C O N C L U S I O N
Since the beginning of human history the goal of
an enduring state of peace has been the foremost objective
of human societies. It is no doubt that war is older than
history but the search for peace has also been pursued for
centuries.
Men
have
tried
to
devise
institutions
to
provide for the settlement of international disputes, and
attempts have been made to minimize the scope of war.
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries a large
number of conferences were called to save the human-being
from the destruction of war. Peace of Westphalia in 1648
was one of them.
During
the end of the nineteenth
century
and
beginning of the twentieth century two important international
peace
conference
were
held
at
The
Hague
(Netherlands) which were landmarks in the world-history.
The First conference was held at The Hague in 1899. It was
convened at the invitation of Count Mikail Nikolayevich
Muravyov, the Minister of foreign affairs of Czar Nicholas
II of Russia. The main aim of the first Hague conference
was the establishment of peace through disarmament and
pacific
settlement
of disputes. But
unfortunately
the
conference of 1899 failed to achieve its main objective of
limitation
on
concerning
the
disputes.
armament,
pacific
but
agreed
settlement
on
of
conventions
international
185
The second Hague conference was held from 15 June
to 18 October in 1907. This conference however adopted
several conventions relating to such matters as rights and
duties of neutral powers and persons in war on land and
sea, the laying of automatics submarine contact mines, the
status of enemyraerchantship,bombardment by naval forces
in wartime, and
establishment
of
prize
courts. These
conferences failed to prevent the outbreak of World War I
in 1914.
After
prolonged
discussion
the
Treaty
of
Versailles was signed between the Allies and Germany on 28
June, 1919, the major treaty ending the World War I.
The Treaty of Versailles was based on the prearmistice agreement among the Allies on 5 November, 1918,
accepting President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points as
the basis of peace. The peace settle of 1919-1920 has been
severely criticised. The terms of the Treaty of Versailles
were
harsh
and
humiliating
for
Germany.
The
peace
settlement was based on the principle, "To the victors
belong the spoils and Allies are the victors".
During the wartime many suggestions were made from
time
to
time
for
the
creation
of
an
international
organization which could check the wars in the future.
After the end of World War I such prominent figures as
Gen. Smuts, Lord Robert Cecil and Leon Bourgeors advocated
a society of nations. The then American President Woodrow
186
Wilson incorporated the proposal into the Fourteen Points
and was the chief figure in its establishment at the Paris
Peace Conference in 1919. The basis of the League was the
Covenant, which was included in the Treaty of Versailles.
The main aim of the establishment of the League of Nations
was
to
maintain
international
peace
and
security,
reductions of the national armaments to the lowest point
consistent with national safety, to "preserve as against
external
aggression,
existing political
the
territorial
independence of
integrity
all members
and
of the
League", and settle international disputes peacefully. In
the starting time the League of Nations performed
its
duties successfully. It settled a large number of disputes
involving
powerful
smaller
nations
nations, but
could
not
it
be
failed
coerced
because
into
the
mutual
compromise or into acceptance of its decisions.
Among
the
problems
settled
by
the
League
of
Nations were Swedish-Finnish disputes regarding the Aland
Island in 1920; the status of Schleswig and Upper Silesia,
settled
by
plebiscites
(1920-1921),
Yogoslav-Hungarian
disputes caused by the assassination of king Alexander of
Yugoslavia in 1934. These are the important disputes where
the League
of Nations
played
very
important
role
to
resolve these crisis and it succeeded in its mission. But
in
1923
when
Italy
attacked
an
Island
named
Corfu
belonging to Greece, Japan attacked Manchuria in 1931,
187
Italy attacked
Ethiopia
in 1935, Russian
invasion
of
Finland in 1934 were some examples where the League of
Nations totally failed to take any effective step against
the aggression because these countries were very powerful.
In addition to the above events the failure of
Disarmament Conference convened under the auspices of the
League of Nations in 1932 also proved to be detrimental
for
the
League.
international
The
League
organization
and
of
Nations
failed
to
was
a
weak
maintain
or
establish international peace and security. However, it
must be noted that the League of Nations ultimately failed
not because of the constitutional defects of its Covenant,
but because of the members who failed
to fulfil the
obligations assumed by them under the Covenant. Prof.
Goodspeed has rightly remarked, "The League of Nations was
abandoned by those who failed to abide by their solemn
obligations"i The League of Nations failed to prevent the
outbreak of World War II.
In the fall of 1939, Europe was the scene of the
opening of hostilities which were destined to engulf the
world. Only twenty years after the conclusion of a "war to
end war" and "to make the world safe for democracy", and
the establishment of a League to keep the peace, the
forces of totalitarianism, international disorganization,
and national irresponsibility produced the greatest and
most disastrous of conflicts - World War II.2
188
During the Second World War millions of people
were killed. The loss of property was incalculable. The
use of an atom bomb at Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan
shocked the entire world
sorrow
and
suffering
community.
to
mankind.
It brought
Saving
the
untold
coming
generations was a major problem before the leaders of the
world.
This total collapse of world order produced so much
a sense of futility
and hopelessness
of
international
organizations. It became clear that the modern world had
developed
the
habit
of
responding
to
catastrophe
by
intensifying its quest for effective organization.3
The direct lines of origin of the United Nations
may
be
traced
to
wartime
declarations
of
intent
to
establish a postwar organization system. Early statements
by anti-Axis leaders were marked by a studied vagueness,
but by October 1943, at Moscow, the Governments of United
States, Britain, the Soviet Union and China were prepared
to issue a clear statement of resolve to create a general
international
organization.
Significant
differences
in
approach to the problem remained, but the basic issue was
settled; after the Moscow Conference, there was no open
questioning
of
the
4
should be formed.
principle
that
a
new
organization
The United Nations was established after the end
of the World War II. The main objective of the United
189
Nations is to maintain international peace and security.
The Charter of the United Nations says that "To save the
succeeding generations from the scourge of war which twice
in our life-time has brought untold sorrow to mankind".
Chapter VI of
the United
Nations
Charter
deals with
Pacific Settlement of disputes and Chapter VII proclaims
that action with respect to threats to the peace, breaches
of the peace and acts of aggression. During world war II
great
powers
cooperated
with
each
other
for
the
establishment of world organization. After the end of the
war when United Nations came into existence, they were
made the permanent members of the Security Council. It was
expected
from
them
that
they
would
cooperate
in the
establishment of world peace. As pointed out by a Jurist,
"It did not take long for San Francisco hopes of great
powers unanimity to fade".
The United Nations lacked boldness of conception
and execution. Big powers do not cooperate with the UNO,
they just tolerate it. The power politics, i.e. cold war
obstructed the smooth functioning of the UNO. The gap
between the West and the East in the political field,
between the North and the South in the economic field,
between the sovereign states and the world body in the
ideological
field,
instead
of
narrowing
is
widening
constantly. Little wonder, the UNO has failed to unite
nations, but it has united only the problems.
190
America was the most powerful country in the world
the time of establishing the United Nations. But gradually
the Soviet
Union gained strength and became its rival
militarily at least/ and both of them came to be called
global superpowers and the comity nations got divided
between them; they were now pro-American and pro-Russian.
From the point of view of security they sought refuge
in
the sphere of influence of one or the other as suited
their positions, circumstances, policies and interests.
Because
of
Security
the
Council
conflict
among
whose
primary
the
super
powers, the
responsibility
is
the
maintenance of peace and security proved to be a very weak
organ for the maintenance
of peace and
security. The
Security Council could take action in the beginning in the
Korean conflict in 1950; it was possible because of the
absence of the Soviet representative, but when the Soviet
representative attended the Security Council meeting the
function of the Council crippled till the end of the Cold
War. Many times through the secret support of either the
United States or Soviet Union for the conflicting parties,
some of the wars turned out to be proxy wars, for the
superpowers leaving the UN a helpless spectator.
Due
to
the
failure
of
the
Security
Council
machinery to maintain international peace and security,
the states of the world were compelled
regional arrangements
to enter into
such as N A T 0 , S E A T 0 , Warsaw pact.
191
etc. Besides this, due to failure of the Security Council
to fulfil its primary responsibility/ the General Assembly
reached their zenith with the passing of Uniting For Peace
Resolution of November 1950. Under this resolution the
General Assembly was conferred upon some powers in the
field of international peace and security. But there are
certain
limitations
of
the
General
Assembly <> Generaly
speaking, its resolutions are of recommendatory nature.
Thus as a whole the UN has failed to fulfil the dreams of
its framers,for peace is simply not the negation of war.
It is true that since the establishment of the UN the
world has not witnessed any world war but there have been
a number of armed conflicts. The UN has been, to some
extent, successful in stopping the escalation of war and
effecting the ceasefires, but it has failed, and failed
miserably, to find out the political
solutions of such
problems. Indo-Pak conflict, Cyprus, Palestine problem,
Korean problems etc. are glaring examples of the failure
of the United Nations to find out the political solution
of the problem.
In
1990
the
situation
has
changed,
with
the
disintegration of the Soviet Union, Russian Federation,
which occupied later the Security Council seat, chose to
support
the Western
nations with the hope of getting
future economic aid. On the other hand another communist
country China abstained from taking any decision because
192
it did not want to remain isolated from the emerging world
trends and certainly wanted to move closer to the west to
achieve future goals. The UN could use force in the recent
Gulf War
(1990-91) because none
of
the
great
powers
(permanent members of the Security Council) used veto to
block the UN proceedings.
After the end of the Cold War, the collapse of
bipolarity and growing ineffectiveness of the non-aligned
movement and inability of the regional organisations to
cope with the challenges of the realpolitik, the United
Nations still appears to be the hope of mankind. It has
been able to provide a relative peace and averting a war
for more than five decades. But its role in peace making
and peace keeping has been quite controversial. In 1990
after the end of the Cold War, United States emerged as
the unchallenged super power and its role proved that it
became the World Super Cop. Because in the Gulf crisis of
1991, the entire act was done by US in the name of UN.
During
the Gulf
War
the
entire world
was
clamouring
against the regretful role of the UN in the whole episode.
It is deaf and dumb, limp and lifeless - a rubber stamp in
the hands of the US and its war partners.
It would, however, be wrong to say that the UN has
not made any contributions. As a matter of fact, the
United
Nations,
as
pointed
out
earlier,
has
been
193
successful to prevent the escalation of armed conflicts.
In several cases, definite and permanent settlements were
reached. For example in 1946, the Soviet Union withdrew
its troops from Iraq. The Indonesian crisis was ultimately
resolved with the establishment of an independent state of
Indonesia in 1950 and similarly the Namibian crisis was
finally resolved by the establishment of an independent
Namibian state in 1990. In 1956, British and French forces
withdrew
from
largely
Syria
du#
and
to
Lebanon
UN
and
the
Suez
intervention.
crisis
Recently
Bosnia-Harzegovina, and Serbia crisis was resolved by UN.
Besides
this, it has done commendable
coloialism,
in
the
development
of
work
human
in ending
rights
and
fundamental freedoms and economic and social fields. There
is hardly any sphere or corner of the world which has not
experienced
the
influence of
United Nations itself or of
Moreover
United
as pointed
Nations
has
either
its
the
influence of
specialized
agencies.
out by Prof. L.M. Goodrich, "The
shown
a
remarkable
capacity
for
development within the limits of the existing charter.
There is no reason to believe that the possibilities of
future develojanent have been exhausted."
Even
perform
its
international
if we concede
primary
peace
and
that
the UN
responsibility
security,
it
has
of
failed to
maintaining
cannot
but
be
accepted that the United Nations has became indispensable
194
because of multifarious functions that it has performed in
the social, economic and humanitarian fields. According to
Finkestein,
"The
United
Nations
demonstrated
its
usefulness to a point where it would be difficult to see a
world which did not have a United Nations." Thus "The
United Nations continues to justify its existence in many
fields of activity for the promotion of human welfare and
of a spirit of community/ however, in short, it has come
of the role once envisaged
for
it a
legal
7
sufficiently adequate of keeping the peace.
authority
Fabonrable Sings for Peace
Whether
peace
is
to
be
reached
only
after
unimaginable horrors precipitated by humanity's stubborn
clinging
to
old
patterns
of
behaviour, or
is
embraced now by an act of consultative will, is
to be
the
choice before all who inhabit the earth. At this critical
juncture when the intractable problems confronting nations
have been fused into one common concern for the whole
world, failure to stem the tide of conflict and disorder
would be unconcsiounably irresponsible.
Among the favourable signs are: (i) the steadily
growing strength of the steps towards world order taken
initially
near
the beginning
of
this
century
in the
creation of the league of Nations, succeeded by the more
broadly based UN; iXi) the achievement since the second
195
world of independence by the majority of all the nations
on earth, indicating the completion
of the process of
nation building, and the involvement of these
fledgling
nations with older ones in matters of mutual concern; (iii)
the consequent vast increase in cooperation among hitherto
isolated
and
antagonistic
peoples
and
groups
in
international undertakings in the scientific, educational,
legal, economic and
cultural
fields; (iv) the
rise in
recent decades of an unprecedented number of international
humanitarian organizations; (v ) the spread of women's and
youth movements calling for an end to war; and (vi) the
spontaneous
people
spawning
seeking
of widening
understanding
networks
of ordinary
through
personal
communication.
The scientific and technological advances occuring
in this unusually blessed century portend a great surge
forward
in
the
social
evolution
of
the
planet,
indicate the means by which the practical
and
problems of
humanity may be solved. They provide, indeed, the very
means for the administration
united
world.
misconceptions,
Yet
of the complex life of a
barriers
prejudices,
persist.
suspicions
Doubts,
and
narrow
self-interest beset nations and peoples in their relations
with each other.
Flaws in the prevailing order are conspicuous in
the inability of sovereign
states organised
as United
196
Nations to exorcise the spectre of war, the threatened
collapse of the international economic order, the spread
of anarchy and terrorism and the intense suffering which
these and other afflictions are causing to increasing
milllions. Indeed, so much have aggression and conflict
come to characterize our social, economic and religious
systems, that many have succumbed to the view that such
behaviour
is
intrinsic
to human
nature
and
therefore
ineradicable.
The Issues of World Peace
Banning nuclear weapons, prohibiting the use of
poison gases, or outlawing germ warfare will not remove
the root causes of war. However important such practical
measures obviously are as lements of the peace process,
they are in themselves too superficial to exert enduring
influence. People are ingenious enough to invent yet other
forms of warfare, and to use food, raw materials, finance,
industrial power, ideology, and terrorism to subvert one
another in an endless quest for supremacy. Nor can the
present massive dislocation in the affairs of humanity be
resolved through the settlement of specific conflicts or
disagreements
among
nations.
A
genuine
universal
framework must be adopted.
Certainly, there is no lack of
national
leaders
of
the world-wide
recognition by
character
of
the
problem, which is self-evident in the mounting issues that
197
confront them daily. There is, however a paralysis of
will; and it is this that must be carefully examined and
resolutely dealt with. This paralysis is rooted, as stated
above, in a deep seated conviction of the inevitable
quarrelsomeness
of
mankind,
which
has
led
to
the
reluctance to entertain the possibility of subordinating
national self-interest to the requirements of world order,
and
in
an
unwillingness
to
face
courageously
the
far-reaching implications of establishing a united world
authority.
Steps Towards Peace and World Order
The tenative steps towards world order, especially
since World War II, give hopeful signs. The increasing
tendency of groups of nations to formalize relationships
which
enable
them
interest
suggests
overcame
this
to
that
cooperate in matters
eventually
paralysis.
The
all
ASEAN,
of
nations
the
mutual
could
Caribbean
Canmunity, the European Community, the Council for Mutual
Economic Assistance, the League of Arab States, the OAU,
the OAS, the South Pacific Forum-all the joint endeavours
represented by such organizations prepare the path to world
order.
The increasing attention being focused on some of
the most deep-rooted problems of the planet is yet another
hopeful sign. Despite the obvious shortcomings of the UN,
198
the more
than
two score declarations
and
conventions
adopted by that organization, even where governments have
not been enthusiastic in their ccanraitment, have given
ordinary people a sense of a
new lease on life. The
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on
the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide,
and the similar measures concerned with eliminating all
forms of discrimination based on race, sex or religious
belief; upholding the rights of the child; protecting all
persons against being subjected to torture; eradicating
hunger
and
malnutrition;
using ,
;scientific
and
technological progress in the interest of peace and the
benefit of mankind - all such measures, if courageously
enforced
spectre
and
expanded, will advance
of war will
have
lost
its
the day when
power
the
to dominate
International relations.
Racism : Racism, one of the most baneful and persistent
evils
is
a
major
barrier
to
peace.
Its
practice
perpetrates too outrageous a violation of the dignity of
human beings to be countenanced under any pretext.
The
Extremes
disparity
of
between
Poverty and Wealth
rich
and
poor, a
:
The
inordinate
source
of
acute
suffering, keeps the world in a state of instability,
virtually on the brink of war. A fresh
problem is required, entailing consultation
look
at the
with experts
from a wide spectrum of disciplines, devoid of economic
199
and
ideological
polemics,
and
involving
the
people
directly affected in the decisions that must urgently be
made.
Unbridled
Nationalism
:
Unbridled
nationalism,
as
distinguished froir a sane legitimate patriotism, must give
way to a wider loyalty, to the love of humanity as a
whole. The concept of world citizenship is a direct result
of
the
contraction
neighbourhood
of
through
the
world
scientific
into
advances
a
and
single
of
the
indisputable interdependence of nations.
Religious Strife : Religious strife, throujhOut' history,
has been the cause of innumerable wars and conflicts, a
major blight to progress, and is increasingly abhorrent to
the people of all faiths and no faith. Followers of all
religions must be willing to face the basic questions
which this strife raises, and to arrive at clear answers.
The Role of Women
: The
emancipation
of women, the
achievement of full equalaity between the sexes, is one of
the most important, though less acknowlege prerequisites
of peace. The denial of such equality perpetrates an
injustice against one half of the world's population and
promotes in men harmful attitudes and habits that are
carried from the family to the workplace, to political
life, and ultimately to international relations. There are
no grounds, moral, practical, or biological, upon which
200
such denial can be justified. Only as women are welcomed
into full partnership in all fields of human endeavour
with the moral and psychological climate be created in
which international peace can emerge.
Universal Education :
The cause of universal education,
which has already enlisted in its service an army of
dedicated people from every faith and nation, deserves the
utmost support that the governments of the world can lend
it.
In keeping with the requirements of world peace,
consideration should be given to teaching the concept of
world citizenship as part of the
standard education of
every child.
An Interntional Auxiliary Language : A
of
communication
between
peoples
fundamental
seriously
lack
undermines
efforts towards world peace. Adopting an international
auxiliary language would go far to resolving this problem
and necessitates the most urgent attention.
Two
points
bear
emphasizing
in
all
the
above
issues. One is that the abolition of war is not simply a
matter of signing treaties and protocols; it is a complex
task requiring a new level of commitment
to resolving
issues not customarily associated with the pursuit of
peace. Based on political agreement alone, the idea of
collective security is a chimera.
The other point is that the primary challenge in
dealing with issues of peace is to raise the context to
201
the level of principle, as distinct from pure pragmtism.
For, in essence, peace stems from an inner state supported
by a spiritual or moral attitude, and it is chiefly in
evoking this attitude that the possibility of enduring
solutions can be found.
As
the
tile
of
this
thesis
suggests,
it
is
imperative that the present world, with its entrenched
pattern of conflict, should change to a world in which
harmony, peace and cooperation will prevail.
*********
202
References :
1.
S.K. Kapoor, Op.cit., pp. 170-171
2.
Inis L. Claude Jr, Op.cit./ p.62
3.
Ibid., p.62
4.
Ibid., pp.62-63
5. Vijay
Anand,
World War and World Peace,
Jagat-Roop
Parkashaii/ Hamirpur, (Himachal Pradesh) 1989, p.40
6.
S.K. Kapoor, Op.cit., p.193