, and directly applicable in
schools. [http://www.skolverket.se/skolnet/english/index.html]
Switzerland
Most of the following information is in French, German or Italian.
The site of the Swiss Conference of Cantonal Ministers of Education (EDK) provides
♦
information on the education system and research. [http://edkwww.unibe.ch/]
♦
Educanet is part of the Swiss portal for education and provides support for the use of
ICT in education and training in French, German and Italian.
[http://www.educanet.ch/]
♦
The Canton of Geneva offers an educational support site for educators (in French) at
http://wwwedu.ge.ch/eep/.
USA
Online support is provided by state and district authorities, for example:
a) National
United States Department of Education website. [http://www.ed.gov/]
♦
♦
United States Department of Education No Child Left Behind website (President
Bush’s Education Law 2002). [http://www.nochildleftbehind.gov/]
♦
The National Association for the Education of Young Children.
[http://www.naeyc.org/]
♦
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).
[http://www.ascd.org]
♦
National Assessment Governing Board (NAGB) (Responsible for NAEP
assessment). [http://www.nagb.org/]
♦
The National Home Education Research Institute. [http://www.nheri.org]
b) States included in the INCA Archive
♦
Kentucky Department of Education. [http://www.kde.state.ky.us/]
♦
Maryland State Department of Education. [http://www.msde.state.md.us/]
♦
Massachusetts Department of Education. [http://www.doe.mass.edu/]
♦
Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. [http://www.dpi.state.wi.us]
Wales
♦
The Qualifications, Curriculum and Assessment Authority for Wales (ACCAC)
website provides access to the National Curriculum Orders for the statutory subjects
of the National Curriculum in Wales. [http://www.accac.org.uk]
♦
The Welsh Language Board website offers access to some resources in Welsh.
[http://www.bwrdd-yr-iaith.org.uk/]
♦
The British Educational Communications and Technology Agency (BECTA) is the
focus for expertise in the use of technology in learning. [http://www.becta.org.uk]
♦
The National Grid for Learning (NGfL) initiative aims to provide a wealth of online
teaching and learning materials. [http://www.ngfl.gov.uk]
95
4. INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR
Chapter 3 of this report outlined policies and provision as indicated in government
documentation, and responses to the questionnaire developed for the study from the 18
countries which are currently included in the INCA Archive. Information on Northern
Ireland is limited, because the curriculum in that country is being reformed (see
http://www.ccea.org.uk/currreview.htm). The main purpose of the seminar was to explore
issues arising from the implementation of policy. The seminar included representatives
from 15 of the countries in the INCA project (see Annex 2), as well as from Scotland,
which hopes to join the project in the near future.
Participants are informed professionals, who speak from a position of authoritative
knowledge and experience, but do not necessarily reflect the official view of their agency
or of their government. It is for this reason that we report their perceptions separately,
under three main headings:
1. key priorities for primary education
2. issues which arise from current policies and provision
3. visions for the future of primary education.
4.1 Key Priorities
Seminar participants were asked to list the two or three key priorities in primary education
in their country. It is clear from the following that there are a number of preoccupations
which are shared by most, if not all, countries.
England
A key priority is to explore ways of giving teachers more control over the
curriculum, while at the same time ensuring this does not result in unacceptable
variations in quality and standards within and between schools.
We also need to find the space to provide the kind of experiences for pupils
which enrich the curriculum and promote creativity, such as visits to places of
interest locally and further afield, and working with adults with expert
knowledge and skills in the creative arts.
The National Curriculum introduced to schools in 1988 was seen as overly
prescriptive and unmanageable. Subsequent revisions and the 2000 revision of
the curriculum have reduced prescription and given schools greater flexibility.
In addition to this, new legislation (in the Education Act 2002) has focused on
exploring further potential freedoms for schools. Successful schools might, for
96
example, be granted greater freedom to determine the nature of their
curriculum (‘earned autonomy’).
The National Literacy and National Numeracy Strategies and the focus on
targets for achievement, have had a major impact on the organisation of the
primary curriculum in schools. There has been a tendency for more singlesubject teaching, rather than ‘topics’ integrating different subjects. There is,
however, a move back toward the linking of subjects and for teachers to plan
and teach in a more interdisciplinary way.
France
The May 2002 elections retained the President and changed the parliamentary
majority to a right wing coalition. There is a tendency towards decentralisation
in some fields, but control over the curriculum, examinations and teacher
careers remains, at present, at the national level. The primary curriculum
introduced in September 2002 replaces the 1995 curriculum.
A major priority in the revised curriculum is literacy – two to two-and-a half
hours a day for children in primary phase education.
Greater emphasis is also to be placed on memory training and literature.
Foreign languages are to be offered to all children at primary level. Language
choice is the subject of debate; over 80 per cent of parents/children currently
choose English, although they are being encouraged to select other languages.
ICT development is also crucial in the primary level curriculum, as is the
importance of experimental science.
Hungary The 2002 election led to a new government and new ideas. As a result, the
current key issues for primary education include:
Ireland
♦
A balance between compulsory, general/academic knowledge and skill
development.
♦
A move from a centralised to a more decentralised curriculum.
♦
Influenced by Hungary’s performance in the OECD PISA project, the
development of high standards of literacy and numeracy, including
improved text comprehension and the strengthening of general learning
abilities.
The first ever guidelines for teachers of children with learning difficulties have
been produced. Other guidelines for other special educational needs (SEN)
teachers are also being drafted. These will include guidelines for children with
physical disabilities and for gifted and talented pupils.
Work is continuing on a curriculum framework for 0-6 education; this involves
consultation with (largely voluntary) pre-school providers.
The gradual phasing in of the revised (1999) primary curriculum (two subjects
each year) has created overload. As a result, and to provide teachers with a
97
break from continuous change, there is to be a year’s moratorium to review the
curriculum.
Italy
The new Government, elected in May 2001, approved new educational
legislation in early 2003. The previous Government had approved a wideranging curriculum reform, and had prepared and trained teachers for its
implementation. This earlier proposed reform has now been replaced by
completely different proposals under the new Government.
Instead of having two to three teachers, who are specialists in different subject
areas working with the same class, the Government proposes to return to one
(generalist) class teacher for each class, supported by a limited number of
specialist teachers for a few hours each week.
Literacy and the core curriculum will have priority and there will be less
emphasis on the arts, music, physical education (PE) and foreign languages,
which may become non-compulsory.
The Minister has (re)introduced a requirement for religious education teaching
and the celebration of Roman Catholic feast days to ‘protect Italy’s national
identity’. (Some schools are not implementing this, as they perceive there to be
many identities.)
There is also to be a reversal of the previous Government’s decentralisation of
curriculum control (15 per cent was given over to the regional authorities).
The aim is to conserve tradition and culture in schools. (Some feel that this is a
move against intercultural education.)
Children will also be allowed to enter compulsory education earlier. Those
who become six before 28 February will be able to start school in the preceding
September.
Japan
In April 2002, the school week was reduced from six to five days. The time
‘freed up’ was intended to be used to build competencies. Parents fear this will
lower achievement.
There has been a review of attitudes to learning; this is no longer regarded as
the transmission of knowledge, but rather as the ability to learn how to learn
and to make clear judgements. Many worry that the new curriculum’s
emphasis on knowledge and skills will not be enough to survive in society.
‘Real life competencies’ have widespread support, but it remains a challenge to
teach these within the 2002 curriculum.
There is a belief that better teachers are required, along with improved
equipment and more research into teacher quality. There is also some
discussion as to what parents can or should do to help.
98
Korea
The key issues for Korea are
♦
♦
assisting teachers to implement the changes resulting from the Seventh
National Curriculum reform, which:
−
reduced curriculum content by 30 per cent and gave more
discretionary time to schools, in particular for creative activities
−
introduced compulsory English language learning (one hour per
week in Grades 3-4, aged eight to 10 years) and two hours per
week in Grades 5-6, 10- to 12-year-olds)
−
organised the curriculum into 12 levels, each of which takes a
semester. Students who do not pass the test at the end of each
level/semester repeat the course
−
requires teachers to use and integrate ICT across the curriculum
(teachers are not yet trained to do this).
Raising the reputation of the public education system. Teachers are
currently faced with a wide gap in knowledge and performance between
the increasing numbers of pupils who have participated in (private) outof-school lessons (particularly) in numeracy, art and English, and those
who have not.
The Netherlands There is currently a teacher shortage due to the reduced status of the
profession of primary teacher. As a result, some children are being sent home,
especially in the larger cities.
There is a tension between the role and position of generalist and specialist
teachers; between pedagogical and subject knowledge. There is a move
towards specialisation in art, religious education (RE), science and information
and communications technology (ICT).
The system needs to evolve to deal with the differences in cultural background,
learning capacities and language skills of some pupils (particularly those with
Dutch as a second language).
Approaches to teaching and learning are evolving too. There is some tension
between the (dominant) behaviouristic approach and the move towards
constructivism.
The most important key issue is that of bringing motivation back into schools,
and giving the child ownership of the development process. There is some
belief that schools are reducing motivation by killing curiosity.
New Zealand The current curriculum was sequentially developed over 10 years, subject
area by subject area. A formal reflection, or Stocktake187, was completed in
2002, and raised the following key issues:
187
See: http://www.tki.org.nz/r/stocktake/index_e.php
99
♦
how to implement changes without scaring teachers
♦
the introduction of an ongoing review process based on international and
national outcomes
♦
the main focus of the curriculum is on outcomes; these must be expressed
more clearly to help parents and the community understand the purpose
♦
there is a need to link pedagogy and assessment in a way that has not been
done before – not by reducing class sizes but by looking at the complex
context within which students learn, and enabling teachers to set up the
conditions which motivate students to work alone and with others, and
engage in self directed learning
♦
teachers need help to support self-directed learning. Current initiatives,
such as the use of videos in staff development to enable teachers to study
what they do, and the interactions between children-children and
children-teachers need to be further developed to ensure the focus moves
from the activity to the learning process
♦
the need to cope with an increasingly diverse population (including children
with English as a second language), through equitable opportunities and
inclusive pedagogies
♦
the early years link with the national curriculum needs to be more explicit.
Future curriculum development may include broad grouping of
frameworks for the birth−8 and 8−18 age ranges.
Northern Ireland The Northern Ireland Assembly is currently suspended. In the interim,
policy is being taken forward by direct-rule Ministers appointed from
Westminster (London). The main educational issues being addressed through
the current review of the Northern Ireland curriculum include:
♦
the transition from a prescriptive to more a flexible curriculum
♦
a stronger focus on the development of skills, with curriculum content seen
as a vehicle for skills development
♦
an emphasis on literacy, numeracy and ICT, but with a flexible approach
♦
the introduction of a new Foundation Stage for children aged four to six,
based on central European research which suggests that deferring the
formal learning of reading and writing promotes better learning, more
independent thinking and self-motivation
♦
developing teachers’ skills: to promote pupils’ skills, lifelong learning and
ICT; to build assessment into teaching for the purposes of learning – not
simply for reasons of accountability; and to handle personal, emotional
and health and sexuality issues, including aspects of citizenship.
Scotland National Elections are expected to take place in May 2003.
Scotland has no statutory curriculum and the Government is committed to
greater autonomy for schools, flexibility and pupil choice. Legislation is
implemented by 32 local authorities.
100
A national debate on education in the 21st century, involving all stakeholders,
is currently taking place.
The Government response, Educating for
188
Excellence, has set the agenda for a five-year review. Unlike previous
subject-by-subject reviews, this review of the whole curriculum for ages 3−18
will establish a common framework comprising a single set of principles and a
set of core skills and review the content, to tackle overcrowding.
A three-year review (in its broadest sense) of assessment for 3−18-year-olds is
also in hand. This will support learning and the management of learning, but
also look at a new generation of national tests and means of monitoring
learning.
Singapore Key priorities include re-orientating the mindsets of stakeholders in education
and changing systems and structures to place greater emphasis on holistic
development.
As a young nation with multiracial and multicultural diversity, racial harmony
is critical to Singapore’s stability and progress. One key issue for education is
to strengthen racial harmony through citizenship education.
Singapore is also looking at how to strengthen the teaching and learning of
process skills, interdisciplinary connections and communication skills. The
focus is to nurture thinking individuals and active learners.
Spain
A new law – on quality of education – passed in December 2002, which will be
phased in from the 2003-2004 school year, will have some impact on the
curricula in primary and secondary education.
It is generally agreed that teaching methodology should aim to integrate
learning, be suited to the individual child’s rhythms and be selected by the
teacher; that the content should be organised with a global focus; and that
methodology should stress constructive activity, be relevant and emphasise
independent learning.
Sweden
Control was decentralised to the municipalities in 1991, allowing local
decisions on how to meet nationally determined curricular goals.
In recent years, some shortcomings have been identified in the knowledge and
skills being taught in the varying municipalities. This has raised state interest
in quality assurance. Different tools are being used to improve quality in
schools. For example, all schools now have to write quality reports; students’
grades at the end of compulsory education are published, showing individual
school results; and the National Agency for Education (Skolverket) has been
given the responsibility for the national follow-up system, national assessment
and inspection of schools.
188
SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE. (2003). Educating for Excellence: choice and opportunity. Edinburgh: The
Stationery Office Bookshop.
101
Problems identified in studies such as PISA have increased the focus on basic
skills development and on schools in segregated areas (schools with
multilingual students) and the teaching of Swedish as a second language.
The State is taking the initiative through, for example, changes in teacher
education, earmarked grants to municipalities, and national development
initiatives for example in ICT, where teachers are supported to use ICT. (200
million Euros have been spent on the programme and on providing computers
for teachers to use at home.)
Switzerland There is no national ministry or policy for education in Switzerland. The
Constitution requires cantons to provide sufficient education for all, which has
led to 26 ‘systems’ with some voluntary cooperation since 1970 (through
Concordats agreed by the Conference of Cantonal Education Ministers).
However, Concordat recommendations may be rejected by individual cantons
Increasing pressure from outside has made it necessary to harmonise the
system, but this is difficult to realize in the historical federal context of
Switzerland.
There is discussion concerning the extension of compulsory education by
starting school earlier.
There is consensus that two foreign languages should be taught at primary
school, but there is no agreement about which should be the first foreign
language (a national language or English).
The Swiss performance in PISA has reinforced the trend towards the
development of national standards and national monitoring and a project for
harmonization at school (HarmoS) is starting. However, it may be difficult to
create national standards in the absence of a national curriculum.
Wales
Although Wales has a devolved government, the issues it faces often resemble
those facing England, for example prescription, curriculum overload,
assessment, resources and accommodation.
There is a proposal to enhance the quality of early years education by
integrating the desirable outcomes for five-year-olds with the key stage 1 (age
5−7) curriculum. This would lead to play-based learning for 3−7-year-olds and
the progressive introduction of formal learning and independent learning from
age six.
Transition from primary to secondary is also a priority in Wales. Primary
teachers feel that children regress rather than progress, as secondary teachers
want to ‘start again’ at 11. There is an initiative whereby children start units of
work in Welsh, English, mathematics and science at primary school and
continue these ‘bridging units’ at secondary school, to facilitate more effective
transfer.
102
There is increasing interest in Welsh language learning. Welsh-medium
schools in many areas now also cater for children from non-Welsh-speaking
backgrounds. This requires an immersion programme for three- to seven-yearolds. Proposals are in hand to extend immersion teaching for pupils being
admitted to schools at different ages.
4.2 Issues
In the course of the discussions, participants mentioned issues arising from the policies
and/or provisions in their country. In deference to their wishes, individual participants are
not identified.
a)
Curriculum
The main issues raised in connection with the curriculum included overcrowding, breadth
and balance, relevance, subject dominance, coherence between curricula and materials and
the effect on teacher professionalism.
♦
Overcrowding: New curricula (for example in England, the Netherlands, New
Zealand and Wales) were perceived as being overcrowded. This may be due to the
desire to meet a wider range of needs and to reflect social and technological changes,
by adding learning areas and topics, without a willingness formally to withdraw other
areas or topics.
♦
Breadth and balance: Core subjects, especially when accompanied by high stakes
assessment, were seen to place pressures on the time allowed for other subjects that
might equally contribute to the development of important skills. For example,
drawing skills are essential for writing and physical education helps in the
development of geometrical and geographical concepts.
♦
Relevance: In addition to the concerns about devising a relevant curriculum within a
rapidly changing world, two particular issues were raised. The first is the extent to
which a ‘national’ religion is representative of the school community. The second
relates to the relative priority which should be given, within a crowded curriculum, to
national and ‘international’ languages respectively.
♦
Subject dominance: The tendency for curricula to be expressed in terms of
attainment targets, reinforced in some cases by assessment, was seen as undermining
cross-curricular or integrated teaching, even where the timetable is formally
expressed in terms of areas of study. When school activities are too structured and
knowledge is too fragmented, especially in the early years, children lose the sense
and social function of what they are learning, and their learning is less effective.
♦
Coherence between curriculum and materials: Where curriculum changes are
introduced rapidly, and especially where school resources are limited, it was felt that
there may be a lack of coherence between curriculum change and renewal of text
books.
♦
Effect on teacher professionalism: Without staff development, including time for
individual teachers to understand and exploit support materials (guidance, schemes
103
of work, sample lessons and tests), there is a perceived danger that teachers may
simply ‘follow the text’ without the reflection necessary to adapt the materials to
individual needs and circumstances.
b)
Assessment
Seminar participants expressed six main concerns arising out of a trend towards external
assessment and a tendency to use the results of pupil assessment and school evaluation to
promote comparisons and choices between schools. These have been broadly grouped
under six headings: purpose, appropriateness, validity, cost, impact on teaching and the
impact on teachers.
♦
Purpose: Participants identified a potential conflict between assessment of learning
and assessment for learning. This is particularly so where test results influence
parental choices of school and therefore school funding. This may lead schools and
teachers to give special attention to those groups of pupils whose improved
performance will make the greatest impact on the school’s profile, at the possible
expense of other pupils. An extreme reaction may involve the refusal to admit pupils
whose performance threatens a school’s position on the ‘league tables’.
♦
Appropriateness: There is a feeling that forms of assessment which motivate all
pupils and enable them to demonstrate what they know, understand and can do,
irrespective of their social, economic and cultural backgrounds and/or language of
habitual use need to be developed. Assessment and qualifications should be of a
kind which pupils, parents, employers and those responsible for admitting students to
the next phase of education and training recognise and value.
♦
Validity: There is a widespread belief that countries assess what is practically or
economically feasible, and use the results as a proxy for the quality of education as a
whole. However, the two elements are not interchangeable. It is felt that the
evaluation of education should involve every component (input, process and
outcomes) within the education system and the full range of stakeholders and that,
unless we find ways to assess all the things we value, schools will focus on what is
assessed.
♦
Cost: It is difficult to measure the true cost of assessment, but it is clear that
administration and staff training are expensive. There is a feeling that the time taken
to assess and record pupil performance encroaches on teaching time without
necessarily providing the means to improve teaching and learning. Forms of
assessment which are most conducive to raising achievement, by revealing what goes
on in pupils’ minds, should be identified.
♦
Impact on teaching: The emphasis on assessment as a means of securing a
minimum entitlement and optimum quality of education for all pupils within a
devolved system, has an impact on teacher professionalism. Where teachers are
reluctant to ‘stray’ from methods which are efficient in preparing students for tests,
pupils may not be exposed to content and methods which could promote individual
and independent learning. In other words, teachers focus on ‘proving’ rather than
‘improving’ learning. Where test results are high stakes – for schools and parents –
104
there are concerns that those subjects which are tested lead to reduced attention to
other subjects, such as art and music.189
♦
Impact on teachers: An increasing emphasis on external assessment (sometimes
reinforced by external inspections) makes teachers feel that they are not trusted.
They may revert to a role as operatives. Alternatively they, through their unions,
may resist assessment and the associated support materials which, under different
circumstances, they might recognise as useful.
c)
Teaching methodology
Issues raised under this section included quality, cost and demands on teachers.
♦
Quality: Teacher professional development is of variable quality and, within an open
market, schools may not have sufficient time to evaluate offerings prior to
committing their budget and time.
♦
Cost: The cost of professional development is a major consideration in most
countries, and the devolution of budgets to individual schools may make it difficult
for them to benefit from economies of scale.
♦
Demands on teachers: Where training takes place in ‘twilight sessions’, teachers are
often tired. Informal forms of provision (for example, password protected webs,
community of learners) seek continuing teacher commitment over a period of time.
d)
Teaching and learning materials
Participants were concerned about the suitability of materials, access and cost, and the
potential impact on teaching.
♦
Suitability: There is an ever-increasing supply of teaching and learning resources, in
print and online, and it is difficult for teachers to make an informed choice. Texts
and materials may reflect a particular ideological stance. For instance, gender or
racial bias or the ‘revision’ of history. They may not be as accurate or
comprehensive as they should be, in relation to curriculum requirements.
♦
Access and cost: Although experience has shown the importance of providing
support materials to accompany new initiatives, in some cases their dissemination
may be hampered, for example, by government policies to reduce the amount of
documentation circulated to schools or by teacher association concerns about the
potential implications of sample test materials. Reactive dissemination depends on
teachers’ awareness of the existence of the materials and taking the time to request
them. Access to online documentation may be difficult for some teachers. Where
teachers prefer to have a paper version which they can annotate, individual schools
(rather than government authorities) have to bear the printing costs.
♦
Impact on teaching: Standardised materials and textbooks, particularly if their use is
compulsory, may make the teaching process more rigid and homogenous.
189
For example, WARD, H. (2003). ‘Test mania blamed for bored children’, Times Educational Supplement,
21 March, 4.
105
4.3 Trends and Visions for the Future
Seminar participants were asked to indicate their vision for the future, within their
country’s existing provisions regarding education structure, level of funding and the
number and specialisation of teachers. These visions include personal perspectives and
wishes, and statements of national priorities or developments.
England
Primary education has been through several periods of change since the 1960s,
to the point where there is now a greater degree of central control than ever
before. We must learn from the mistakes that were made over this period and
ensure that we implement no change which has not been tried and tested or
which undermines the hard-won improvements we have made, especially in the
teaching of literacy and mathematics. This means that we must build on our
success but give more emphasis to creativity, enrichment and the development
of the whole child.
France
There has been a great emphasis over the past few years on method (and
skills). There is now a need to find a balance between knowledge and skills,
and greater coherence, linkages and integration between subject matter.
Hungary The participant stressed:
Ireland
106
♦
the importance of a balance between real-life and traditional contentoriented life – the what, how and why of learning
♦
child-centred education, bringing together psychological, physical and
pedagogical [child-development] considerations
♦
consideration for the metacognitive level of transfer of knowledge
♦
review.
The participant:
♦
questioned whether current participants in the development of the
curriculum and assessment simply perpetuate (a narrow range of) current
values, beliefs etc on the curriculum and whether a wider range of people
need to be involved, to reflect where we come from and where we are,
but also to develop a vision for the future – to rethink which knowledge
is of greatest worth.
♦
suggested that the role of ICT to lever up teaching and learning needs
further discussion and that ICT tools should become mind tools, so that
the computer becomes the means, not the end, of the thinking.
♦
stressed the importance of differentiation in the curriculum for all students,
not only those with identified special needs.
Italy We should:
Japan
♦
not be overwhelmed by the new national assessment system which is to be
introduced in Italy (for the first time) and find ways of valuing work on
portfolios and journal as observations, not simply as a collection of texts
♦
work on an integrated curriculum, where the content matches what is
needed for creative thinking and the knowledge is relevant for children
♦
organise learning in terms of skills and areas, rather than as subject ‘silos’
with detailed and fragmented knowledge
♦
work with teachers not for teachers.
The stability of the Government means that there are unlikely to be major
changes. However, trends include the following:
♦
decentralisation and deregulation will lead to greater diversity. For
example, in some areas, the educational structure is changing from a
three-phase (six-year primary, three-year lower secondary and three-year
upper secondary) to a two-phase (six-year primary and six-year
secondary) model
♦
feedback on the new curriculum (2002) reveals an interest in integrated
studies, including: international understanding, environmental
understanding, foreign languages
♦
the identification of future needs presents a challenge.
Korea Concerns include the following:
♦
fears that the current 10-subject primary curriculum leads to insufficient
development of skills. Consequently there is a need to reorganise content
and method according to what students need to learn (relevance), and to
develop the skills of critical thinking, problem solving and learning how
to learn for personal success
♦
the imbalance between public and private education systems – and the need
to deal with the learning disparities which occur because some students
attend private courses during the long summer and winter breaks
♦
preparation for primary teachers time so that they can make appropriate use
and integration of ICT in the classroom.
The Netherlands The participant felt that the five-year cycle of curriculum review was
suitable. The content remains the same for the 2003 (third generation) version.
He expressed the hope that the 2008 (fourth generation) curriculum would:
♦
look at meaningful, competency-based, interdisciplinary learning
♦
be accepted and owned by teachers, as part of their own school plan
♦
be driven by need for competence, autonomy and relationships
♦
be supported by a toolbox for delivery
107
♦
look a little like Northern Ireland’s proposed new curriculum.
New Zealand The Curriculum Stocktake stresses social cohesion, bi- cultural and
multicultural citizenship and literacy (including digital literacy).
The
participant hoped that it would be possible to:
♦
develop a toolbox of teaching methods. Research shows that interaction is
the most powerful factor for achievement
♦
draw on different strengths to devise an interactive curriculum which meets
children’s entitlement
♦
improve the quality of interactions between teachers and pupils, for
learning, motivation and feedback.
Northern Ireland The aim of the Northern Ireland curriculum is to help young people
achieve their potential and make informed and responsible choices and
decisions throughout their lives, as individuals, contributors to society, and
contributors to the economy and environment. Over the next five to 10 years,
the participant hoped that teachers’ emphasis would shift towards:
♦
the relevance and application of learning to real life
♦
teaching for lifelong learning, that is, developing skills
♦
emphasising the importance of process as much as content; and
♦
assessment for learning.
Singapore Priorities include:
Spain
108
♦
promoting the teaching and learning of process skills, interdisciplinary
connections and communication skills in the curriculum
♦
nurturing active, independent learners, who can articulate their strengths and
areas for improvement, and who can monitor their learning to achieve
better performance
♦
character development
♦
developing rich digital media content to complement existing materials,
such as textbooks
♦
training teachers for their role as facilitators of learning (for example
through questioning skills and injecting the element of fun into teaching
and learning)
♦
building a culture of sharing and conferencing among teachers in schools
and clusters.
The recently-passed Education Act will change the learning paths and organise
learning in a different way. The participant feared a shift towards a system
which stresses data and facts instead of teaching children how to relate and
apply them in their daily life. He also stressed the importance of different
rhythms in learning and teaching and of:
Sweden
♦
equal opportunities
♦
balance between diversities
♦
individual (good) use of freedom
♦
support for decision-making, creativity etc.
In the coming years, Sweden intends to reform upper-secondary education and
therefore development work and resources will be directed towards this phase.
The participant identified a need to:
♦
work with the existing situation and anticipate changes in curriculum
♦
start where children are – education is too formal in the early years (in preschool class)
♦
make targets available to children, so they know what is expected of them
♦
improve the dialogue between parents/teachers/students
♦
ensure that the 13 days of teacher professional development are well used.
Switzerland The PISA results revealed the social, cultural and gender influences on pupil
learning. It is the role of schools to reduce the effects of these inequalities, and
to realise that curriculum and assessment control access to knowledge.
Wales
Current priorities for Wales are:
♦
early years education – the introduction of a Foundation Phase
♦
a (thinking and social) skills-based curriculum in the school of the future
♦
a move from individual subjects to areas of learning
♦
reviewing the role, methods and purpose of assessment, especially since the
abolition of compulsory assessment for 7 year olds (key stage 1)
♦
support to promote the learning of Welsh. [ACCAC’s remit includes setting
up small projects for teachers and learners and commissioning Welsh and
bilingual learning materials].
109
5. ANNEXES
110
ANNEX 1 INCA Thematic Studies and Probes
The eight thematic studies which have been produced are listed in chronological order.
They are all available online at http://www.INCA.org.uk/thematic.asp.
LE MÉTAIS, J. (1997). International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks.
Values and Aims in Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks. London: School
Curriculum and Assessment Authority.
TABBERER, R. (1997). International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks.
Primary Education: Expectations and Provision. London: School Curriculum and
Assessment Authority.
RUDDOCK, G. (1998). International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks.
Mathematics in the School Curriculum: an International Perspective. London:
Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA).
KERR, D. (1999). International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks.
Citizenship Education: an International Comparison. London: Qualifications and
Curriculum Authority (QCA).
GREENAWAY, E. (2000). International Review of Curriculum and Assessment
Frameworks. Lower Secondary Education: an International Perspective. London:
Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA).
SHARP, C. and LE METAIS, J. (2000). International Review of Curriculum and
Assessment Frameworks. The Arts, Creativity and Cultural Education: an
International Perspective. London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA).
BERTRAM, T. AND PASCAL, C. (2002). International Review of Curriculum and
Assessment Frameworks. Early Years Education: an International Perspective.
London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA).
LE METAIS, J. (2002). International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks.
International Developments in Upper Secondary Education: Context, provision and
issues. Dublin: National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA).
Several thematic probes have been completed, some of which have been extended into
thematic studies (see above).
Some thematic probes are available online at:
http://www.INCA.org.uk/thematic2asp
LE METAIS, J. (1996). International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks:
Thematic Probe: Control and Supply of Textbooks. London: Qualifications and
Curriculum Authority (QCA).
O’DONNELL, S. and MICKLETHWAITE, C. (1999). International Review of Curriculum
and Assessment Frameworks: Thematic Probe: Arts and Creativity in Education: an
International Perspective. London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA).
O’DONNELL, S. and MICKLETHWAITE, C. (2000). International Review of Curriculum
and Assessment Frameworks: Thematic Probe: Science for the 21st Century,
Queensland (Australia), Ontario (Canada), France, the Netherlands and Sweden.
London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA).
111
O’DONNELL, S. (2001). International Review of Curriculum and Assessment
Frameworks: Thematic Probe: Curriculum Review: an International Perspective.
London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA).
O’DONNELL, S. (2001). International Review of Curriculum and Assessment
Frameworks: Thematic Probe: Early Years Education. London: Qualifications and
Curriculum Authority (QCA).
O’DONNELL, S. (2002). International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Framework.
Thematic Probe. Primary Education: an International Perspective. London:
Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA).
112
ANNEX 2 Seminar Programme and Participants
International Trends in Primary Education, INCA thematic seminar
held at the Randolph Hotel, Oxford, 19-21 February 2003
WEDNESDAY 19 FEBRUARY 2003
19.00 Reception and dinner
THURSDAY 20 FEBRUARY 2003
9.00
Ms Alix Beleschenko
Welcome and Introduction.
Qualifications and
Curriculum Authority
Aims: to discuss trends in primary education in the participant countries
and to reflect on the impetus for, and influences on, policy and practice.
Session 1: Introductory Session
Presenters
Purpose
9.10
9.50
Dr Joanna Le Métais
Background and aims of the INCA project
National Foundation for
Educational Research
Aims and key issues for the seminar. Specific issues from participating
countries
All participants
Identify two to three key issues in primary education in each country.
Session 2: Aims and priorities for primary education
Presenters
Key issue and questions to explore
11.15 Mme Sharon Boey
Singapore
11.25 Mr Tommy Lagergren
Sweden
11.35 Mr Javier Alfaya Hurtado
Spain
11.45 Discussion
What are the government’s aims and priorities for primary
education? How is the education system designed to meet these aims
and priorities?
♦
Where there has been an increase in early years provision, has the
impact on primary education been measured?
♦
What has been the impact of any policies of inclusion?
♦
To what extent have any changes in the organisation of phases of
education affected achievement? What evidence is there of the
impact of organisation on performance?
♦
To what degree are schools and teachers held accountable for
children’s achievements? What is the role of accountability in
delivering government aims and priorities?
Session 3: Curriculum organisation
Presenters
Key issue and questions to explore
14.15 Dr Elisabetta Nigris
Italy
14.25 Mr Ryo Watanabe
Japan
14.35 Discussion
How does the way the curriculum is organised contribute towards
the government’s aims and priorities for primary education?
♦
To what extent is curriculum review driven by government aims
and priorities?
♦
If there have been any changes in the organisation of the
academic year, what has stimulated such changes? What evidence
is there of the benefits of different patterns of organising school
terms and holidays?
What is the role of government-produced or -approved teaching
♦
materials in delivering government aims and priorities?
113
Session 4: Curriculum content
Presenters
Key issue and questions to explore
16.15 Dr Jos Letschert
Netherlands
The
16.25 Dr Min-Kyeong Kim
Korea
How does the content of the curriculum deliver the government’s
aims and priorities for primary education?
♦
♦
16.35 Dr Vilmos Vass
Hungary
What does the curriculum comprise?
What has been the stimulus for shifts in the content and structure
of the curriculum?
16.45 Discussion
FRIDAY 21 FEBRUARY 2003
Session 5: Assessment
Presenters
Key issue and questions to explore
9.00 Mrs Mary Chamberlain
New Zealand
How does the system of assessment contribute to the delivery of
government aims and priorities for primary level education?
9.10 Dr Sarah Fitzpatrick
Ireland
♦
9.20
Discussion
♦
♦
♦
♦
What is the nature and purpose of assessment? What has been the
stimulus for any change in the system of assessment?
At what points does summative assessment take place?
Do particular forms of assessment promote improvements in
achievement?
What is the impact of the publication of test results?
To what extent do national targets for children’s achievement
contribute to achieving government aims and priorities?
Session 6: Emerging trends
Presenters
Key issue and questions to explore
11.00 Mrs Carmel Gallagher
Northern Ireland
11.10 Mrs Anna-Verena Fries
Switzerland
11.20 Mme Geneviève Gaillard
France
What further changes or new directions are emerging:
♦
♦
♦
Government aims, priorities and policies?
Organisation and content of the curriculum; and assessment?
What implications do any changes of direction have for the
curriculum and assessment?
11.30 Discussion
Session 7: Final plenary: Visions for the future
12.30 All participants
114
Outline their vision for the future, assuming their current national
structure and staffing levels.
PARTICIPANTS
England
Ms Ruth Davison, Department for Education and Skills.
Mr Keith Lloyd, Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED).
France
Mme Geneviève Gaillard, Ministère de l’Education Nationale.
Hungary
Mr Vilmos Vass, Ministry of Education.
Ireland
Dr Sarah Fitzpatrick, National Council for Curriculum and
Assessment.
Italy
Dr Elisabetta Nigris, Universita digli Studi di Milano.
Japan
Mr Ryo Watanabe, National Institute for Educational Policy Research
(NIER).
The Netherlands
Dr Jos Letschert, National Institute for Curriculum Development
(SLO).
New Zealand
Ms Mary Chamberlain, Ministry of Education.
Northern Ireland
Ms Carmel Gallagher, Northern Ireland Council for the Curriculum
Examinations and Assessment.
Republic of
South Korea
Dr Min-Kyeong Kim, EWHA Women’s University, College of
Education.
Scotland
Ms Diane Alexander, Learning and Teaching Scotland.
Singapore
Mdm Sharon Boey, Ministry of Education.
Spain
Mr Javier Alfaya Hurtado, Centro de Investigación y Documentación
Educativa (CIDE), Ministry of Education.
Sweden
Mr Tommy Lagergren, National Agency for education (Skolverket).
Switzerland
Mrs Anna-Verena Fries, University of Applied Sciences, Zürich.
Wales
Ms Helen Adler, Qualifications Curriculum and Assessment
Authority for Wales.
Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA), England
Ms Alix Beleschenko
Ms Sophie de Albuquerque
Mr Matthew Napper
Ms Rifat Siddiqui
Ms Alison Willmott.
National Foundation for Educational Research (NFER), England
Dr Joanna Le Métais
Mrs Sharon O'Donnell
Mrs Jill Ware.
115
ANNEX 3 Primary Curriculum
Australia State/territory variations, but general support for eight Key Learning Areas: the
arts (can include dance, drama, graphic communication, media, music and
visual arts); English; health and physical education; languages other than
English (LOTE – not necessarily from Year 1); mathematics; science; studies of
society and environment (SOSE); and technology.
The ‘Discovering
Democracy’ initiative made civics and citizenship education compulsory
Commonwealth-wide from 1999 (from mid-primary to upper secondary level
education). There are also six cross-curricular areas: environment; information
technology; personal and interpersonal skills; career and work education;
literacy; and numeracy.
Canada
Variations by province/territory but most include: language (usually English,
plus French in some provinces/territories); mathematics; social studies (usually
includes history and geography and often personal, social, health and civics
education); general science and technology; the arts; and physical education.
England Three core subjects: English; mathematics; science; and seven other foundation
subjects: design and technology; information and communication technology
(ICT); history; geography; art and design; music; physical education. Religious
education is compulsory but parents may withdraw their children. Schools may
also cover cross-curricular themes, such as economic awareness, environmental
education, European awareness etc. Since September 2000, schools have also
been expected to follow a non-statutory framework of citizenship and personal,
social and health education. In addition, there are the following cross-curricular
key skills: communication, application of number, information technology,
working with others, improving own learning and performance, problemsolving, and thinking skills: information processing, reasoning, enquiry,
creative thinking, evaluation.
France
Age 6-8 years: French (and regional language in some areas); ‘discovering the
world’ (sciences, technology, history-geography); ‘living together’ (civics);
mathematics; physical education and sports; and art (includes music). Age 8-11
years: French (language and literature) (and regional language); science,
technology and mathematics (integrated as science education); history and
geography (integrated); civics; physical education and sports; artistic education
(music and art). Religious education is forbidden in state schools, except in the
départements of Upper Rhine, Lower Rhine and Moselle. Reforms being
implemented from September 2002 place an increased emphasis on literacy
across all curriculum areas and encourage foreign language learning throughout
primary education (previously only compulsory for 10- to 11-year-olds).
Germany Includes, in most Länder, German; mathematics; Sachunterricht (an
introduction to economics, social studies, history, geography, science [biology,
physics, chemistry] and technology); art; music; sport; and religion.
Increasingly, a modern foreign language is offered from Year 3 (sometimes
earlier).
116
Hungary 10 cultural domains: Hungarian or mother tongue (Hungary recognises 13)
language and literature; modern foreign language; mathematics; man and
society (social studies, civics, economics, human studies, history); man and
nature (natural studies, physics, chemistry, biology, health studies); our earth
and environment; arts (singing and music, dance and drama, visual arts, motion
picture and media studies); informatics (computing studies, library use); life
management and practical studies (technology, home economics, career
orientation); physical education and sport. Plus cross-curricular objectives, for
example, integration into Europe, career orientation, and environmental
education.
Ireland
Seven curriculum areas: language; mathematics; social, environmental and
scientific education (SESE); arts education; physical education (PE); social,
personal and health education (SPHE); and religious education (RE). Some of
these areas are further sub-divided.
Italy
Italian language; foreign language (from Year 2/3); mathematics; science;
history; geography; social studies; art education; music education; physical
education. In Years 1-2 teaching is generally multidisciplinary; individual
subjects begin to be taught from Year 3, age eight+. Catholic religion is
optional for children.
Japan
Japanese language and literature; mathematics; social studies; science (Years 36); moral education; music; art; physical education; home economics; and
general studies. Religious education is not taught in state schools. Children are
encouraged to participate in extra-curricular activities/clubs.
Korea
Moral education; Korean language; mathematics; social studies (includes
history and geography); science; physical education; music; fine arts; practical
arts (technology and home economics); English (foreign language) from Year
3, aged eight onwards; elective courses/school discretionary time; and extracurricular activities. In Years 1 and 2, some of these subjects are taught as the
following integrated areas: disciplined life, intelligent life, pleasant life, and
‘we are the first graders’ (an orientation programme on entry to compulsory
education).
The Netherlands Dutch; arithmetic and mathematics; English (foreign language in later
years at least); physical education; ‘orientation on man and the world’
(includes: geography, history, society, technology, environment, promotion of
self-reliance and healthy behaviour, and nature study); and art orientation
(drawing, art and crafts, music, drama/promoting and developing the use of
language, and movement). Schools in the province of Friesland must teach
Frisian. It is recommended that, wherever possible, subjects should be taught in
interdisciplinary form.
New Zealand Seven essential learning areas: language and languages; mathematics;
science; technology; social sciences; the arts; health and physical well being.
Eight groups of essential skills: communication; numeracy; information;
problem-solving; self-management and competition; social and cooperative;
physical; work and study.
117
Singapore English (includes information literacy skills and, in Primary 1-4 only, health
education topics); mother tongue ([Mandarin] Chinese, Malay or Tamil); civic
and moral education (CME) (taught in the mother tongue); social studies;
mathematics; art and crafts; music; physical education; plus science (from Year
3). Health education is taught separately in Primary 5-6.
Spain
(Castilian) Spanish language and literature; knowledge of the natural, social and
cultural environment; mathematics; artistic education; physical education;
foreign languages (from Year 3, aged eight onwards); Catholic religion
(optional for children, who may instead undertake private study). A regional
language, where applicable. Current reforms propose compulsory learning of a
modern foreign language from age six (the start of compulsory education).
Sweden
Age 7-16 years: Swedish (or Swedish as a second language for those of the
Sami population); mathematics; English; practical arts subjects (art, domestic
science, sport and health education, music and crafts, which includes textiles,
woodwork and metalwork); social sciences (geography, history, civics,
religious studies); sciences (biology, physics, chemistry, technology); a second
foreign language (schools are free to decide when this is introduced); and
electives. Schools must also provide study and vocational guidance.
Switzerland The canton usually defines the curriculum. Within prescribed aims, teachers
enjoy considerable freedom regarding content, except in mathematics, foreign
languages and aspects of the mother tongue (German, French, Italian, RhaetoRomanic), where there is some national agreement/guidance on standards.
Some cantons have collaborated to adopt common syllabuses.
USA
Local variations, but all generally include language arts (English grammar,
reading and writing); mathematics; social studies (including history, geography,
literature, multiculturalism, ethics and values, religion and contemporary
issues); science; art; music; health; and physical education.
Wales
English; Welsh (as a first or second language);, mathematics; science;
technology (includes design and technology, and information technology);
history; geography; art; music; and physical education. In addition, there are
cross-curricular ‘common requirements’ – Wales- and Welsh-specific aspects
of the curriculum; communication skills; mathematical skills; information
technology skills; problem-solving skills; creative skills; and personal and
social education. Pilot projects for the teaching of modern foreign languages
for 7- to 11-year-olds will be introduced from the 2003-4 school year.
118
ANNEX 4 TIMSS 1994-95
Source: http://timss.bc.edu/timss1995.html
Figure 19 Primary results: Mathematics
Country
Third Grade* Mathematics
Average Achievement
Korea
Singapore
Japan
Netherlands
Australia
United States
Hungary
Ireland
Canada
England
New Zealand
561
552
538
493
483
480
476
476
469
456
440
Country
Fourth Grade* Mathematics
Average Achievement
Singapore
Korea
Japan
Netherlands
Ireland
Hungary
Australia
United States
Canada
England
New Zealand
625
611
597
577
550
548
546
545
532
513
499
Figure 20 Primary Results: Science
Country
Third Grade* Science
Average Achievement
Korea
Japan
United States
Australia
Netherlands
England
Canada
Singapore
Ireland
Hungary
New Zealand
597
574
565
562
557
551
549
547
539
532
531
Country
Fourth Grade* Science
Average Achievement
Korea
Japan
United States
Australia
England
Netherlands
Canada
Singapore
Ireland
New Zealand
Hungary
553
522
511
510
499
499
490
488
479
473
464
*Fourth and third grades in most countries. Countries shown in italics did not satisfy one or more guidelines
for sample participation rates, age/grade specifications or classroom sampling procedures. The report
presents standard errors for all survey estimates.
SOURCE: IEA Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), 1994-95.
Key findings
♦
For most countries, gender differences in mathematics achievement were small or
essentially non-existent. In science, the gender differences at third and fourth grades
were much less pervasive than at the seventh and eighth grades.
♦
However, boys had significantly higher achievement than girls at both grades in
about half the countries, particularly in earth science and physical science.
♦
The overwhelming majority of fourth graders in nearly every country indicated that
they liked mathematics and science.
119
♦
In most countries, boys and girls were equally positive about liking each of these
subjects.
♦
Just as at the eighth grade, having educational resources in the home was strongly
related to mathematics and science achievement in every country (i.e., computer,
dictionary, own study desk, and 100 or more books in the home).
♦
For normal school days, fourth grade children in most countries reported averaging
approximately an hour outside of school each day studying or doing homework in
mathematics.
♦
They reported spending between half an hour and an hour studying or doing
homework in science.
♦
Teachers in most countries reported that mathematics classes typically meet for three
or four hours a week, on average. In comparison, teachers in about half the countries
reported that science is taught for less than two hours a week. In about one-fifth of
the countries, science instruction for most children is integrated with the teaching of
other subjects. In most countries, the majority of fourth grade children were taught
mathematics and science by female teachers. Most often, the two subjects were
taught by the same teacher. In both mathematics and science, small-group work was
used less frequently than other instructional approaches. Across countries, teachers
reported that working together as a class with the teacher teaching the whole class,
and having children work individually with assistance from the teacher were the
most frequently used instructional approaches.
♦
In most countries, the challenge of catering to children of different academic abilities
was the factor teachers mentioned most often as limiting how they teach their
mathematics and science classes. Other limiting factors were a high child/teacher
ratio, a shortage of equipment for use in instruction, and the burden of dealing with
disruptive children.
♦
The textbook was the major written source mathematics teachers used in deciding
how to present a topic to their classes.
♦
Relatively uniformly, the majority of children were asked both to practice
computation and to do some type of reasoning task in most or every lesson.
High achieving countries
♦
In mathematics, Singapore and Korea were the top-performing countries at both the
fourth and third grades. Japan and Hong Kong, the Netherlands, the Czech Republic,
and Austria also performed amongst the best in the world.
♦
Nine of the 12 countries that performed above the international average in
mathematics at the fourth grade also did so at the eighth grade, including Singapore,
Korea, Japan, Hong Kong, the Netherlands, the Czech Republic, Austria, Slovenia,
and Hungary. Of the other three, Ireland and Australia were around the international
average at the eighth grade, while the United States was below it.
♦
In science, Korea was the top-performing country at both the fourth and third grades.
Japan, the United States, Austria, and Australia also performed very well at both
grades.
♦
In science, Korea, Japan, Austria, Australia, the Czech Republic, England, Singapore
and Slovenia performed above the international average at both the fourth and eighth
120
grades. The exceptions were Canada, Ireland, Scotland, and the United States, which
were above the international average at the fourth grade, but just at the average at the
eighth grade.
About TIMSS
Since its inception in 1959, the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational
Achievement (IEA) has conducted a series of international comparative studies designed to
provide information to policy-makers, educators, researchers, and practitioners about
educational achievement and learning contexts. TIMSS is the largest and most ambitious
of these studies ever undertaken, involving the collaboration of research centres around the
world. All told, TIMSS achievement testing in mathematics and science included:
♦
45 countries
♦
five grade levels (third, fourth, seventh, eighth, and final year of secondary school)
♦
more than half a million children
♦
testing in more than 30 different languages
♦
more than 15,000 participating schools
♦
performance assessment
♦
questionnaires from children, teachers, and school principals containing about 1,500
questions
♦
many thousands of individuals to give the tests and process the data. Rigorous
procedures were designed specifically to translate the tests, and numerous regional
training sessions were held in data collection and scoring procedures. Quality
control observers monitored testing sessions. The samples of children selected for
testing were scrutinised according to rigorous standards designed to prevent bias and
ensure comparability.
For TIMSS online publications see http://timss.bc.edu/timss1995i/TIMSSPublications.html
121
ANNEX 5 PISA Domains
Figure 21 PISA domains
Domain
Definition
Reading literacy
Understanding, using and
reflecting on written texts, in
order to achieve one’s goals,
to develop one’s knowledge
and potential, and to
participate in society.
Components/
dimensions
of the
domain
Reading different kinds of
text: continuous prose subclassified by type (e.g.
description, narration) and
documents, sub-classified by
structure.
Performing different kinds
of reading tasks, such as
retrieving specific
information, developing an
interpretation or reflecting
on the content or form of the
text.
Reading texts written for
different situations, e.g. for
personal interest, or to meet
work requirements.
Source: http://www.pisa.oecd.org/
122
Mathematical literacy
Identifying, understanding
and engaging in
mathematics and making
well-founded judgements
about the role that
mathematics plays, as
needed for an individual’s
current and future life as a
constructive, concerned and
reflective citizen.
Mathematical content –
primarily mathematical ‘big
ideas’. In the first cycle
these are change and growth,
and space and shape. In
future cycles chance,
quantitative reasoning,
uncertainty and dependency
relationships will also be
used.
Mathematical competencies,
e.g. modelling, problemsolving; divided into three
classes;
i) carrying out procedures,
ii)making connections and
iii)mathematical thinking
and generalisation.
Using mathematics in
different situations, e.g.
problems that affect
individuals, communities or
the whole world.
Scientific literacy
Combining scientific
knowledge with the drawing
of evidence-based
conclusions and developing
hypotheses in order to
understand and help make
decisions about the natural
world and the changes made
to it through human activity.
Scientific concepts – e.g.
energy conservation,
adaptation, decomposition –
chosen from the major fields
of physics, biology,
chemistry etc, where they
are applied in matters to do
with the use of energy, the
maintenance of species or
the use of materials.
Process skills – e.g.
identifying evidence,
drawing, evaluating and
communicating conclusions.
These do not depend on a
pre-set body of scientific
knowledge, but cannot be
applied in the absence of
scientific content.
Using science in different
situations, e.g. problems that
affect individuals,
communities or the whole
world.