E SP
EFFECTIVE SELF PROTECTION
British Military Self Defense & Fitness
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Reasonable and proportionate response options
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Content
Common Sense Self Defence
Forward
Chapter 1
The legislation of Common and Statute Law
and the use of force.
Section Three (1) Criminal Law Act 1967
Human Rights Act 1998
Use of Force and Human Rights
Article Two: The Right to Life
Article Three: Prohibition from torture, inhumane
or degrading treatment.
Article Eight: The right to respect for private and
family life.
Common Law.
Chapter 2
Situational and threat awareness.
Situational Awareness.
The Cooper Colour Code.
Anatomy of a criminal assault.
The Body’s response to a physical threat.
Behavioural manifestations of fight-or-flight.
Negative effects of the stress response.
Adrenaline Rush.
Situational and threat awareness.
Chapter 3
Tactical communication.
Signs of Aggressive or Hostile Behaviour.
Signs of aggression can be easy to recognize.
Forms of Aggression.
Children and Aggression.
Mental Illness.
Alcohol Abuse.
Aggressive Behaviour Checklist.
How to Deal With Aggressive & Threatening
Behaviour.
Chapter 4
Conflict resolution.
Negotiation.
Mediation.
Arbitration.
Conflict management facts.
Is it the Employer's Problem?
Impact factors and Staff retention and recruitment
problems.
Common Law Criminal and Civil Law.
Assault.
Common assault.
Understanding the law regarding self-defence.
Identifying risks to personal safety in the working
environment.
Appropriate methods to de-escalate a
confrontational situation.
The importance of personal safety.
Chapter 5
Tactical response options.
Chapter 6
Target and impact areas.
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Common Sense Self Defence
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Forward
ESP Effective Self Protection
ESP is the self protection system developed and employed by British Military Self Defence and Fitness.
Its origins evolve from self defence systems used by Military and Police Forces in the UK and throughout
the rest of the world. ESP is taught by fully qualified unarmed combat and physical intervention
instructors who are currently serving members of the British Army and UK Police, with over twenty years
of instructional experience in their fields of expertise. ESP provides both education and physical skills
that until now have not been taught outside of Military and Police organisations in the UK.
ESP is Defend International’s unique system of Self Defence. Its effectiveness lies in its simplicity of use
and its common sense application. It involves education in the reception of information gained through
visual and physical awareness and training in appropriate reaction techniques that can be employed in
times of necessity.
The term ESP implies the acquisition of information by means that are external to basic human
limitations and assumptions, through continued training in the ESP system a person can perceive
information through a process of attaining awareness and understanding of information available in
dangerous and potentially life threatening situations.
This document provides students or instructors of Self Protection with guidance on how to recognise the
early signs of confrontation and the mental and physical skills required to respond and react to violent
and aggressive behaviour. At Defend International we believe that educating and developing situational
awareness, assertive confidence and common sense self protection techniques provides a tactical
mindset that promotes confidence and ability in any situation.
ESP is broken down into six components:
1. The Legislation of Common Law and the use of force.
2. Situational and threat awareness.
3. Body language and non verbal communications.
4. Conflict Resolution and response options.
5. Tactical Communications.
6. Technique Training and target areas.
ESP training is a straight forward process that is easy to learn and effective in both its content and
practise. Through common sense application ESP is the easiest way to learn and develop threat
awareness and the response options necessary to resolve or conclude confrontational situations in any
environment.
David Aiton.
Dave Aiton
Director of Training Defend International Ltd
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Chapter 1
The Legislation of Common and Statute
Law and the use of force.
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The Legislation of Common Law and the use of force
Relevant Legislation:
Section Three (1) Criminal Law Act 1967:
“A person may use such force as is reasonable in the circumstances in the prevention of a crime, or in
the effecting or assisting in the lawful arrest of offenders or suspected offenders unlawfully at large”.
Human Rights Act 1998
The Human Rights Act has two basic purposes:
1. The law of the European Convention on Human Rights (E.C.H.R.) and specifically the rights and
freedoms set out in the convention will be actionable before the UK courts.
2. Courts and tribunals, public authorities and Government Ministers will have to act in a way that is
“compatible” with the law of the Convention. Failure to do so may be unlawful, although not a criminal
offence.
Use of Force and Human Rights
When making a determination as to whether the level of force used was lawful in any particular instance
the courts will take cognisance of the articles under the E.C.H.R. The rights which are most likely to be
directly interfered with in situations where force is used are:
1. Article Two: The right to life.
2. Article Three: Prohibition from torture, inhumane or degrading treatment.
3. Article Eight: The right to respect for private and family life.
Article Two: The Right to Life
Everyone’s right to life shall be protected by law. No one shall be deprived of his life Intentionally save in
the execution of a sentence of a court following his conviction of a crime for which this penalty is
provided by law. Deprivation of life shall not be regarded as inflicted in contravention of this article when
it results from the use of force which is no more than absolutely necessary:
a. In defence of any person from unlawful violence.
b. In order to affect a lawful arrest or to prevent the escape of a person lawfully
c. In action lawfully taken for the purpose of quelling a riot or insurrection.
detained.
Article Three: Prohibition from torture, inhumane or degrading treatment
The activities prohibited by article three were characterised by the European Court in Ireland
v UK(1978) as:
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Torture: Deliberate inhuman treatment causing very serious and cruel suffering.
Inhumane Treatment: Treatment that causes intense physical and mental suffering.
Degrading Treatment: Treatment that arouses in the victim a feeling of fear, anguish and inferiority
capable of humiliating and debasing the victim and possibly breaking his or her physical or moral
resistance.
Where extreme or excessive force is applied, or where the application of force is maintained for longer
than necessary (even if its use is to achieve a lawful aim) this may amount to torture, inhumane or
degrading treatment. This may include the unnecessary / prolonged use of ratchet handcuffs.
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Article Eight: The right to respect for private and family life
1. Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and correspondence.
2. There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in
accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security,
public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the protection of health and morals, or for
the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.
As can be seen from the above, Article Eight provides a qualified right which can be interfered with,
providing one of the conditions in paragraph two applies. Article Eight is not just a right to privacy. It has
been held to include respect for an Individual’s physical and moral integrity. For this reason, an assault
may amount to a breach of Article Eight.
In relation to all the above articles the use of force must be based on an honestly held belief that it is
absolutely necessary, this is perceived for good reason to be valid at the time. On each occasion in
which force is used it should be reported how, why, when and to whom.
Common Law
Common law is the law as determined by legal cases that are heard before judges. “Precedence‟ is
determined by the most recent decision taken by the highest court i.e. in the UK, the House of Lords.
“The common law has always recognised a person’s right to act in defence of themselves or others. If a
person has to inflict violence on another in doing so such action is not unlawful as long as their actions
are reasonable in the circumstances as they sees them. The test to be applied for self defence is that
he/she acted reasonably in the circumstances as he/she honestly believed them to be in the defence of
him/her or another.” The use of force must be based on an honestly held belief that it is necessary,
which is perceived for good reasons to be valid at the time.
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Chapter 2
Situational and threat awareness
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Situational Awareness
In order to achieve and maintain a competent level of personal/self protection an understanding of the
environment we function within is necessary. This provides us with awareness of potential dangers that
might exist, whether within our surroundings or from the unwanted attention of other people. Self
Protection is a natural ability that everyone has; some of us have developed this ability through a
process of training and raising our awareness. This is achieved by understanding our personal security
and what we can do to avoid and prevent violent confrontation and in the worst case scenario learning
methods of self defence against that outcome.
Self Protection
Personal
Security
Self
Defence
The Cooper Colour Code
The Cooper colour code, as originally introduced by Jeff Cooper, provides important facts on surviving
violent confrontation, according to Cooper; it is neither weapon nor martial skill that helps you survive
violent confrontation. The primary tool is an individual’s state of mind. The Colour Code relates to the
degree of peril you are willing to do something about and which allows you to move from one level of
mindset to another to enable you to properly handle a given situation.
CONDITION WHITE
A state of unawareness when we find ourselves unprepared for the possibility of threats.
Unaware and unprepared. If attacked in condition White, the only thing that may save you is the
inadequacy or ineptitude of your attacker. When confronted by an act of violence, your reaction will
probably be “Oh my God! This can’t be happening to me.”
CONDITION YELLOW
A state of awareness when we are assessing the potential of threats throughout our daily routine.
Relaxed alert. No specific threat situation. Your mindset is that “today could be the day I may have to
defend myself”. You are simply aware that the world is a potentially unfriendly place and that you are
prepared to defend yourself.
CONDITION ORANGE
Heightened awareness at the onset of violence and confrontation, preparing your mind and body
for the possibility of violent/physical confrontation.
Specific Alert. Something is not quite right and has your attention. Determine if there is a threat. Setting a
mental trigger “If that person does “X” I will need to stop them”. If it proves nothing revert back to Yellow.
CONDITION RED
The conclusion that violent physical confrontation is imminent and dealing with it!
Condition Red is Fight! Your mental trigger (established in Condition Orange) has been tripped. “If “X”
happens I will defend myself”.
CONDITION BLACK
A state of unconsciousness where we are totally unprepared for anything i.e. sleep.
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Anatomy of a criminal assault.
Every criminal assault, of whatever nature, will go through several stages, as will the assailant. If we can
identify the steps that the potential assailant is going through we can break the cycle and ensure that we
do not fit the VICTIM PROFILE.
Every criminal will have:

A latent desire or active intent to commit the crime.
The commission of the offence will begin with the:

Hunt and interview
This is where the assailant identifies his victim and engages with them. This could be the ‘Saturday night
special’ “What you looking’ at” as quick as “I’ve got a knife, give me your wallet” or as we have heard
about recently with the cab driver rapist, “I’ve had a big win on the lottery would you help me celebrate
with a drink?”
The assailant will then use:

Positioning and holding mechanisms.
This may involve the attacker physically moving their victim to a specific location or positioning their own
body to reduce the victims’ options by blocking escape routes or chances of calling for help etc. It may
also be them getting into range to launch an assault.
Then will come the:

Commission of the crime
Finally there will be the:

Aftermath and influencing future behaviour.
If the attacker walks away with your wallet and the satisfaction of seeing you scared and cowed and
doesn’t suffer any consequences they are more likely to offend again, possibly using more violence next
time. It will also affect your future behaviour and quality of life, as you will feel like a victim.
If they walk away with your wallet but you were able to get a good description of them and they are
subsequently arrested it will affect their future behaviour.
If however they launch the assault and you are able to use justifiable and reasonable force, within the
law, to defend yourself. You walk away, and they suffer the effects of their criminal behaviour then their
future behaviour will be affected!
Note: Through training you will gain ASSERTIVE PRESSENCE and the criminal will disregard you
at the HUNT stage.
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The Body’s response to a physical threat
Defense physiology is a term used to refer to the body’s reaction to potential harm and which causes
changes in the body in response to a stress or threat. This response regulates what is commonly known
as the “Fight or Flight response”(hyper arousal, or acute stress response). Catecholamine hormones,
such as adrenaline or nor adrenaline, facilitate the immediate physical reactions associated with a
preparation for violent muscular action. When the body executes the “Fight or Flight" response, the
nervous system initiates, coordinates and directs specific changes in how the body is functioning
preparing the body to deal with the threat. These include the following:


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Acceleration of heart and lung action.
Paling or flushing, or alternating between both.
Inhibition of stomach and upper-intestinal action to the point where digestion slows down or
stops.
General effect on the sphincters of the body.
Constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body.
Liberation of nutrients (particularly fat and glucose) for muscular action.
Dilation of blood vessels for muscles.
Inhibition of the lachrymal gland (responsible for tear production) and salivation.
Dilation of pupils (mydriasis).
Relaxation of bladder.
Auditory exclusion (loss of hearing).
Tunnel vision (loss of peripheral vision).
Acceleration of instantaneous reflexes.
Shaking.
Fight or flight actions also have polarity - an individual can either fight or flee against something that is
threatening, or fight for or fly towards somewhere safe. A threat from a violent assailant does not always
result in immediate fight or flight. There may be a period of heightened awareness, during which we
interpret behavioral signals from the person/situation posing the threat.
Signs such as paling, immobility, sounds, and body language communicate our status and intentions.
There may be a sort of negotiation, after which fight or flight may ensue, but which result in nothing at all.
Behavioural manifestations of Fight or Flight
In the fight or flight response, fight is manifested in aggressive, combat behavior and flight is manifested
by fleeing potentially threatening situations, such as being confronted by an assailant/predator. These
responses are persistent, but fight and flight responses have assumed a wider range of behaviours. For
example, the fight response may be manifested in angry, argumentative behavior, and the flight
response may be manifested through social withdrawal, substance abuse, and even television viewing.
Males and females tend to deal with stressful situations differently. Males are more likely to respond to
an emergency situation with aggression (fight), while females are more likely to flee (flight), turn to others
for help, or attempt to defuse the situation – 'tend and befriend'. During stressful times, a mother is
especially likely to show protective responses toward her offspring and affiliate with others for shared
social responses to threat.
Negative effects of the stress response
The stress response halts or slows down various processes such as sexual responses and digestive
systems to focus on the stressor situation and typically causes negative effects like constipation,
anorexia, erectile dysfunction, difficulty urinating and difficulty maintaining sexual arousal. These are
functions which are controlled by the parasympathetic nervous system and therefore suppressed by
sympathetic arousal.
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Cont.
Prolonged stress responses may result in chronic suppression of the immune system, leaving the body
open to infections. However, there is a short boost of the immune system shortly after the fight or flight
response has been activated. This may be due to the body’s need to fight the infections in a wound that
one may have received during physical or violent interaction. Stress responses are sometimes a result of
mental disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder, in which the individual shows a stress
response when remembering a past trauma, and panic disorder, in which the stress response is
activated by the catastrophic misinterpretations of bodily sensations.
Adrenaline Rush
Adrenaline rush refers to an activity of the adrenal gland in a fight-or-flight response, when it is releasing
adrenaline (epinephrine). When releasing adrenaline your body releases dopamine that acts as a natural
pain killer. An adrenaline rush causes the muscles to perform respiration at an increased rate improving
strength. It also works with the nervous system to interpret impulses that trigger selective glands that
enhance performance and recovery.
Situational and threat awareness
Note: It is important that we train to be aware of our surroundings and the possibility of threats that we
may encounter in our normal daily routine at home or in the workplace. Personal safety may be
threatened in situations which could include:
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


Shouting
A display of anger, agitation or threatening behaviour
Suspicious, evasive or other unusual behaviour
Actual threat of harm.
Doorstep safety
It’s your doorstep so why do people think they can intrude whenever they feel like ringing the bell? From
cold callers to fraudsters, anyone can turn up on your doorstep. Lock up, be aware, and stay safe –
using our guide to doorstep safety.
What are the risks?
Numerous crimes have been reported by people who have inadvertently allowed a burglar into their
house. Criminals will invent an „emergency‟ or claim to be from the water or gas board to get access to
your house. Most of us wouldn’t refuse access to someone who wanted a glass of water…
One common ruse is for the criminal to claim to be a repairman, who’s been sent to do some urgent
work on your water pipes, telephone line, or similar. This is a reasonably plausible story; to add to the
pressure, the criminal may tell you that (s) he must carry out the work as soon as possible to avoid
complications. It may be a way for the criminal to get into your house, or it may be a way for them to
issue you with an enormous repair bill. Trading Standards advises people never to accept a work
quotation on the doorstep; if it’s that urgent; you’re unlikely to be unaware of it, aren’t you?
Another recent tactic has been knocking on doors and claiming to be an antiques buyer. The caller will
be very polite and well groomed, and (s) he is likely to have a good knowledge of antiques –
unfortunately, they will probably keep that to themselves. These fake „antique dealers‟ have been known
to buy valuable items from unknowing homeowners at a fraction of their true value. If this happens to
you, ask them to return or give you a card, and get your pieces valued by another dealer before making
any decisions. Other doorstep criminals may dress in official-looking outfits and carry convincing badges
of identification. Criminal’s do this in order to get into your home where, when your back is turned, they
will help themselves to your valuables – or size up the place to come back later.
One terrible case of doorstep crime involved the caller targeting elderly people. He marched
one woman to the post office to withdraw her savings, which he kept and never returned.
As you can see, the risks are significant. So how can you combat doorstep crime?
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Installing an intercom or peep-hole
For areas of higher risk, or people who have been victimised at home in the past, an intercom or
peephole offers extra peace of mind. You can buy a wireless audio intercom for less than £30. When
your visitors arrive, they push the bell as usual; this rings a telephone in your house (or near your front
door). When you pick up the telephone, your visitor can speak directly to you using the audio speaker
attached to the front door. Advanced versions can also be linked to electronic latches, which give you
even more control over the inside locks. More expensive intercoms come with video footage so that you
can even see your visitors before answering the door!
Alternatively, you can attach a peephole to your front door. This is a cheap and easy option,
if you or someone you know can use a drill with competence! Choose an attachment taking into account
the thickness of your door. Make sure your peephole is fixed at a suitable height for your eyes.
Essential doorstep safety
Help the Aged promotes a four-step precaution: Lock, Stop, Chain and Check. For late-night callers or
for people who are particularly vulnerable, this simple method is enough to prevent opportunist crimes on
the doorstep. It’s actually a good method for anyone who receives an unexpected call.
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
LOCK: Make sure your doors and windows are locked.
STOP: To think who you are expecting. You’re right to be suspicious.
CHAIN: Put the latch or chain on your door before opening it.
CHECK: If someone claims to be an official, ask for their identification. If you’re still uncertain, shut
the door and call the company directly (using the phone book) for verification.
If you are interested in the product or service your caller is selling, but you’re worried about safety, and
then ask the salesman to return at a time more convenient to you. Arrange to have a friend or relative
with you.
Mobile phone safety
If your child gets lost, stranded, or something worse, then the mobile phone in his or her pocket could
save their life. Child abduction figures are the lowest they’ve ever been and this could be partly due to
improved communication technology. So giving your child a mobile phone isn’t just giving in to their
demands – you could be giving them a lifeline. On the other hand, the safety of mobile phones
themselves has been widely debated in the last decade. And we’re no closer to a satisfactory solution.
Personal safety after dark
Poor visibility and quiet roads exacerbate safety risks after dark. There are lots of things that
you can do to avoid the attention of opportunists so take a moment to read our after-dark safety guide.
Think safe – and avoid becoming a target.
Choosing your route
Use roads that are well-lit, avoiding dark alleyways and parks. Before leaving the house,
store taxi and route finder numbers on your mobile phone. Walk confidently and purposefully, looking
around – most crimes are opportunistic, so don’t give anyone cause to target you.
If you’re often walking at night, or you live near a busy road, it’s a good idea to buy reflective clothing.
You needn’t be dressed from head to toe in bright yellow gear: you can buy shoes with reflective stripes,
reflective wristbands, or reflective tape, which can be stuck onto your jacket or trousers. For joggers and
walkers, reflective outer vests are great for making you visible to drivers and other people. Walk on the
right side of the road, so that you are facing oncoming cars.
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Walking and using public transport
If you are getting home on foot, don’t use a mobile phone or MP3 player – you can be too distracted to
notice things happening around you. Walk calmly and confidently; if you’re in a crowd, keep your bag
tucked under one arm, and don’t try to push in the opposite direction. If you should get lost on your way
home, there are now telephone directions services – for a monthly subscription, you have access to a
local-rate number where operators are available to identify your location and talk you through your route
home (or elsewhere). Public transport is another option. On a bus, sit close to the driver, and ask to get
off if anyone makes you feel uncomfortable.
Women travelling alone
Women are particularly vulnerable to additional threats at night. Quiet streets, unlicensed taxi drivers and
busy drinking venues can all pose threats. In bars or restaurants, don’t let your drink or food out of your
sight, and don’t accept cigarettes from strangers either – they could be soaked in chemicals that inhibit
your system. If you catch a taxi on your own, call it directly from your phone and make sure the taxi
driver has your name. Don’t jump into the first taxi that pulls up – unlicensed cabs are increasingly
common, with ten women being attacked every month in the capital.
Safety equipment
From personal alarms to reflective clothes and numbers on your phone book, a little forward thinking
means you will be well equipped to deal with an emergency. Before you leave, check for all the
essentials, and add useful numbers to your mobile phone – local taxi firms, friends, local police and
hospitals. You might also include a „Directions‟ service if you subscribe to one. Personal alarms are
cheaply available and give you extra moral support if you’re nervous about walking alone. The very best
safety equipment you can take out with you after dark is a good friend to watch your back.
Personal safety when dating
Modern dating is a minefield of disasters. Traditional worries (what if my skirt is tucked into my pants
when I come out of the loo? What if my date stands me up?) are now accompanied by a range of brand
new concerns. What can you do to improve your personal safety when dating?
What are the risks?
Date drugs are increasingly common and ever more inventive – even cigarettes can be spiked these
days. Abduction, sexual assault or threats might also be at the top of your worry list. Are these concerns
substantiated?
Around 45,000 women are raped each year in the UK, a figure that peaks during the party season; 50%
of the victims are drunk at the time of the crime. Drug rape figures are difficult to come by; it has been
reported that in 2003, more than 1,000 people reported a suspected drug rape, but only 168 cases were
convicted in courts. More than 50% of victims were drugged at a pub or bar. You can reduce your risk by
using your common sense; meet your dates in busy, safe places and get home before it’s too late; guard
your drinks; and, if you’re very worried, ask friends for back up. Here are six essential safety tips if you’re
preparing to meet a date:
Online checks: If you haven’t met your date before, Google his or her details, including nicknames,
schools and every other detail her or she has unwittingly given you. This will help you to get a good feel
of how the world sees this person, and it just might save you from performing a hit-and-run at the
bowling alley. Google is the dating world’s online private eye, letting you in on office pages, newspaper
clippings and even Blogs related to your potential date.
Dress modestly: Whatever you usually wear, tone it down for your first date – women should expose no
more than neck and arms. We’re sorry to be strict but it’s best not to give your date false hopes until you
have decided whether or not you like him/her. Dressing modestly has a dual purpose: it’s kinder to your
date, whose attention will be totally devoted to you; and it doesn’t give the impression that you will „put
out‟ before the night is over. (Some women have reported stories of men on blind dates who expect sex
as a matter of course – some of whom will plan this out methodically.)
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Choose a busy venue: Picking a crowded bar has many advantages for the nervous first-dater. For one
thing, there are too many men and women coming in the door for you to keep track of, so the only thing
to do is focus on your drink and think happy thoughts. You won’t suffer the terrible turn-up-and-run fate
that many first-daters report (date walks in door, date spots partner, date walks straight back out) – or if
you do experience it, you’ll be too occupied talking to the bar staff to notice. Finally, a busy venue allays
your safety concerns – no quiet alleyways or unknown car routes. If you can persuade a couple of
friends to drink on the next table, so much the better.
Buying your own drinks: Unfortunately, the days of buying drinks for your date are over. It’s so easy to
spike a drink or cigarette that our best advice is: always buy your own, and then don’t take your eyes off
it. If you need to visit the loo, then finish your drink first! And, because you’re on a date, be wary of
drinking too much; it could affect your state of mind and lead to post-date regret!
Your emergency get-out clause: Whether your friends are on the next table or not, an emergency getout clause is definitely in order. There are several approaches to this: if you have a reliable friend, you
could ask them to call you at a predetermined time. (When you take the call, if you want to leave your
date, return to your seat announcing a family emergency – and get the next bus home.) You can also
arrange for friends to meet nearby or even at the same venue, so that you can indicate for them to join or
rescue you using a predetermined signal.
Don't go too far: If this is a blind date, you simply don’t know enough about the person to commit to
anything in these early stages. Did you hear about Pam, the internet dater who “Googled” her lovely new
boyfriend and found that he was on the UK‟s Most Wanted list? Take it easy, play safe, and enjoy a few
more dates getting to know one another – that way all the nasty stuff has a chance to come into the
open.
Personal safety when drinking alcohol
Red wine makes us live longer… a pint of beer improves your sight… beer before wine and You’ll be
fine… there are plenty of factoids and myths about the powers of alcohol. But overstep the limits and
you’re at risk of serious illness brain damage, and even cancer. How can you reduce your risk? And how
much is too much, anyway?
Safe drinking
Drinking alcohol isn’t all bad: drink the right tipple at the right rate, and you can actually improve your
health! Did you know, for instance? Low to moderate intake (1-3 units per day) improves your resistance
to coronary disease!
One to three drinks a day is said to reduce your risk of mental health problems such as dementia or
Alzheimer’s (Erasmus University Medical School, 2002)
One small glass of red wine per day can reduce a woman’s stroke risk by up to 50% (A.Malarcher, 2001)
Red wine from France and Sardinia, rich in procyanidins, has been linked to longer Life (R.Corder, 2006)
Ale and stout contains antioxidants which have been shown to reduce the risk of cataracts (consumed at
the rate of one unit per day) (J.Trevithick, 2000).
However – and you knew it was coming – excessive alcohol drinking has been universally proven to be
linked to hepatitis, gastritis, cancer, heart failure, brain damage and epilepsy. That’s quite a list. Reduce
your risk by drinking sensibly, and knowing your limits. It’s recommended that men drink no more than
three or four units per day, and for women only two to three are advised. Here’s a quick guide to the unit
ratings of your favourite drinks:
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Cont.
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1 pint beer (5% volume): 3 units
1 pint lager (3% volume): 2 units
1 small glass wine (12% volume): 2 units
1 measure spirit (40% volume): 1 unit
Alcohol poisoning
The effects of alcohol are biphasic, which means that they occur in identifiable phases. The first, of
course, is relaxation and loss of inhibition; this can be followed by dehydration, nausea, headaches, and
– in some cases – even worse symptoms. Watch out for the symptoms of serious alcohol poisoning:
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Passing out.
Difficulty breathing.
Throwing up.
Skin cold and blue, particularly beneath fingernails.
Avoiding a hangover
A hangover is your body’s way of warning you against excessive consumption. Symptoms include
headache, dry mouth and dizziness. It is thought that hangovers are primarily caused by dehydration, so
drinking lots of water between your alcoholic drinks can help reduce their effects. Because women’s
bodies contain a lower percentage of water than men, women cannot drink as much as men before
acquiring a hangover. It’s also true that some types of alcohol make you more susceptible to hangover
than others. Spirits (such as brandy, gin and vodka) and wine (red and white) contain more congeners
(the by-products of fermentation), which have been shown to cause worse after-effects.
Drinking and work
For employers, alcohol consumption can sometimes be a concern. Some organisations include alcohol
screening as part of their recruitment process. Others develop an alcohol policy in consultation with their
staff. It is reasonable for employers to offer help where an employee’s drinking becomes an evident
problem. At some point, discipline would also be expected; but this should be outlined in the staff policy.
It’s a good idea to be aware of your employer’s stance on drinking and how it affects your work.
Money and credit cards
Assess where you are keeping your valuables when you’re out after dark. Choose a zipped or buckled
bag (open bags are tempting for pickpockets), roomy enough to hold everything at once, with a secret
compartment for high-value items. If you have more than one bag it can be easy to forget or drop one (or
more!).
When you’re in a foreign city or out very late, it’s a good idea to keep spare cash (including change for a
telephone box) in a different pocket. If the worst happens and you’re relieved of your wallet, you will have
enough to get home. If you’re concerned, you could use a money belt – worn inside your clothing, it
provides a safe and discreet home for your cards and money. Openly using an MP3, camera or mobile
phone can make you a target; these items are the most commonly stolen, so tuck them away when you
are walking after dark.
Personal safety when withdrawing money
What are the risks involved in withdrawing money? ATM machines are almost always on a street or open
place and are easy targets for criminals. Tricks they’ll use range from the simple distract-and-pickpocket
to the sophisticated machine that reads the numbers directly from your card. How can you stay safe?
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Types of ATM theft
The most common ATM theft is carried out using a „skimming‟ device. This is a little machine that fits
over the card slot and transmits your card details to the thief, who is often waiting nearby. They now
have all they need to reproduce your card; to complete the theft, they need your PIN number. To get this
they may attach a second device – a camera – to the machine; or they might simply hang around behind
you while you use your card. Another type of ATM theft involves a similar device, attached by the
criminals to the ATM machine. This one is designed to suck in your card and refuse to spit it out. The
thief will stand nearby and act concerned, suggesting you try the transaction again (while making a
mental note of your PIN). After you’ve left to ring your bank, the thief will quickly remove the device and
your card, and use it in another machine before you have the chance to cancel it.
Withdrawing money on holiday
Carrying an ATM card is easier and safer than carrying a bundle of foreign currency or travelers
cheques. What’s more, you’ll get more cash for your pounds because the bank will usually provide
currency at the wholesale exchange rate. You can use a Visa card at any PLUS ATM machine, from
Miami to Malaysia – there are more than one million worldwide. Likewise, MasterCard is accepted at
CIRRUS machines, which offer another million cash withdrawal sites all over the globe. Here are some
tips for safe use on holiday:
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Let your bank or credit card company know that you’re going, in case they suspect
fraud and refuse access.
Keep your card in a money belt, or in a hotel safe when you don’t need it.
Keep a back-up card with your partner or back at the hotel.
Memorise your PIN number – don’t write it down anywhere.
Withdraw plenty of money at once, rather than lots of small amounts.
If in America and you choose a drive-through ATM, lock the car before getting out If you’re in a
dangerous area or worried about personal crime, carry a disposable zip-up purse or wallet containing a
few notes, and hand this over if challenged.
How to withdraw money safely
Public ATMs are dangerous – minimise your risks by using these simple tips:
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Choose your machine with discretion; pick a machine in a public place with plenty of space around
it.
Avoid machines that are in the dark and those with people loitering nearby.
Use the ATM with another person present, who can keep an eye out while you make
the transaction. Have your card ready to use, rather than fumbling around for it at the
machine.
Check the machine over for anything odd before you put your card in. Look carefully at the card slot
and the overhang, where miniature cameras could be installed.
Cover the keypad while you enter your PIN.
If you use a machine inside a bank after hours, and you have to slide your card through a slot to
open the door, make sure you don’t let anyone else in behind you.
If you think someone is watching your transaction, press cancel and find a different machine.
If the machine swallows your card, don’t leave – telephone your bank on the spot.
Tell anyone queuing that the machine is faulty.
Put away your cash before turning away from the machine, including your receipt.
Staying crime aware
Despite our best efforts to prevent crime, rates are not going down. Types of crimes being committed
might vary from year to year but overall we’re at the same risk as we were fifteen
years ago. The very best thing you can do to help yourself – and your family – is take the time to learn
about your risks. Armed with knowledge about crime, you can take the right steps to prevent it.
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Common crimes
Last year 23% of the population fell victim to a crime. That’s almost one in four – so your risks are high.
Here’s a breakdown by type of crime, taken from the British Crime Survey:
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Criminal damage (including vandalism and arson): 8% of households were affected.
Burglary: 2% of households were affected. Domestic burglary peaked in 1993 and
has now returned to the same level as 1981.
Theft (including mugging, bicycle and household theft): 14% of the population was
affected.
Sexual offences: 3% of women and 1% of men were affected.
Vehicle theft: 7% of households were affected. Car theft peaked a few years ago and
has now reduced to the same rate as 1981.
Card fraud: 3% of card users were affected in 2004. 1% of the population was
affected by fraud or forgery (all types) last year.
Looking at these figures, you can see that the most common crimes are personal theft, criminal
damage, and car theft.
Preventing personal theft
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Identify your personal property: use a UV marker pen to write your postcode and house number on
valuables. Invisible to the naked eye, your writing will show up when the police scan recovered items.
Attach a label to your car and home windows that says your property is marked.
When walking alone, keep your purse or wallet hidden, and keep a car key or personal alarm close to
hand.
Make sure that your insurance will cover you for valuables on your person whilst out.
If you cycle, you can register your bicycle with local police. Make sure it’s on your
insurance policy too.
Use a D-shaped steel bike lock and chain your bike to a permanent object (like
railings) rather than a hook or drainpipe.
Take removable bike parts with you.
Preventing criminal damage
Set up a Neighbourhood Watch scheme. If there are repeat crimes occurring in your area, this is a great
idea. Promoted by the Home Office and supported by the police force, Neighbourhood Watch schemes
help to improve local vigilance. You need a Neighbourhood Co-ordinator to recruit and inform members,
and liaise with the police. There is a training package available from the Home Office to help with this.
The Co-ordinator usually circulates news and information, calls meetings and ensures the inclusion of
vulnerable community members.
Preventing car theft
Let’s get the obvious stuff out of the way first: Park safely – under a CCTV camera, streetlight, or in your
garage. Put everything out of sight: CDs in the glove box, maps and books in the boot. If you don’t have
an alarm or immobiliser, get one fitted.
Marking your property can help you to recover it afterwards. Use a UV marker for the stereo, and have
your registration number etched into the car windows (this also deters thieves in the first place).
If you’re buying a second-hand car, do a quick check that it’s not been stolen. If we all did this, car theft
would be a lot less common. Make sure the seller has the V5 registration document, and check that the
VIN numbers on car and document match up.
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Personal safety when using public transport
Fewer and fewer of us use public transport these days. In fact we’re now six times more likely to jump in
the car than to catch a bus or train! One factor in this trend is degradation of safety on public transport.
Men and cite fear of groups or lone people as a key reason to avoid bus and train stations.
Personal safety on public transport
Environmentally, socially and economically, public transport is a good thing. But many of us still hop into
the car instead of catching a bus or a train. Do safety concerns put you off? According to the Department
of Transport, 11.5% more journeys would be made by public (instead of private) transport if people felt
safer.
The Department also asserts that incidences of crime on public transport are very rare. But It’s not just
muggings that we’re worried about – what about intimidation, harassment and vandalism? Even if we’re
not victimised, feeling afraid of fellow passengers or a lonely station can affect our journeys. Don’t
tolerate it – do something about it!
Safety at train and bus stations
The Department of Transport awards Secure Station accreditation to train and bus stations that have
good safety standards. There are four criteria that stations must meet, they should have:
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Careful, open and safe station design (a good layout, clear signs, maps and timetables.
Efficient communication between station staff (who should be visible and available when you need
them)
A set of policies for reducing crime at the station (including measures like anti-graffiti, paint and good
lighting)
Passenger surveys that show a general feeling of security.
Check whether your local station has reached these standards. Here’s what you can do to
improve your safety at train and bus stations.
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Arrive punctually, so you don’t have to wait for long periods.
If the station is quiet, stand in view of a CCTV camera.
Be aware of the people around you.
Don’t let bags out of your sight.
Keep your purse or wallet, camera and maps hidden.
Safety for pedestrians
If your journey is shorter than a mile, you might choose to walk. Although walking is a great
way to get to school or work, we’re all walking less these days. If you’re concerned about
safety, here are some tips to make you feel more confident.
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Carry a stick or umbrella.
Keep a mobile phone close at hand, but not on view.
If walking after dark, carry a personal alarm (available for about £10).
Ask someone to come with you or take a dog!
Walk briskly and confidently.
Leave your handbag or wallet at home.
Avoid poorly lit areas.
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Note: Children don’t walk to school as much as they used to. Local councils are currently piloting
a number of schemes to encourage children to walk and cycle to school. They are also developing better
programs to train children in pedestrian skills, and working with local safety officers to help deliver this.
But any parent can initiate a “buddy” or escort scheme to help children walk safely to school.
Personal safety when walking alone
If you’re off on a solitary stroll in the country or town, pack a charged mobile phone, and tell someone
where you’re going and when you’ll be back. It takes little effort to keep people informed, and could save
your life if you get totally lost! A whistle is often recommended to hikers, so even if your mobile phone
battery dies, a whistle can be relied on to reach passers-by for miles.
Basic first aid
If you’ll be a while, or if you are responsible for groups of children, it is advisable to pack some essential
first aid supplies. This could include plasters (for minor cuts and blisters), sterile dressings (to staunch
heavy blood flow), triangular bandages (to support sprains and fractures), safety pins, bite cream and
antiseptic wipes.
Travelling abroad – Don’t think like a victim...
Wherever you travel, a confident attitude will keep you out of the mugger’s sights. Even if You’re lost,
don’t show it. Act as though you’re a local, who knows precisely where they’re headed. Hold your head
high and walk purposefully (in the direction you think might be the right one!). If you need to stop and
check a map or ask directions, choose somewhere you’re most likely not to be noticed, or even better,
stop in a store or tourist information bureau and get directions in person.
Dress like a local
What does a local look like? It could be a number of different looks - plain clothes, shopping bags and no
camera, the dress and change with every different environment we engage with. It is important to blend
in when visiting and engaging new places to ensure a certain amount of personal safety. For women this
means checking cultural etiquette before travelling. Avoid typical tourist gear that will mark you out to
potential predators – Hawaiian shorts, a big map and expensive camera around your neck are not
advisable!
Carry your valuables safely
Leave your passport and travel documents in the hotel, if a safe is available. To carry your cash and
cards, it’s worth using a money belt. These are usually available at airports and can be worn beneath
clothing. If you do decide to use one carry some money in your pocket also. If you’re stopped by a thief
or mugger, they are unlikely to believe that you are not carrying any cash. Handing over some cash
could save you from losing your cards and notes.
Be aware of high risk situations
A high risk situation is anywhere that you’re withdrawing or handling cash. But it can also be created by
robbery or by being mugged. If there is a disturbance or a public scene, beware that it might be a staged
diversion created by those who intend to steal from you or attempt to cause you harm. Remember
vigilance will help to keep you and your family safe.
Be aware of local scams
Before you go, or even when you’re there, it only takes a moment to get online and do some quick
research about the local scams. Beware of people who approach you with a seemingly innocent motive
– even lost travelers could be distracting your attention from their friends hand in your bag. On the bus or
train, you could be busy trying to move further from the wandering hands, while crime number two is
happening right behind you, as your wallets removed from your back pocket. A pickpocket will always
find excuses to touch you, when you’re desensitised to it, they’re better able to steal your jewellery and
cash.
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Travelling safety advice when in a taxi alone
For women alone, travelling in a taxi is a useful mode of transport - but it can also be quite nerve
wracking. Statistics support these concerns: in London, an average of 10 female passengers report
sexual assaults every month. Here are our vital tips to help you stay safe when you’re taking a taxi.
Don’t get in this taxi......
There are several obvious signals that will warn you NOT to step into some taxis! Clearly if the driver
appears to be drunk, or in an unfit state to drive, that’s one. Here are some more to add to your mental
checklist: Don’t get into a taxi if....
It’s an old banger! – Taxi licensees are required to show that their vehicle is roadworthy and
mechanically healthy.
There’s no taxi meter – Actually, this isn’t as straight forward as it seems. Some local council’s DON‟T
insist on taxi meters. If there’s no meter, make sure you agree a price before you commence your
journey.
There’s no taxi license on display – Your driver should have a badge on display bearing his or her
license number, issued by the local council as a certification of safety.
The driver doesn’t know the location of your destination – If the driver is asking you for directions,
they don’t know the area. Are they a licensed driver?
Someone you don’t know has hopped in and suggested sharing a taxi – It’s not unknown for
criminals to act in pairs in these situations.
The driver has bypassed the front of the queue to pick you up – It’s not a lucky coincidence. Don’t
get in.
About taxi licensing
Your local council controls taxi licensing, which is different according to the region. They may control the
range of colors permitted for taxis and hire cars, for instance – if all the taxis look the same when you’re
standing in the queue, that’s a good clue. (This can be a useful way to spot the fakers from a mile off!)
Taxis aren’t obliged to have meters, but they are very likely to carry radios so they can communicate with
their base unit or employer. Your local council may have initiatives to improve the safety of passengers.
Basic taxi safety
First, whenever you can, pre book your taxi, or telephone a local firm when you leave the venue. This
ensures that you’re getting a licensed taxi and not getting picked up by a fraudster. Give your last name
and ensure the driver knows it when he/she picks you up. Don’t put your bag in the boot, in case you
need to make a quick exit from the vehicle. (It can happen,) If you’re on your own, as soon as you get
into the taxi, take down the license number – type it into your mobile phone and text it to a friend, keep
your mobile switched on and close to hand. But don’t spend the journey chatting – keep a close eye on
the route your driver is taking.
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Stranger Danger
Whilst attacks by strangers on children may be rare, they are every parent’s worst nightmare. Making
sure your children are aware of the dangers that strangers can present without scaring them is a fine
balancing act. If children are to spend any time at all out of their parents‟ sight, teaching them about
stranger danger may give them some peace of mind.
What is Stranger danger?
Stranger danger has passed into popular usage as the shorthand for the rules and safety tips can be
taught to protect themselves from adult strangers. Adages such as “Never accept sweets from sweets
from a stranger” form a central part of the concept of Stranger danger. Crucially children need to
understand that a person they do not know can be dangerous even if they are female or look “nice”.
At what age do children need to know about Stranger danger?
Children as young as 3 or 4 may begin to have an awareness of what it means for someone to be a
stranger and to understand why they should not trust them. Some nurseries and preschools may provide
preliminary training on this subject. Parents may be concerned about frightening their children by
discussing this topic at too early an age. However, most children are now bombarded with media images
of missing children and may be reassured by a calm, rational approach to a potentially terrifying subject.
Teaching children about Stranger danger
Basic Stranger danger rules include:
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Never accept gifts or sweets from a stranger.
Never get in a car with a stranger.
Never go anywhere with a stranger.
Never go off on your own without telling your parents or a trusted adult.
Ensuring that children are taught appropriate sex education at an early age means that they will have a
better idea about what sort of behaviour is, or is not, appropriate. Encouraging family members to be
open with each other will mean that a child is less likely to feel obliged to keep a secret if something
does happen. Children should feel that they can tell their parents, or guardians, anything without the fear
of getting into trouble. Parents also need to take care about the type of adults they allow into the home.
Many local police forces offer Stranger danger courses and will come into primary schools to
teach them. The courses mainly focus exclusively on the risks of attack or abduction by a
stranger.
Safe people and places
Stranger danger is not just about teaching children who or what to avoid but also includes
positive rules so that children know how to keep themselves safe. For example:
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Knowing who they can trust if they need help – such as a uniformed police officer or a teacher.
Having the confidence to trust their instincts if they have a bad feeling about a place or person.
Being aware of their surroundings.
Learning to be assertive.
Knowing that they should tell a trusted adult if they have been approached by a stranger.
Beyond Stranger danger
In today’s world teaching children not to accept sweets from a stranger is only a small part of
keeping them safe. Children today tend to have many more belongings than they had twenty or even ten
years ago making them more vulnerable to street theft or muggings. If a child is going out into the world
with a new mobile phone and an ipod, he/she must know how to protect themselves and their property
from other people. The threat posed on the internet, or even by other children, is almost certainly far
greater than that posed by the traditional bogeyman in a dirty raincoat. Indeed the fact remains that
children may be at greater danger from people they know than they are from the stranger of our
nightmares.
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Find out more about crime in your area
What are the biggest risks in your area? The government publishes crime statistics every
year. These are broken down by county, so you can look online to find out what’s happening
in yours. Find the latest results at crimestatistics.org.uk.
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Chapter 3
Tactical Communication
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Tactical Communication
Tactical communication is “The use of communication skill with the purpose of achieving control”. The
benefits of good communication skills during confrontational situations can help to reduce the risk of
injury, the need to use physical force and help to enhance public/witness perception.
Channels of Communication
The transfer of information from one party to another allows us to make sense of the world around us.
We filter the information we receive and interpret it in relation to our previous experience and reference.
Breakdown of communication
A breakdown in communication can lead to frustration which can lead to violence. In order to avoid or
mentally prepare ourselves for physical confrontation we need to look for danger cues:
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Direct and prolonged eye contact.
An assailant standing tall to maximise their height.
Squaring up, front on.
Making exaggerated movements near you, especially with the hands.
Fists clenching/unclenching.
Knuckles whitening.
Changes in facial colour.
Increased perspiration.
Kicking the ground.
Verbal abuse.
Accelerated breathing.
Abrupt starting and stopping of nervous behavior.
Veins becoming pronounced.
Shoulders tensing.
The head dropping forward (so the jaw protects the throat).
Eyebrows dropping (to protect the eyes).Glancing at intended target areas or looking through to depersonalise the target.
Lips tightening over teeth.
Intake of breath.
Stance changing to side on or fighting stance.
Lowering the entire body or bending the knees before launching an attack.
It is important to remember to maintain a reactionary gap between yourself and any potential threat
indicating danger cues. This will assist in minimising the risk of physical violence giving you time to
defend yourself or make good an escape.
23
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Signs of Aggressive or Hostile Behavior
Aggressive behavior is a problem in any society. Knowing the factors that influence aggressive behavior
as well as how aggression is expressed are vital to developing an understanding of it.
Definition
According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, aggression is defined as "a forceful action or procedure
(as an unprovoked attack) especially when intended to dominate or master." Aggression is further
defined as destructive, injurious, hostile and often caused by frustration.
Signs of aggression can be easy to recognize.
Aggression and hostility come in three main forms: Verbal, passive and physical. Dealing with an
individual who displays signs of these behaviors can be frustrating and stressful. Knowing how to
recognize the signs of aggression can help determine how to respond to aggression and hostility.
Verbal
Verbal aggression and hostility can manifest in several forms. An individual may be verbally abusive,
hurling insults at people, berating others or belittling people for minor mistakes. For example, a colleague
may call a co-worker a "moron" for incorrectly assembling a file. Verbal insults can escalate to further
aggression and hostility and should not have to be tolerated as harmless.
Passive
Passive signs of aggression or hostility are actions an individual takes that aren't openly aggressive but
still send signals of hostility to others. This can be as simple as sitting with arms crossed or speaking
badly about someone behind their back. It also includes spreading gossip or outright ignoring someone
who is trying to talk to you.
Physical
Physical aggression and hostility are the most extreme signs and should be stopped immediately.
Physical aggression can be a flick on the wrist or throwing a ball at someone. Its extreme can include
hand-to-hand fighting. Physical injury is not the only type of physical aggression or hostility. Vandalism or
theft can also be grouped in this category.
Forms of Aggression
Aggression can manifest in several different forms. It can be physical, verbal or passive. Physical
aggression is marked by defiance, hostility towards authority, fighting, abusing others and destruction of
property. Verbal aggression and passive aggression are defined as communication designed to cause
pain to another person. It may be name calling and nasty remarks, slamming a door or silence and
sulking.
Children and Aggression
Like adults, children display aggression in many ways. Feelings of anger and frustration are often the
underlying cause of aggression in children. Conflict over possessions, physical assault, teasing and
taunting, rejecting peers and noncompliance are all signs of anger and aggression in children.
Mental Illness
There are multiple diagnoses of mental illness in which aggressive behaviors are a hallmark. Some of
these diagnoses include Oppositional Defiant Disorder, Conduct Disorder, Borderline Personality
Disorder, and Anti-Social Personality Disorder. Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder have also
been linked to aggressive behavior. Symptoms of these disorders include bullying, intimidation, fights
with peers, early truancy, poor relationships with peers, violating the rights of others and society's rules
and labile emotions. Defiant and oppositional behavior is not always a sign of mental illness. It is normal
at times for children and teens, but is considered a mental health problem when it is frequent.
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Alcohol Abuse
Research has consistently linked alcohol abuse with aggression. Studies have shown a positive
correlation between the amount of alcohol consumed and violent behavior. Potential risk factors for
alcohol-related aggression are poor cognitive functioning, inaccurate expectations about the effects of
alcohol, and participating in high risk situations. Alcohol-related aggression is increased by the presence
of provocative or frustrating stimuli that are interpreted as malicious or arbitrary. Theories on alcohol and
aggression suggest that individual differences, such as personality and biology, as well as situation and
context, affect whether alcohol use results in aggressive behavior.
Aggressive behavior checklist
Aggression is either overt or covert.
Aggression is natural and, as such, people expect or use it in some form throughout their day. It can
present as either passive or active. When it's covert, the individual's hostility hides behind a mask.
However, when aggression is active, it's openly displayed in the aggressor's attitude, facial expressions,
body language, etc. Many people in the home and/or at work become adept at recognizing the signs of
aggression in their family members and/or coworkers.
Competitive Aggression
Competition is one form of non-hostile aggression. Competitive aggression, whether you're five or 35,
remains a natural part of sports, but it also occurs in video games, classroom debates, and chess
matches. Since each person or team intends to win the coveted prize, they engage in behaviors they
normally wouldn't. For instance, to get to the finish line first, motorcycle racers employ great force
against other drivers. Although the potential for hostility is high, competitive aggression can be kept at
healthy levels.
Defensive Aggression
A defensive person appears passive until provoked. At first glance, defensiveness may not appear as
aggression; however, because defensiveness often provokes pain in those on the receiving end, it's
considered hostile. Defensive aggressors don't strike out at others; rather if they receive unwanted
attention, they react with opposition. This signals that the individual desires to be left alone; therefore, if a
person shuns attention and behaves aggressively because of it, respect her wishes and steer clear.
Physical Attack
Hitting, slapping, or punching signal physical aggression. A physical attack is evidenced by striking,
aggressive bumping, or slapping. These are the less dangerous forms of physical attack. The worst are
stabbings, shootings, or torture. Physical attacks occur during robbery, domestic violence, gang
violence, and other types of hostile encounters. The aim of an attack is get something from the victim. To
help prevent danger, remain alert, keep a cell phone handy, and call the police if you believe you're in
danger.
Retaliatory aggression
Retaliation is hurting another intentionally, because he hurt you first. Retaliatory aggression occurs
when the offended person attempts to hurt the one who caused him pain or humiliation. This type of
hostility, or payback, is used to right a wrong or restore one's dignity. Because the offended person
believes that he was wronged, he sets out recover that which was taken, such as his self-esteem. The
emotion that powers retaliation is revenge, and nothing short of vengeance will stop this form of
aggression, unless it's a sincere apology. When the retaliation begins, recognize it for what it is and don't
add fuel to the fire.
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Verbal Attack
Trying to hurt someone by screaming at or berating her is a verbal attack. A verbal attack is a deliberate
attempt by one person toward another to cause emotional or psychological pain with words. The
aggressor berates and wounds the target until she loses her confidence. Furthermore, seeing the victim
in pain doesn't stop the abuser; instead, he continues to attack. If you are on the receiving end of a
verbal attack, keep your guard up, tell someone afterward, and get professional help.
Aggressive behavior in children
Children and teenagers sometimes mimic the violence they see on television. Aggressive behavior is a
serious problem among teenagers. Thirty to 40 percent of males and 16 to 32 percent of females admit
to having committed a violent crime by the age of 17.
Risk Factors
Children, who live in stressed family environments caused by issues such as unemployment or marital
problems, are more likely to demonstrate violent behavior. Being the victim of abuse or witnessing
violence in the home also contributes to aggression. Other contributing factors include substance abuse
or exposure to violence through television and movies.
Effects
Many teens who demonstrate impulsive behaviors, who lose their temper easily or are intensely angry,
resort to aggression or violence. Some teenagers demonstrate verbal aggression, such as name-calling
and teasing, or indirect aggression like spreading malicious rumors or creating gossip. They also show
physical aggression. Teens may have violent temper tantrums, destroy property, harm smaller children
or animals, fight with other teens, or commit rapes or murders.
Prevention/Solution
Concerned parents should arrange to visit a mental-health professional and/or enroll the child in an early
intervention program. Parents can lessen violent behavior by monitoring what children and teens watch
on television and by taking advantage of available family support programs.
How to Deal With Aggressive & Threatening Behavior
At some point in your life, chances are you will have to deal with a difficult individual. It may be a family
member, a co-worker, or a perfect stranger. In extreme cases, their behavior may turn aggressive or
threatening. This could escalate into a potentially dangerous situation. To keep yourself safe from harm,
there are certain strategies you can employ. (Dimension Media Studies 2006)






Be situational aware at all times. Assess the seriousness of the situation. This will help you
determine how to proceed. In milder circumstances, the situation may be easily diffused. As
matters escalate, however, additional steps will need to be considered.
Stay calm. Getting upset will only worsen the situation and perhaps even agitate the other person
more. Speak softly and try to avoid getting into any arguments, which will only cause matters to
become more inflamed.
Try to keep the other person calm. Avoid countering with your own verbal threats or making
gestures that might be deemed as aggressive. Do what you can to attempt to persuade him that
you want a peaceful resolution and don't want to challenge him.
Be ready to defend yourself, should the situation warrant it. If someone follows a verbal threat with
physical violence, you may need to fight back. Kick, scratch, scream, use car keys or whatever you
have available should you find yourself in danger of being harmed.
Look for an opportunity to escape. Search for an exit or an area where you can quickly get away.
Look for other people and approach them for help. If you are able to find a public place, like a store
or restaurant, hurry inside and tell them what's happening.
Contact the police. If you believe someone is being aggressive or threatening, inform the
authorities. In some instances, a restraining order may have to be obtained.
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Note
It is important to remember the necessity of the voice in any confrontational situation. A calm tone of
voice and articulate terminology (e.g.” I don’t want/I not looking for trouble” ect), can soothe a tense and
potentially violent situation whilst loud tactical words of command (e.g. “STOP”, “GET BACK”, “DON’T
COME ANY CLOSER” ect) may deter an attacker and enhance the possibility of witness perception and
assistance from members of the general public and if on hand the Police.
Reading Body Language
“If the eyes are the windows of the soul, then the body is the mirror of our feelings”.
If we are feeling great it shows in how we hold and use our body. Conversely, if we look at
someone else’s body we can often tell how they are feeling by the signals their body is
giving. When we engage with other people reading body language is a great way to
understand how they are feeling. In case you don’t think learning how to read and use body
language is not important, here are some statistics about the messages we receive from
someone we meet.



Verbal: 7% of the information we receive is from what they actually say.
Vocal: 38% of information we receive is from the tone, inflection and speed of their voice.
Non-verbal: A staggering 55% of the information we receive is from their body language (position,
posture, movement, distance, gestures, gesticulation, eye-contact, facial expressions, clothing and
adornments).
These non-verbal signals will help you in dealing with the person but stay focussed on what
the person is saying. If you focus too much on their body language signals, you and/or the
other person may feel uncomfortable. It is useful to be able to read people’s body language,
but it is equally useful to learn how to get your body to send the right signals and eliminate
the wrong signals.
Be warned body language is very much open to interpretation. Many signals have different
meanings depending on the person/situation. Keep this in mind when you assess a body
language signal. Look for three or four signals that convey a similar message or the one off
inconsistent signal. Also, consciously practise reading/doing some of the signals as much
as you can. Learning, as you practise, what works and what doesn’t work for you will help
you gain confidence to use body language techniques consciously.
Body Language Signals:
 Open arms: Energetically open and possibly feeling vulnerable, a good way to show you are
approachable, especially when combined with open palms.
 Palms up/open hands: Defence’s down, open and portraying honesty.
 Palms on chest: When a person uses open palms that occasionally touch their chest, they are
signalling honesty.
 Outward, upward hand movements: This conveys an open and positive message.
 Folded arms: A defence mechanism that shows the person is not open to what is being said or
done, may mean rejection, physically cold, stubborn in their outlook.
 Hands closed: A closed and isolated attitude/heart.
 Fist: Angry and to be avoided, physically cold, very tense, defiant or triumphant when held in air.
 Feet under the chair: A sign of eagerness.
 Looking around: Wants to get away, thinking about something else, bored with a
situation/conversation.
 Stroking chin: evaluating.
 Yawning: Bored, tired and that may have nothing to do with the situation/conversation.
 Preening: This shows someone knows they are attractive. For example, flicking or stroking their
hair or adjusting a collar and/or a tie.
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Cont.
 Ear Tugging: Indecision, possible deception.
 Puffing out chest: This has nothing to do with silicone implants! men do this when
demonstrating their attraction to someone.
 Nodding: The occasional nod from a listener to a speaker is a positive message. It is an indication
they are listening and are interested.
 Too much nodding: This indicates the listener has lost interest and may be bored.
(Probably where the saying „nodding off to sleep‟ came from.)
 Chopping hands down: This is an aggressive act, usually used to antagonise.
 Body space: Respect for the other person’s body space is crucial in gaining their trust. Stay at least
one arm’s length away from them.
 Striding: An outward display of confidence, anger.
 Gentle leg shaking: The person is mildly stimulated, may need to go to the toilet.
 Vigorous leg shaking: Reveals apprehension and nerves, desperate to go to the toilet.
 On toes: Eagerness.
 Clears throat: Anxiety, has a cough/sore throat, habit.
 Pretends to kick imaginary things on ground: Frustration.
 Open feet: Reflecting and giving attention.
 Flushed cheeks: Indicates interest in the other person, embarrassment (usually
temporary).
 Dilated pupils: Interested in someone, focussed, high on drugs.
 High blink rate: A person who has an interest in someone will have an increased blink rate.
Nervousness, assessing, has an eye disorder.
 Backwards moving: Rejecting, escaping.
 Moving away: Sometimes there is no hidden meaning.
 Slumped posture: Bored, low self-esteem/confidence.
 Legs entwined: A woman who is interested in someone will often cross and uncross her legs when
seated.
 Gazing: A woman will gaze long enough for someone to notice then will quickly look away. Her
mouth may open and lips slightly wet.
 Low voice: When interested in someone a woman may speak in a low voice.
 Running hand along leg: Sexually interested in the other person.
 Running hands along legs: Really sexually interested in the other person, getting ready to leave.
 Directly facing you with open stance: The person is interested and you have their
attention.
 Drumming fingers: Impatient, may be a drummer!
 Open mouth: You have said something outrageous and their jaw has dropped in
Shock, the person has tried to interrupt the conversation to get a word in, but you haven’t paused,
may be a sign of attraction.
 Finger pointing: Sign of assertiveness, sign of aggression.
 Open legs: Receptive to the other person.
 Staring: Defiance, sign of aggression.
 Looks you in the eyes without staring: Confident, self-assured.
 Doesn’t look you in the eyes: Lack of confidence, is being deceptive.
 Standing upright: Reflects inner confidence and comfort level.
 Chewing fingernails: Nervousness. The person is not feeling secure.
 Quick and animated arm and hand movements: Lying, note: Many honest, passionate people
also do this.
 Darting eyes: Deception.
 Shifting eyes: At the very least may be a lack of confidence or at worst it is indication of a
deception. Definitely means deception when combined with a nose rub and “umms‟ and “ahhs‟.
People tend to look down and to the left when lying.
 Running fingers through hair: Frustration, Preening.
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Mirroring
This is evidence of two people getting on really well. Each person copies the other’s body language,
usually subtly. Mirroring occurs with:
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


Breathing
Gestures
Eye movement
Leaning towards each other at the same time
Crossed or uncrossed legs
Speech pattern
Arm movement, or no arm movement
Emotive energy such as being excited, relaxed, etc.
Note: If you practice this with somebody the key is to be subtle and not be a copycat. There is a natural
rhythm to the process, which is the key.
Body Aspects
Our body says a lot about us in many ways as we communicate. Body movement can indicate attitudes,
and feelings while also acting as illustrators and regulators. Our body movement includes the heads,
eyes, shoulders, lips, eyebrows, neck, legs, arms, fingers, orientation, hands and gestures. Together
these pieces can convey if we’re comfortable, unhappy, friendly, anxious, nervous and many other
messages. With so many parts conveying messages, you can see how easily things can get confused
and how difficult it is to manipulate nonverbal communication. Just think of the different messages which
are communicated through facing a person, touching, standing at various distances and in different
stances. With careful thought, however, we may begin using our bodies to further our clarity and
meaning. The aspects of the body are broken down into four areas:




Proxemics
Appearance
Eye contact
Physical behaviour
. Body
. Sending signals
. The seven signals
Proxemic’s
Proxemic’s is the amount of space around or between us and others. How closely people position
themselves to a person during a discussion communicates what type of relationship exists between the
two people. This space and meaning differs from culture to culture but in British culture the following
standards exist.



0-18 inches is intimate space reserved for family and close friends.
18 inches to 4 feet is personal space used in most interpersonal interactions.
4-12 feet is social-consultative space used in more formal interactions (Gabriel/Raam,p.3).
Appearance
Appearance is the second important factor involved with nonverbal communication. In today’s society,
the purpose of clothing has changed from fulfilling a need to expressing ones self. Teens use fashion to
determine cliques like gangs, trends and youth cultures such as Goths and punks. Clothing
communication is continued later in life by identifying someone in a suit as a business person, someone
wearing a black robe as a judge, doctors wearing lab coats and stethoscopes or various other positions
wearing required uniforms of dress. Adornments are another form of appearance.
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Cont.
Wearing expensive jewellery communicates one message while wearing ceremonial ornaments
communicates a completely different message. Appearance also takes into account personal grooming
such as cleanliness, the way you comb your hair, nail trimming or wearing make-up. Overall appearance
is the nonverbal that people are most aware of and manipulate the most. Appearance communicates
how we feel and how we want to be viewed.
Eye Contact
Many sayings hold that the eye is the window to the mind. This is very true to
illustrating the power of eye contact in nonverbal communication. Eye contact can
maintain, yield, deny and request communication between people. People who use
eye contact are viewed as confident, credible and having nothing to hide.
Some important do’s and do not’s of eye contact are:






If you have trouble staring someone in the eye, simply focus at something on
their face.
When speaking to a group look at everyone.
Look at people who are key decision makers or hold power.
Look at reactive listeners.
Don’t look at the floor or anything that causes you to tilt your head away from the receiver.
Don’t look at bad listeners that may distract you.
Body
There are many parts of your body that add to the nonverbal message. This type of nonverbal
communication is called “kinesic” code. Kinesics is the interpretation of body language such as facial
expressions and gestures, or more formally, non-verbal behavior related to movement, either of any part
of the body or the body as a whole. These behaviours are each communicated in different behaviours
and movements of your body. (Trenholm. 2003, p7)
The first important aspect of kinesics is posture. Standing or sitting in a relaxed professional manner is a
positive posture nonverbal. Also, being comfortably upright, squarely facing an audience, and evenly
distributing your weight are all aspects of posture that communicate professionalism, confidence,
attention to detail and organisation.
Non-verbal communicated by moving the trunk of your body are called body gestures. Several different
body gesture strategies are to move to change mood or pace, draw attention, or reinforce and idea.
Some examples are stepping aside for a transition or stepping forward to emphasize a point.
Hand gestures are most often identified as nonverbal communication. One reason is because they are
so obvious to a receiver and seen to be partly conscious. It is important to let your gestures flow naturally
as if in conversation with a close friend. You may also use gestures to specifically describe shape and
size, emphasize a point, enumerate a list, or picking out a specific item.
In conjunction with hand gestures is touching. This is a very powerful communicator especially for
establishing a link to a receiver or conveying emotion. However, touching is dangerous because it
invades a person’s intimate space and may be perceived as unwanted or breaking norms. It is important
to pay attention to the other person’s nonverbal cues before deciding to initiate a touch.
The last area of physical nonverbal communication is facial expression. Facial expression is partly innate
and also partly learned. Because of the number of muscles and features, such as mouth, nose, lips,
cheeks, in your face, it is extremely expressive. A face can ask questions, show doubt, surprise,
sadness, happiness and a wealth of other messages.
Below is a list of some body behaviour and the message they might communicate.
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Cont.
 Slumped posture = low spirits
 Erect posture = high spirits, energy and confidence
 Lean forward = open and interested
 Lean away = defensive or disinterested
 Crossed arms = defensive
 Uncrossed arms = willingness to listen
Sending signals without words
Body language is extremely important in a situation. Some would argue that it is just as
important as what you say and do. Why? Because we can learn quite a bit about people by
their non-verbal actions. This is one of the ways that a potential attacker can size you up as
a possible victim.
When we are in stressful or uncomfortable situations, many of us have habits that can be distracting to
other people. Certainly biting ones nails or constantly fidgeting with ones hands could be distracting from
what you are trying to say. These are examples of body language that can be harmful in a volatile
situation. Used correctly, however, body language can reinforce what you are saying and providing your
presence with a greater impact. The following are tips to help you give the right non-verbal clues:







The Greeting – Is it warm or hostile? First impressions count! Trust your instincts!
Facial / Head Signals – Does the facial expression indicate emotion?
The Eyes – Make eye contact and try to keep attention. Try to stay aware of other possible threats.
The Head – Is the assailants head down (concealing face) or up (staring, aggressive). Avoid
nervous movement of the head (e.g. avoiding eye contact)
The Mouth – A smile can indicate friendliness whereas baring the teeth can mean
aggressive intention.
The Hands – Over use of the hands and exaggerated movement may be a sign of hostility or
frustration. Proper use of the hands throughout an engagement will help to convey an open and
friendly attitude.
Feet - Some foot signals can have negative connotations. Avoid compulsive jabbing of the floor or
furniture with your foot; this can be perceived as a hostile and angry motion, and is likely to annoy.
These are known as the Seven Signals.
So far we have focused primarily on the pitfalls to avoid; but what messages should be sent, and how?
Here are seven general suggestions on good body language.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Walk slowly, deliberately, and tall upon entering the room.
When greeting someone, pay attention to the face, encourage eye contact, and (when
accompanied by a natural smile) sends the strong positive signal that the encounter is non
confrontational.
Use mirroring techniques. In other words, make an effort -- subtly! – to reproduce the positive
signals from the person you are communicating with. (Remember, you should never mirror negative
body signals.)
Maintain a naturally alert position; keep your head up and your eyes front at all times. Be
situational aware at all times.
Remember to avert your gaze from time to time so as to avoid the impression
that you are staring; (this also allows you to check for secondary adversaries and threats) when you
do so, look confidently and calmly to the right or left; never look down.
Do not hurry any movement, unless the situation becomes violent and there is cause to react as
such.
Keep a positive mental attitude. (Pease,2004, p.40)
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References
1. Cooper, Jeff, Principles of Personal Defense, Paladin Press, ISBN 978-0873644976.
2. Bernstien A.J. Phd (2003) How to deal with explosive people, McGraw Hill.
3. Redhead P. (2003) How to read body language, ebookmetro.com.
4. Pease. A. (2004) How to read others thoughts through their gestures, Pease publications.
5. Trenholm S. (2003) The kinesic code "Thinking Through Communication", Allyn and Bacon ebook.
6. Dr. Gabriel and Raam N. Masters of Body Language, ebook.
7. Dimension Media Studies (2006).
Research
1. www.defend-international.com
2. Understanding Reasonable Force – By Mark Dawes, 2006, Derwent Press, ISBN 1-84667-012-8.
3. Understanding Quantum Thinking – By Mark Dawes, 2008, Derwent Press, ISBN 1-84667-035-7.
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Chapter 4
Conflict Resolution
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Conflict Resolution and response options
Negotiation
In order to resolve conflicts of interest and developmental conflicts constructively, we must implement a
procedure for problem-solving negotiations. We must be able to communicate
honestly:






What they want and
How they feel
Explain interests as well as positions
Take the opposing perspective
Create a number of optional agreements that maximize joint outcomes, and
Reach agreement on one of the options.
Mediation
When we cannot successfully negotiate a constructive resolution to our conflicts, mediation
should be available. Mediating involves:




Ending hostilities,
Ensuring commitment to the mediation process
Facilitating negotiations, and
Formalizing the agreement.
Arbitration
When mediation fails, someone in authority normally intervenes and arbitrates the conflict.
Arbitration involves listening carefully to both sides in a conflict and deciding who is right and
who is wrong. Arbitration is a last resort because it can leave at least one party resentful and
angry toward the arbitrator and it does not allow or empower parties involved to manage their own
conflicts constructively.
Conflict management facts
In the U.K., attacks by members of the public on Public Service workers, transport workers, shop and
store staff, and in all sectors where there is a direct interface, have increased. This has led, in some
organisations, to a climate of fear. Add to this the media obsession with violent crime and assault and
the perception is that the world is growing more violent, and we are all in danger, whether out and about,
in our homes, or at work.
Violent behaviour is on the increase (see the UK Government Home Office - Violent Crime
statistics), and this results in a climate of fear where some people avoid going out due to the
anticipation of being attacked.
In the past, many individuals were trained in some type of self-defence; at school with boxing
or wrestling, at leisure with one of the many martial arts, and in the Armed Services through
conscription with unarmed combat techniques being taught. Today, few schools teach any of the combat
sports, conscription is no longer an issue, however, there are still many that seek to learn to protect
themselves. Competitive combat sports are often chosen, however, the very fact that rules apply to the
sport, renders much of the content useless for defending against a determined street opponent, or work
place bully. Work-related violence can have serious consequences for employers and employees. It may
have damaging physical and psychological effects and victims can suffer from serious injury, anxiety and
stress. The cost to employers can also be high, for example, through low staff morale and high staff
turnover. So what is the solution?
The answer is training, in both managing the confrontation, and the consequences; whether
physical or not.
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Is it the Employer's Problem?
Employers should know that each and every employee has the right to work in conditions
that are safe and secure. The law clearly states that it is the duty of the employer to ensure
that all employees work under conditions that are free from the threat of violence – whether
from bullying in the workplace by colleagues - or by clientele or members of the public.
The U.K. is rapidly becoming a highly litigious society, and the prevalence of “No Win, No
Fee” personal injury claims means that no organisation can afford to be complacent. Violent
incidents are common within the workplace in the U.K., and compensation paid for claims is
now running into the hundreds of millions of pounds. The costs of not undertaking appropriate Risk
Management can be very high, with individual settlements running into tens, or even hundreds of
thousands of pounds – and the continued rise of insurance premiums which inevitably follow.
Both parties benefit from Personal Safety Training, the employer has taken reasonable steps
to train and remove the threat of violence from the work environment, and therefore has a
more informed, better equipped workforce; the employee has the knowledge and practical
skills to deal with potentially violent situations, and is more confident in dealing with confrontation and
violence. The clientele is faced with a well-trained workforce that is
prepared to deal with confrontation in a professional and sympathetic manner.
Managers and staff must recognise potential problems before they arise and develop the
skills to defuse conflicts before they escalate to serious violence with the aim of making a
safer working environment.
Impact factors
Staff retention and recruitment problems. For example, hearing about violent incidents
may make the job less attractive to potential recruits; and experienced staff may leave a job
if they no longer feel safe or able to cope.
Sick leave. This can result from stress-related health problems or a physical injury following
a violent incident.
Low productivity. High levels of sick leave; staff refusal to do certain jobs, high insurance
premiums and compensation claims; and breakdown in client-professional relationship can
all have a detrimental impact on an organization’s productivity and profitability.
Impact on the self-employed. Self-employed people could ultimately lose their livelihood
and be faced with limited work choices.
Employee. Stress, anxiety, fear and depression. Also resulting from having to deal with
persistent verbal abuse.
Stress-related health problems. Often leading to long-term sick leave and psychological
problems. For example, employees may sometimes feel partly to blame for violent incidents,
or feel they have failed in some way.
Low morale and loss of confidence. This can affect an employee’s‟ ability to do some or all of their
job.
Physical harm and injury. Leading to sick leave
Unrealistic personal expectations - The gap between the reality of a person’s life situation
and their perceived level of desired comfort can produce volatile behaviour if aggravated by a trigger
event.
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Domestic spill-over - Home and family turmoil can result in workplace violence. Managers
should be aware of their employees‟ domestic changes that may impact the work place.
Reduced trust - Workers may feel that the organization or their supervisor is “out to get them,” reducing
the amount of trust and allegiance they feel for their employer. This lack of
trust can lead to disgruntled employees.
Reduced caring - Impersonal handling of employee issues and concerns can be perceived
as a devaluing of the work force or person. Persons who feel that they are “just a number”
may be prone to violent outbursts by a real or perceived lack of concern for them as individuals.
Loss of control over life direction - Persons expressing a pervasive sense of an inability
to influence or control future events in their lives may be exhibiting a key warning sign of
workplace violence. Persons convinced that (a) a predetermined negative outcome awaits
them and (b) their actions have little bearing on this predestined conclusion may be prime
candidates for violent or irrational acts.
Media influence - Some believe that media coverage of workplace violence spawns additional violence
or “copy cat” incidents. Numerous recent studies suggest that saturation
coverage related to violence in society desensitizes the public to the warning signs and the
actual occurrence of violence.
Conflict resolution
It is important that employers understand the laws that apply to businesses and their
employees, understanding the difference between common law and criminal law.
Common Law
In UK common law is one of the main sources of law. This term is used to denote rules derived from
decisions of superior courts in contrast to those derived from statutes. Common
Law included rules of precedents, customs and ancient legislations.
Criminal and Civil Law
Distinction between criminal law and civil law is based on liability, ways of entering actions
and legal consequences that are likely to follow. Criminal law deals with the law relating to
criminal offences. Civil law deals with the rest. In a criminal proceeding a prosecutor will have to prove to
the court beyond all reasonable doubt that the accused committed the offence charged. Up to the court
to determine whether or not the accused is guilty. The aim
is to punish the wrong doer. In civil law it is the plaintiff who sues the defendant. It's function
is to provide individuals with remedies which are enforceable in the courts they have suffered a wrong.
Assault
There are different kinds of assault, and different categories. Physical assault, which comes under these
categories:
Common assault, which can be as little as someone doing something which puts you in fear of being hit
(this is not an arrest able offence, but if there is evidence of bruising or some other injury, the police will
often arrest the attacker for Actual Bodily Harm but will later change the charge to Common Assault)
Serious assault
Aggravated assault
Grievous Bodily Harm
Actual Bodily Harm
All of the above offences can lead to arrest.
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There is also "indecent assault", which can be as little as touching someone's thigh without
their consent, and sexual assault, which is touching someone's genitals (e.g. testicles, penis,
vagina, breasts) without their consent. It doesn't matter if you are male or female or if the person who
attacked you is male or female, it's still illegal. Also if you report an attack, you
may prevent other people being harmed.
Understanding the law regarding self-defence including the definitions of reasonable
and justifiable force
It is important to understand the amount of force necessary to protect oneself or one's
property. Reasonable force is a term associated with defending one's person or property
from a violent attack, theft, or other type of unlawful aggression. It may be used as a defence
in a criminal trial or to defend oneself in a suit alleging tortuous conduct. If one uses excessive force, or
more than the force necessary for such protection, he or she may be
considered to have forfeited the right to defence. Reasonable force is also known as legal
force.
A person is generally justified in using force that is intended or likely to cause death or great
bodily harm if the person reasonably believes that such force is necessary to prevent the
commission of a forcible felony. The person is also generally justified in using such extreme
force to prevent or terminate another's unlawful entry into or attack upon a dwelling, if the entry is made
or attempted in a violent manner and he reasonably believes that such force is necessary to prevent
personal violence to himself or another then in the dwelling, or he/she reasonably believes that such
force is necessary to prevent the commission of a felony in the dwelling.
Identifying risks to personal safety in the working environment
It is necessary to develop a sound understanding of management procedures by identifying
the possibility of the risk of conflict. This will assist in dealing with any situation that an
individual, or group of individuals, may find themselves in, which may be physically or
mentally harmful to their health or wellbeing, due to the actions of another person or persons.
The benefits of developing company personal safety policies and procedures
Safety policies provide guidelines for personnel identifying procedures for staff on
intervention in the interest of safety. These procedures need to be positively supported by
all levels of the organisation.
Appropriate methods to de-escalate a confrontational situation
 Learn and understand the indicators of aggressive behaviour
 Identify aggressive signals and behaviour
 Use effective methods of defusing a potential confrontational situation
 Use verbal and non-verbal signals as a means of conflict resolution.
 Use observational, listening and communication skills to defuse conflict.
The importance of personal safety
 Understand common threats in the workplace and your environment.
 Establish and maintain a personal safety zone (reactionary gap).
 Learn breakaway or self protection techniques to protect your personal safety.
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Chapter 5
Tactical response options
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Tactical response options
When it comes to using force there are specific legal constraints placed upon citizens in a
self defence situation. It is very important to understand that when it comes to using force,
you will be held accountable, both criminally and civilly for your actions.
The number one legal issue when using force in a self defence situation will be, was the
amount of force used to defend yourself “reasonable the word reasonable, however, will
mean different things to different people. What is a reasonable level of force to you may not
be a reasonable level of force to a judge and or jury.
Tactical Communication and Response Options brings the issue of reasonable force into a
set of steps or continuum which you, the police, and the courts can usually agree upon.
What is the “Tactical Response Options Theory?” it is a way that one can place any
situation they find themselves in from non-violent to extremely violent and match it against a
reasonable tactical response option which you may have to use in a self defence situation.
There are seven categories in this theory:
Presence
Your physical presence is in fact a tactical response option. Prior to any physical
confrontation, an opponent will usually size you up. If you are a person who keeps in good
physical shape, then the predator will more than likely leave you alone and pick an easier
target. If, however, you look like an oil slick in a bag that could not fight their way out of a
wet paper bag, then you are a prime target for the street criminal. This is called “Presence”,
and if you have it you send a clear message to a possible attacker that says “Don’t mess
with me unless you’re willing to get hurt!
How many times have you looked at a person who you have never seen before and said “ I
would not want to mess with that guy” That is force presence. To have this tool will provide
you with an added edge on the street
Dialogue and communication skills
There are basically two ways that we communicate with others:
1. Verbally
2. Non-verbally
Note: Always remember, if the voice and body don’t match, always believe the body.
Empty hand compliance techniques
These techniques would include such things as:






Balance displacement
Superior physical strength or numbers
Pain compliance
Joint manipulations
Throws and takedowns
Control techniques
Although individual empty hand compliance techniques may offer physical control by themselves, they
may also offer physical control by combining with other techniques. A good
example of this would be the rear bent arm shoulder lock which is usually used as a
restraining technique. Although this hold would be characterized as a lever and joint
manipulation technique, it also incorporates balance displacement, superior physical
strength, pain compliance and a takedown, if required.
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Cont.
The degree to which empty hand compliance techniques will work to control an individual are
dependent upon:



Speed and strength of application: As most empty hand compliance techniques involve some kind of
grapple, it is very important that the person applying the technique does so quickly and with power.
If an empty hand compliance technique is applied half heartedly, it would surely fail and leave you in
a position of physical disadvantage.
Precision of application: This is very important when it comes to pain compliance and lever/joint
manipulations. In order for these two techniques to work with maximum results, you have to be
target specific.
Resistance level of the subject: Empty hand compliance techniques should only be attempted on
those individuals who are:
a. Passively aggressive, or
b. Stunned to the point where they are no longer actively aggressive.
At no time should an empty hand compliance technique be used as a first force response option when
faced with a person who is actively aggressive or, you reasonably believe is about to become actively
aggressive. To attempt such an action in a dynamic situation would place the defender in serious
jeopardy unless very skilled and even then, the use of these techniques is questionable.
Empty hand impact techniques
Empty hand impact techniques are those techniques which employ punches, kicks, elbows, knees and
other similar techniques which involve delivering a traumatic blow to another person. These types of
techniques are usually used to:



Close or create distance
Distract a subject to whom it is being applied
Enhance an empty hand control technique
The use of empty hand impact techniques can be used, when appropriate and reasonable to do, in the
following ways:


To cause a motor dysfunction or stunning effect: this level of force would be applied to the major
muscle masses or pressure points of the limbs and torso. Application of force to these body targets
usually result in no long term physical effects other than bruising.
To break bone or cartilage: If a motor dysfunction or stunning technique failed, or was inappropriate
and unreasonable given the totality of the circumstances, this level of force would be applied to the
joints and bones of the body. The defender must reasonably believe that they are in danger of
serious bodily injury and that there are no other reasonable options available other than the use of
these breaking techniques to defend themselves with.
Deadly force
In order for the defender to use an empty hand impact technique as a deadly force response option,
certain criteria must be present:
 The attacker must have the means to carry out the threat of death or serious bodily injury to the
defender or someone under their protection. The means could include but is not limited to gun, knife,
club, or any other weapon or, the attacker may be skilled fighter who has trained his ability to be
deadly.
 The attacker has the intent to carry out the threat of death or serious bodily injury to the defender or
someone under his protection.
 The defender feels that his life of the life of a person under his protection is in jeopardy of death or
serious bodily injury, and...
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Cont.
 That other lower tactical response options had failed or were inappropriate and/or
unreasonable
to be used given the totality of the circumstances to have stopped the threat of death or serious
bodily injury to the defender or another person under his protection.
All four conditions must be present in order for deadly force to be used. If faced with these four
conditions, a defender may be justified in attacking those vital targets of the body which could cause
death or serious bodily injury such as the throat, or spine.
Weapons
It is generally accepted that there are three categories of weapons:
1. Impact weapons
2. Edged/pointed weapons
3. Firearms
Impact weapons
Impact weapons include anything that can picked up, real or improvised, which can be used
to hit an assailant who is intent on causing serious injury or taking your life. Impact weapons should only
be used as a last resort or as a proportionate response against an attacker wielding a weapon with you
as his intended target. The benefits of impact weapons are:



Reach advantage
Improved striking power over empty hand impact techniques
Speed
The use of impact weapons can be used, when appropriate and reasonable to do so, in the following
ways:





Implied force presence: by producing an impact weapon the situation is deescalated to the point
where the attacker halts his physical attack.
Mechanical control: here the defender may use an impact weapon to assist in the application of an
empty hand compliance technique. e.g. the use of a pool cue to apply an arm lock.
To cause a motor dysfunction: this level of force would be applied to the major muscle masses or
pressure points of the limbs and torso. Application of force to these body targets usually result in no
long term physical effects other than bruising.
To break bone or cartilage.
Deadly force.
Edged/Pointed Weapons
Edged or pointed weapons are those tools which have a sharpened edge or point which may be used to
cut or puncture the human body. Examples include, knives, screwdrivers, broken bottles.
In the UK, the definition of deadly force is any level of force which is designed to cause death or grievous
bodily harm. Because of this definition, the use of a weapon in a physical altercation should only
reserved for those situations in which one is in fear of death or grievous bodily injury.
*Remember any force you use must be reasonable and proportionate to the situation.
Firearms (Military, Police and Close Protection only)
Firearms include handguns, rifles, shotguns. Again, because of the very real threat of causing death or
grievous bodily injury, the use of firearms should only take place in a deadly force self defence situation.
Firearms can be used in two ways:
1. Force Presence
2. Deadly Force
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Cont.
In Empty Hand Impact techniques and weapon techniques, the use of deadly force should
only be used as a last resort but must be realized by all that it may be an unavoidable
necessity to protect yourself or someone you love from death or grievous bodily injury.
It is important to understand that when an individual uses deadly force his intent is to stop
the threat of death or grievous bodily injury to himself or others where lesser force response
options had failed or were inappropriate and unreasonable given the totality of the
circumstances.
Escalation and De-Escalation of Tactical Response Options
When it comes to escalating your options in a self defence situation, you do not have to start
at force presence and work your way up. Escalation throughout tactical response options
may take place because:


A tactical option chosen was ineffective, or
You reasonably believed, based upon the totality of the circumstances, that a lower tactical
response option would be ineffective or inappropriate.
There are four factors which may lead a defender to believe that lower tactical response
options would be ineffective or inappropriate:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Attack factors
Defensive factors
Environmental factors
Levels of resistance
Attack factors
 Age: is the attacker 22yrs while the defender is 55. Most people who are younger are usually faster,
and more physically capable.
 Size: Size has a definite advantage in a physical encounter. This is why in boxing they have
different weight classes. In a physical combative situation, the ability to protect yourself if directly
affected to a great extent, on the size difference between the attacker and the defender if all other
things are equal.
 Gender: This works for women and against men in most circumstances. If the attacker is a man and
the defender a woman, the courts will usually give the woman more room to escalate quicker that if
the attacker/defender roles were reversed.
 Skills or perceived skills: What kind of combative skills and training does your attacker possess? If
the attacker is skilled, a defender may have to escalate his force response options to protect
himself.
 Multiple attackers: Any time a single defender has to defend against two or more
attackers, the potential for the defender to get seriously hurt is greatly enhanced.
 Weapons: any time a weapon is brought to a physical confrontation, consider it a deadly
force situation.
. Pre-Emptive signs.
. Mentality of the attacker: is your attacker emotionally disturbed, drunk, or high on drugs.
Defensive factors
 Size: same as attacker factors.
 Age: same as attacker factors.
 Gender: same as attacker factors.
 Skill level/physical abilities: what are your skill level and physical abilities?
 Exhaustion: as a physical encounter goes on, the ability to protect oneself is greatly
affected by physical and mental exhaustion.
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 Injury: If you become injured in a street fight, your ability to protect yourself is going to be effected
negatively.
 Ground fighting: the last place you want to be is on the ground in the street, especially if you are
not winning. In today’s world the issue of multiple attackers is a reality. If
grounded and not in control the likelihood of being severely injured by “having the boots
laid to you” is an ugly fact.
 Perception of threat: When it comes to a court of law, your actions will be judged upon your
perception of threat. The court will then judge your actions by seeing if your perceptions were
objectively reasonable, in the light of facts and circumstances surrounding the incident, and whether
you were acting in good faith. This perception of threat must be “real”. This is why it is so important
that if your use of force becomes questionable, you ensure that you articulate your perception of
threat clearly and concisely.
 Imminent danger of death or grievous bodily injury: If you are faced with this, you must do
everything in your power to protect yourself; this could include the use of deadly force.
 Position, time and distance: The need to take immediate action will place time constraints on a
defenders evaluation of a potential hostile situation. A defenders distance from threat can reduce
available time to react safely. The likelihood of making a wrong decision is greatly increased when
there is insufficient time to make a thorough evaluation of threat.
 Tactical withdrawal/ disengagement: Sometimes, if not most times, the best thing to do when
faced with violence is to walk away. There are, however, times that walking is not an option, this is a
call that you will have to make.
Environmental factors
 Hostile environment: if you find yourself in a hostile environment such as a rough bar or rough part
of town, even if you win, you run the risk of fighting others around.
 Terrain: what kind of terrain are you fighting on and how is it affecting your footing and balance.
This may have a direct effect on the kind of tactical response option you
choose.
 Weather: if you are fighting outside, the weather may also play a factor in balance,
footing, and the ability to see.
 Lighting: Lighting usually has a direct affect on personal perceptions. Because of this
fact, the ability to see, or lack thereof, may affect your choice of tactical response option.
Levels of response options
A potential attacker can also demonstrate various levels of potential resistance. The type of
resistance from the attacker will directly influence the tactical response option which a
defender will choose to defend themselves with:



Non-verbal intimidation: through the use of Ritualized Combat and attacker telegraphs his intent
on attacking you.
Verbal non-compliance: this is where an attacker is showing non-compliance by being
argumentative or offering threats towards you. This level of resistance is usually combined with
other levels.
Passive resistance: this is where a person does not listen to verbal attempts to deescalate a
situation. A person here will usually offer non-compliance by refusing to
move but offers no direct physical assault. An example of this type of resistance is
where a bouncer or doorman asks a person to leave a bar. Upon being asked, the
patron says “NO”, and refuses to move from his seat.
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Cont.



Defensive resistance: This level is similar to passive but at this level a person may offer defensive
resistance by holding onto people or object. Back to the bar again as an example, the patron upon
being moved by the bouncer now grabs onto a table to
prevent such action from taking place. At this level of resistance there is no direct
physical assault taking place.
Assaultive: this level of resistance is where a person actually offers a direct physical attack.
Deadly force: this level of resistance is where a person is assaultive and resistant to the point where
his actions may cause death or grievous bodily injury. This would also include weapons.
Note: It must be understood that the levels of resistance can change very quickly within the context
of a physical altercation. A person can be passively aggressive at one point and then two
seconds later becomes assaultive in a deadly force context.
A defender may escalate through their tactical response options by either:


Choosing an option and finding it to be ineffective; or
Forming a reasonable belief that lower options would be ineffective or inappropriate given the totality
of the circumstances.
A defender’s choice as to an appropriate and reasonable tactical response option, when being
threatened or attacked, will be dependent upon attacker factors, defender factors, environmental factors,
and levels of resistance. Once a person chooses to become actively involved with a combative situation,
they will pick one of the tactical response options as their method of physical defence.
De-escalation of physical force
Physical force de-escalation is based upon the level of compliance or control exhibited by the attacker in
which force is used. Once a defender has stopped an attacker’s physical resistance or assault,
escalation of force should stop and de-escalation should begin. If the defender continues to escalate his
level of force even though the attacker has stopped his assault or was defeated, he will be using
excessive force and be found criminally and civilly liable for his actions. Remember, there is no such
thing as catch up in a self defence encounter.
About tactical response options
 Tactical response options are subjective: These options allow you to apply force subjectively based
upon your perceptions.
 The options are dependent upon attacker factors, defender factors, environmental factors, and
levels of resistance.
 Confrontations are dynamic and not static: each situation has its own set of unique variables so
there can be no absolute rules dictating a defenders response to specific resistance.
 Tactical response options are a tool to use in a self defence situation just like a punch or kick. Use
these options to justify and remember to articulate why and how you defended yourself. It will go a
long way in helping you protect yourself on the street and more importantly in the criminal and civil
liability forum that might take place years after the physical assault is over.
Note: Remember in court, you may live by the sword, but you are judged by the pen. How well you can
articulate your reasons for reasonable self defence, can make the difference between freedom and
prison.
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.
Chapter 6
Target and impact areas
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Target and Impact areas of the body (Front)
Eyes,
Ears,
Wrist
Fingers
Knee
EYE’S,
Shin
JUGULAR NOTCH
COLLAR BONE
BRACHIAL NERVE
RADIAL NERVE
EAR’S, NOSE
& THROAT.
SHOULDER, RIBS,
ELBOW, WRIST &
FINGERS.
GROIN
PERENNIAL
NERVE
FEMORAL
ARTERY
KNEE, SHIN & FEET
Foot
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Target and Impact areas of the body (Rear)
TOP OF THE
HEAD,
TEMPLE,
BEHIND THE
EARS,
NECK
SPINE
ARMPITS
NECK, BRACHIAL
PLATES, SCAPULA
UPPER
PERENNIAL
NERVE
LOWER
PERENNIAL
NERVE
FEMORAL
ARTERY
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Front continued.
LOW CERVICAL
SECOND RIB
LATERAL
EPICONDYLE
KNEE
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Rear continued.
OCCIPUT
TRAPEZIUS
SUPRASPINATUS
GLUTEAL
GREATER
TROCHANTER
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The Brain
The human brain has the same general structure as the brains of other mammals, but is larger than
expected on the basis of body size among other primates. Estimates for the number of neurons (nerve
cells) in the human brain range from 80 to 120 billion. Most of the expansion comes from the cerebral
cortex, especially the frontal lobes, which are associated with executive functions such as self-control,
planning, reasoning, and abstract thought. The portion of the cerebral cortex devoted to vision is also
greatly enlarged in human beings, and several cortical areas play specific roles in language, a skill that is
unique to humans.
Despite being protected by the thick bones of the skull, suspended in cerebrospinal fluid, and isolated
from the bloodstream by the blood-brain barrier, the human brain is susceptible to many types of
damage and disease. The most common forms of physical damage are closed head injuries such as a
blow to the head, a stroke, or poisoning by a variety of chemicals that can act as neurotoxins. Infection of
the brain, though serious, is rare due to the biological barriers which protect it. The human brain is also
susceptible to degenerative disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, and Alzheimer's
disease. A number of psychiatric conditions, such as schizophrenia and depression, are thought to be
associated with brain dysfunctions, although the nature of such brain anomalies is not well understood.
Brain Structures and their Functions
The nervous system is your body's decision and communication centre. The central nervous system
(CNS) is made of the brain and the spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made of
nerves. Together they control every part of your daily life, from breathing and blinking to helping you
memorize facts for a test. Nerves reach from your brain to your face, ears, eyes, nose, and spinal cord...
and from the spinal cord to the rest of your body. Sensory nerves gather information from the
environment, send that info to the spinal cord, which then speed the message to the brain. The brain
then makes sense of that message and fires off a response. Motor neurons deliver the instructions from
the brain to the rest of your body. The spinal cord, made of a bundle of nerves running up and down the
spine, is similar to a superhighway, speeding messages to and from the brain at every second.
The brain is made of three main parts: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The forebrain consists of
the cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus (part of the limbic system). The midbrain consists of the
tectum and tegmentum. The hindbrain is made of the cerebellum, pons and medulla. Often the midbrain,
pons, and medulla are referred to together as the brainstem.

Cerebrum

Cerebellum

Limbic System

Brain Stem
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The Cerebrum
The cerebrum or cortex is the largest part of the human brain, associated with higher brain function such
as thought and action. The cerebral cortex is divided into four sections, called "lobes": the frontal lobe,
parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe. Here is a visual representation of the cortex:
The Cerebellum
The cerebellum, or "little brain", is similar to the cerebrum in that it has two hemispheres and has a
highly folded surface or cortex. This structure is associated with regulation and coordination of
movement, posture, and balance.
Limbic System
The limbic system, often referred to as the "emotional brain", is found buried within the cerebrum. This
system contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus.
Brain Stem
Underneath the limbic system is the brain stem. This structure is responsible for basic vital life functions
such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.
The Knockout Blow
When a heavy punch lands on someone's head, it sends the brain sliding inside the skull. This causes a
chain reaction and causes the skull to accelerate and decelerate rapidly whilst the brain is still sliding.
When the brain slides against the back of the skull, it causes trauma to the rear. It then slides to the front
of the skull which causes trauma at the front. This causes almost instant trauma at both sides of the
brain. This results in what they call an "electric storm", which basically 'short circuits' your nervous
system. Doctors call this a severe concussion - we call it a knock-out!
Skull Reaction
When the knockout punch connects with the point of the chin or the temple, the target's neck snaps
backward or sideways. This causes the skull to accelerate and then come to a sudden stop in an
unnatural manner.
Brain Movement
After the skull stops moving, the brain inside continues to float in its fluid. It bangs back and forth inside
the skull, much like a pinball, suffering damage whenever it comes in contact with the bone.
Neurological Reaction
The neurological circuitry responds to the brain trauma with an "electrical storm" that short-circuits the
nervous system throughout the body. The result is a loss of consciousness.
Concussion
Concussion is the most common type of traumatic brain injury. The terms mild brain injury, mild
traumatic brain injury (MTBI), mild head injury (MHI), minor head trauma, and concussion may be used
interchangeably, although the latter is often treated as a narrower category. The term "concussion" has
been used for centuries and is still commonly used in sports medicine, while "MTBI" is a technical term
used more commonly nowadays in general medical contexts. Frequently defined as a head injury with a
temporary loss of brain function, concussion can cause a variety of physical, cognitive, and emotional
symptoms. Treatment of concussion involves monitoring and rest. Symptoms usually go away entirely
within three weeks, though they may persist, or complications may occur. Repeated concussions can
cause cumulative brain damage such as dementia pugilistica or severe complications such as secondimpact syndrome.
It is not known whether the concussed brain is structurally damaged the way it is in other types of brain
injury (albeit to a lesser extent) or whether concussion mainly entails a loss of function with physiological
but not structural changes. Cellular damage has reportedly been found in concussed brains, but it may
have been due to artifacts from the studies. It is now thought that structural and psychiatric factors may
both be responsible for the effects of concussion.
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Signs and Symptoms
Concussion can be associated with a variety of symptoms, which typically occur rapidly after the injury.
Early symptoms usually subside within days or weeks. The number and type of symptoms a person
suffers varies widely.
Physical
Headache is the most common MTBI symptom. Other symptoms include dizziness, vomiting, nausea,
lack of motor coordination, difficulty balancing, or other problems with movement or sensation. Visual
symptoms include light sensitivity, seeing bright lights, blurred vision, and double vision. Tinnitus, or a
ringing in the ears, is also commonly reported. In one in about seventy concussions, concussive
convulsions occur, but these seizures that take place during or immediately after the concussion are not
the same as post-traumatic seizures, and they, unlike post-traumatic seizures, are not in themselves
predictive of post-traumatic epilepsy, which requires some form of structural brain damage, not just a
momentary disruption in normal brain functioning. Concussive convulsions are thought to result from
temporary loss or inhibition of motor function, and are not associated either with epilepsy or with more
serious structural damage.
Cognitive and Emotional
Cognitive symptoms include confusion, disorientation, and difficulty focusing attention. Loss of
consciousness may occur but is not necessarily correlated with the severity of the concussion if it is brief.
Post-traumatic amnesia, in which the person cannot remember events leading up to the injury or after it,
or both, is a hallmark of concussion. Confusion, another concussion hallmark, may be present
immediately or may develop over several minutes. A patient may, for example, repeatedly ask the same
questions, be slow to respond to questions or directions, have a vacant stare, or have slurred[ or
incoherent speech. Other MTBI symptoms include changes in sleeping patterns and difficulty with
reasoning, concentrating, and performing everyday activities.
Affective results of concussion include crankiness, loss of interest in favourite activities or items,
tearfulness, and displays of emotion that are inappropriate to the situation. Common symptoms in
concussed children include restlessness, lethargy, and irritability.
Mechanism
Rotational force is key in concussion. Punches in boxing deliver more rotational force to the head than
impacts in sports such as rugby, and boxing carries a higher risk of concussion than football.
The brain is surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid, one of the functions of which is to protect it from light
trauma, but more severe impacts or the forces associated with rapid acceleration may not be absorbed
by this cushion. Concussion may be caused by impact forces, in which the head strikes or is struck by
something, or impulsive forces, in which the head moves without itself being subject to blunt trauma (for
example, when the chest hits something and the head snaps forward).
Forces may cause linear, rotational, or angular movement of the brain, or a combination of these types
of motion. In rotational movement, the head turns around its centre of gravity, and in angular movement
it turns on an axis not through its centre of gravity. The amount of rotational force is thought to be the
major type of force to cause concussion and the largest component in its severity. The parts of the brain
most affected by rotational forces are the midbrain and diencephalon. It is thought that the forces from
the injury disrupt the normal cellular activities in the reticular activating system located in these areas,
and that this disruption produces the loss of consciousness often seen in concussion.
Diagnosis
Unequal pupil size is a sign of a brain injury more serious than concussion.
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Cont.
Diagnosis of MTBI is based on physical and neurological exams, duration of unconsciousness (usually
less than 30 minutes) and post-traumatic amnesia (PTA; usually less than 24 hours),
Health care providers examine head trauma survivors to ensure that the injury is not a more severe
medical emergency such as an intracranial haemorrhage. Indications that screening for more serious
injury is needed include worsening of symptoms such as headache, persistent vomiting, increasing
disorientation or a deteriorating level of consciousness, seizures, and unequal pupil size. People with
such symptoms, or who are at higher risk for a more serious brain injury, are CT scanned to detect brain
lesions and are frequently observed for 24 – 48 hours.
Diagnosis of concussion can be complicated because it shares symptoms with other conditions. For
example, post-concussion symptoms such as cognitive problems may be misattributed to brain injury
when they are in fact due to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
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Target areas of the body (Re: pages 45 -48)
The body is divided into three sections: high, middle, and low. Each section contains vital
targets. The effects of striking these targets follow:
High Section. The high section includes the head and neck; it is the most dangerous
target area.
 Top of the head. The skull is weak where the frontal cranial bones join. A forceful strike causes
trauma to the cranial cavity, resulting in unconsciousness and haemorrhage. A severe strike can
result in death.
 Forehead. A forceful blow can cause whiplash; a severe blow can cause cerebral haemorrhage and
death.
 Temple. The bones of the skull are weak at the temple, and an artery and large nerve lie
close to the skin. A powerful strike can cause unconsciousness and brain concussion. If the artery is
severed, the resulting massive haemorrhage compresses the brain, causing coma and or death.
 Eyes. A slight jab in the eyes causes uncontrollable watering and blurred vision. A forceful jab or
poke can cause temporary blindness, or the eyes can be gouged out. Death can result if the fingers
penetrate through the thin bone behind the eyes and into the brain.
 Ears. A strike to the ear with cupped hands can rupture the eardrum and may cause a concussion.
 Nose. Any blow can easily break the thin bones of the nose, causing extreme pain and eye watering.
 Under the nose. A blow to the nerve centre, which is close to the surface under the nose, can cause
great pain and watery eyes.
 Jaw. A blow to the jaw can break or dislocate it. If the facial nerve is pinched against the lower jaw,
one side of the face will be paralyzed.
 Chin. A blow to the chin can cause paralysis, mild concussion, and unconsciousness.
 The jawbone acts as a lever that can transmit the force of a blow to the back of the brain
where the cardiac and respiratory mechanisms are controlled.
 Back of ears and base of skull. A moderate blow to the back of the ears or the base of the skull can
cause unconsciousness by the jarring effect on the back of the brain. However, a powerful blow can
cause a concussion or brain haemorrhage and death.
 Throat. A powerful blow to the front of the throat can cause death by crushing the windpipe. A forceful
blow causes extreme pain and gagging or vomiting.
 Side of neck and Low Cervical. A sharp blow to the side of the neck causes unconsciousness by
shock to the carotid artery, jugular vein, and vagus nerve. For maximum effect, the blow should be
focused below and slightly in front of the ear. A less powerful blow causes involuntary muscle spasms
and intense pain. The side of the neck is one of the best targets to use to drop an assailant
immediately or to disable him temporarily.
 Back of neck. A powerful blow to the back of one’s neck can cause whiplash, concussion, or even a
broken neck and death.
 Armpit. A large nerve lies close to the skin in each armpit. A blow to this nerve causes severe pain
and partial paralysis. A knife inserted into the armpit is fatal as it severs a major artery leading from
the heart.
 Spine. A blow to the spinal column can sever the spinal cord, resulting in paralysis or in death.
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Middle Section. The middle section extends from the shoulders to the area just above
the hips. Most blows to vital points in this region are not fatal but can have serious, long-term
complications that range from trauma to internal organs to spinal cord injuries.
 Front of shoulder muscle. A large mass of nerves pass in front of the shoulder joint. A forceful blow
causes extreme pain and can make the whole arm ineffective if the nerves are struck just right.
 Collarbone. A blow to the collarbone can fracture it, causing intense pain and rendering
the arm on the side of the fracture ineffective. The fracture can also sever the brachial nerve or
subclavian artery.
 Brachial plates, Scapula, Occiput, Trapezius and Supraspinatus. A blow to these areas can
cause extreme pain and stun an assailant momentarily giving enough time to make good an escape
or follow up or finishing techniques.
 Nipples. A large network of nerves passes near the skin at the nipples. A blow here can
cause extreme pain and haemorrhage to the many blood vessels beneath.
 Heart. A jolting blow to the heart can stun the opponent and allow time for follow-up or
finishing techniques.
 Solar plexus. The solar plexus is a centre for nerves that control the cardio respiratory
system. A blow to this location is painful and can take the breath from the assailant. A
powerful blow causes unconsciousness by shock to the nerve centre. A penetrating blow
can also damage internal organs.
 Diaphragm. A blow to the lower front of the ribs can cause the diaphragm and the other
muscles that control breathing to relax. This causes loss of breath and can result in
unconsciousness due to respiratory failure.
 Floating ribs. A blow to the floating ribs can easily fracture them because they are not
attached to the rib cage. Fractured ribs on the right side can cause internal injury to the liver; fractured
ribs on either side can possibly puncture or collapse a lung.
 Kidneys. A powerful blow to the kidneys can induce shock and can possibly cause
internal injury to these organs. A stab to the kidneys induces instant shock and can cause
death from severe internal bleeding.
 Upper Perenial, Gluteal and Greater Trochanter. A blow to these areas can cause extreme pain
and stun an assailant momentarily giving enough time to make good an escape or follow up or
finishing techniques.
 Abdomen below navel. A powerful blow to the area below the navel and above the groin
can cause shock, unconsciousness, and internal bleeding.
 Biceps. A strike to the biceps is most painful and renders the arm ineffective. The
biceps is an especially good target when an opponent holds a weapon.
 Forearm muscle and Lateral Epincondyle. The radial nerve, which controls much of the movement
in the hand, passes over the forearm bone just below the elbow. A strike to the radial nerve renders
the hand and arm ineffective. An opponent can be disarmed by a strike to the forearm; if the strike is
powerful enough, he can be knocked unconscious.
 Back of hand. The backs of the hands are sensitive. Since the nerves pass over the
bones in the hand, a strike to this area is intensely painful. The small bones on the back of the hand
are easily broken and such a strike can also render the hand ineffective.
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Low Section. The low section of the body includes everything from the groin area to the
feet. Strikes to these areas are seldom fatal, but they can be incapacitating.
 Groin. A moderate blow to the groin can incapacitate an opponent and cause intense pain. A
powerful blow can result in unconsciousness and shock.
 Outside of thigh. A large nerve passes near the surface on the outside of the thigh about four fingerwidths above the knee. A powerful strike to this region can render the entire leg ineffective, causing
an opponent to drop. This target is especially suitable for knee strikes and shin kicks.
 Inside of thigh. A large nerve passes over the bone about in the middle of the inner thigh. A blow to
this area also incapacitates the leg and can cause the opponent to drop. Knee strikes and heel kicks
are the weapons of choice for this target.
 Hamstring. A severe strike to the hamstring can cause muscle spasms and inhibit
mobility. If the hamstring is cut, the leg is useless.
 Knee. Because the knee is a major supporting structure of the body, damage to this joint is especially
detrimental to an opponent. The knee is easily dislocated when struck at an opposing angle to the
joint’s normal range of motion, especially when it is bearing the opponent’s weight. The knee can be
dislocated or hyper extended by kicks and strikes with the entire body.
 Calf. A powerful blow to the top of the calf causes painful muscle spasms and also
inhibits mobility.
 Shin. A moderate blow to the shin produces great pain, especially a blow with a hard object. A
powerful blow can possibly fracture the bone that supports most of the body
weight.
 Achilles tendon. A powerful strike to the Achilles tendon on the back of the heel can
cause ankle sprain and dislocation of the foot. If the tendon is torn, the opponent is
incapacitated. The Achilles tendon is a good target to cut with a knife.
 Ankle. A blow to the ankle causes pain; if a forceful blow is delivered, the ankle can be sprained or
broken.
 Instep. The small bones on the top of the foot are easily broken. A strike here will hinder the
opponent’s mobility.
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EFFECTIVE SELF PROTECTION
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