Agence Française de Développement
Working
Paper
March 2014
AFD and its Partners
The Cultural Dimension
Philippe d’Iribarne (Gestion et Société - CNRS)
[email protected]
Département de la Recherche
Agence Française de Développement 5 rue Roland Barthes
75012 Paris - France
Direction de la Stratégie
www.afd.fr
Département de la Recherche
23

Disclaimer
The analyses and conclusions formulated in this document are those of the author. They do not necessarily reflect the position
of Agence Française de Développement or its partner institutions.
Publications Director: Anne PAUGAM
Editorial Director: Alain HENRY
ISSN: 1958-539X
Copyright: 1er trimestre 2014
Mise en page : Vif-Argent
© AFD Working Paper No 23
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 20142
Contents
Contents
Introduction 4
1. French and Anglo-Saxons: Two forms of impersonal relationship
6
1.1
French references in Martinique and New Caledonia
6
1.2
Anglo-Saxon references in South Africa
8
2. Chad, Morocco, Senegal: Three forms of cooperation focused on relationships
between individuals
11
2.1Morocco
11
2.2Chad
13
2.3Senegal
16
3. Right track and harmony in Vietnam
19
Multicultural societies: Martinique, New Caledonia, South Africa
22
4.
4.1Martinique
22
4.2
New Caledonia
24
4.3
South Africa
25
Conclusions 26
Distinctive features
26
Relationships between cultures
27
References
© AFD Working Paper No 23
29
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 20143
Introduction
Introduction
A development agency operating in a large number
this field, the role of personal relationships with any one of
of countries and territories is faced with great cultural
its representatives compared to the relationship with the
diversity. There are, of course, universal or almost universal
institution, etc.?
expectations towards it. They do not only concern the
purely financial aspects of its operations, such as interest
A survey
rate levels or loan maturities, but also – seen from a
In order to advance knowledge of these issues, in September
certain level of abstraction – the modalities of its action.
2005, a survey of AFD’s partners was conducted in seven
Consequently, the desire to forge partnership relationships
in which there is mutual trust is not related to any particular
countries and territories (Chad, Martinique, Morocco, New
Caledonia, Senegal, South Africa and Vietnam).1 Some
cultural situation. However, when one looks more closely
twenty actors among the different categories of AFD’s
at the practical aspects, one can see that what is exactly
partners were questioned in each country. The respondents
meant when it comes to a “partnership”, and what must
were unable to explain their culture’s specific vision of what
be done in practice to implement it, varies considerably
is effective cooperation, a vision that is generally largely
depending on the location. Similarly, when someone states
unconscious. The approach used was to question them
that a bank “should show more trust towards” its clients,
about their relations with AFD in a very factual manner.
what this comment actually means – and therefore the
Open questions were asked about the working relations
practical conclusions that can be drawn from it – very much
with AFD, the products offered by the latter, the response
depends on the cultural context in question. More generally,
capacity of its interlocutors, the diversity of its roles
the universal terms used to refer to effective cooperation
(financial role, role in terms of advice, consultancy and
are far from always encompassing the same realities and
training), the complementarity and competitive relationships
therefore from suggesting the same actions.
with other donors, and possible ways of improving its
action. It is through the comments made in these different
This cultural relativity stems from the fact that what is
areas that the conceptions of an appropriate manner of
expected from a development agency in one specific place
working together implicitly appeared. These conceptions
depends – via the general conception to be found there
were for everyone the tacit reference that gives a meaning
to situations and allows them to judge such situations.2
of what is an effective way of working together – on the
vision of an ordered society that prevails there. A whole
mental universe, a set of benchmarks allowing situations to
In the perspective taken, it is not the content of the
be interpreted and judged, is combined with such a vision.
opinions expressed that matters, but the categories used
In addition, the specificities of each society on this matter
to express them. These categories appear through the
are also likely to affect a set of elements that are crucial
words, expressions and turns of phrase that are particularly
for a development agency to be well integrated into the
local context, and for the effectiveness of its action: What
type of relationship is expected from a donor? On what is
based the confidence that one can have in it? What is, in
© AFD Working Paper No 23
1 The survey was conducted in South Africa and Vietnam by Segal, J.-P., in Chad and
Senegal by Chevrier, S., in Martinique and New Caledonia by Yousfi, H. and in Morocco by
Iribarne (d’), P.
2 On the approach used here, see the chapter « la dynamique d’une démarche » in
Iribarne (d’) et al., 1998.
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 20144
Introduction
present in a certain cultural environment. Consequently, for
Secondly, we will, to the contrary, meet in Chad, Morocco
example, when a respondent says that the person whose
and Senegal, cultures where personal relationships play
action they are referring to knows his profession remarkably
a key role. However, we shall see that there is a marked
well, or does not know anything about it, he shows, by
difference from one country to another in the way in which
using such an expression (to know one’s profession) that
these relationships are conceived. For example, in Morocco
everyone’s profession is for him a meaningful benchmark.
one can see a desire to achieve a proximity to such an
In addition, when such a benchmark, which is in no way
extent that the differences in interests disappear behind
universal, plays a key role in the comments made by a
the strength of mutual assistance. Conversely, in Chad,
very diverse group of actors belonging to the same society,
where interests are conceived as fundamentally different,
it can only be due to the importance that it has in the
what is expected from long-standing familiarity is a good
corresponding culture. To provide an account of the variety
ability to discern them and to find adjustments between
of mental universes that we encountered, in the present
them. In Senegal, a rather rough vision of the difference of
paper we shall extensively quote the comments made by
interests, and of the need for everyone to make sure their
our respondents. The words, expressions and turns of
own are taken into account, is combined with a call for a
phrase that particularly show a mental universe will be both
highlighted3 and commented upon.
form of community where there is a high level of mutual
In certain cases, in Chad, Morocco, Senegal and Vietnam,
Vietnam, which will be mentioned after, provides a sort
we did not find marked differences between the visions of an
of combination of the two main cases mentioned earlier,
ordered society reflected by our different respondents when
with a subtle alliance between impersonal cooperation
we focused on those who had their roots in the country in
question.4 By contrast, in Martinique, New Caledonia and
mechanisms (the “right track”) and the importance given to
South Africa, which are clearly multi-ethnic societies, we
ensures that there is a connection between these two types
encountered significant differences between the visions
of benchmark.
transparency.
the existence of good relations. A great deal of diplomacy
reflected by people belonging to the diverse groups that
make up society. We subsequently endeavoured to identify,
For the fourth section, we shall come back to Martinique,
as far as possible, in what way these visions differed.
New Caledonia and South Africa by looking at the more
Mixed conceptions of the right way to cooperate
First of all, we will find in Martinique and New Caledonia,
specific benchmarks that coexist with visions from mainland
France on the one hand, and Anglo-Saxon visions on the
other.
on the one hand, and in South Africa, on the other hand,
benchmarks that are similar to those found in France
In conclusion, we shall seek to learn some lessons from all
and in the Anglo-Saxon world. Much of this can probably
these analyses.
be put down to the fact that most of AFD’s partners in
these countries and territories belong to the ruling elite.
A common feature of these benchmarks (with a central
reference to the profession in the case of France and to
the market in the Anglo-Saxon world) is that they allow
forms of professional cooperation to be established that are
already highly satisfactory between actors who do not have
particularly close personal relationships.
3 They will be put in bold type.
4 We have therefore excluded representatives from French cooperation and other international donors from the scope of our analysis, as well as some expatriates.
© AFD Working Paper No 23
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 20145
1. French and Anglo-Saxons: Two forms of impersonal relationships
1. French and Anglo-Saxons: Two forms of impersonal relationships
The modes of cooperation that can be found in very
their personal relationships with the people with whom
different forms in relationships between a donor and its
they are dealing. Similarly, in Anglo-Saxon countries, the
partners in France on the one hand, and in Anglo-Saxon
reference to the market and to respecting “market forces”,
countries on the other hand, do not require establishing
close ties between institutions and individuals.5 Such ties
involving a non-discriminatory treatment of suppliers and
can, of course, be established, but the way in which affairs
We found these modes of cooperation in Martinique and
are managed is mainly based on a clear distinction between
New Caledonia on the one hand, and in South Africa on
personal relationships and professional relationships. In
the other hand.
clients, leads to a limited role for personal relationships.
France, everyone feels obliged to “do their job”, whatever
1.1 French references in Martinique and New Caledonia
A number of the people surveyed in New Caledonia were
opposition between two major references structures this
from mainland France. They had been living in the territory
questioning: at one extreme, the majestic, disinterested and
for a few years and were destined to leave it. The cultural
slightly arrogant image of the State and its representatives,
benchmarks they used to express an opinion about AFD
were the same as those encountered in mainland France.6
at the other, that of the trader who searches for clients with
Similarly, for some of our respondents who come from
choose between these two irreconcilable roles. There are
mainland France – “Békés” – the cultural benchmarks that
some particularly marked expressions of this opposition:
we encountered in Martinique were no different from those
“We have the impression of a great lady who does not
we could have come across in France. In both cases, we
personalise her relationships very much.” “It is AFD and not
found these benchmarks among our other respondents,
the local Chinese person who wants to develop its trade.”
the aim of increasing its profits. AFD is in a way required to
even if they were more or less mixed with local components,
In such a vision, it is up to everyone to “do their job” and
a point we shall come back to.
to do it well, with an appropriate manner and style of doing
In New Caledonia, an essential question asked about AFD,
things. The expectations that one can have of a partner
as it could have been for any other institution, was to know
correspond to the requirements of its profession, which
what it is: What is its activity, its mission, its vocation? The
defines what is “normal” and “logical”: “They impose things
on us, but it is logical, we would like to criticise them for this,
but we cannot because it is normal to ask for supporting
5 Concerning the fact that the existence of such ties is more or less necessary, depending on the culture, in order to establish reasonably effective cooperation relationships,
see Iribarne, (d’), 2007.
6 We also found these benchmarks in the comments made in other fields by our contacts
in French embassies and French economic missions. On these benchmarks, see Iribarne,
(d’), 1989 and 2006.
© AFD Working Paper No 23
documents and so on…”. In this way, for most people AFD
is an instrument of the State, more than a banker seeking
to ensure its business is successful: “We do not tend to
think in terms of turnover when we speak about AFD.”
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 20146
1. French and Anglo-Saxons: Two forms of impersonal relationships
This role is combined with a perspective of general interest
of AFD as a representative of the State, and therefore
and development service, but also with distance, or even
of the general interest, and want it to remain true to this:
arrogance: “AFD is overly associated with the lecturing
“AFD no longer wishes to take risks, it is a moneylender,
State. […] The lack of proximity, etc.”
whereas their vocation is nevertheless development.”
The “moneylender”, the figure of the predatory trader, is
A problem arises when one changes activity, while continuing
in conflict with the figure which, dedicated to the general
to act in a way that would be “normal” and “logical” in the
interest, has “development” as a vocation.
former activity, but not in the new one. For example, AFD
is criticised for maintaining practices that are suitable for an
One can of course have several activities, but there is a
activity as a State representative with a concern to ensure
need to be organised accordingly, with a staff and “culture”
that public funds are used for their intended purpose, while
adapted to each of them. For example, we were told: “They
seeking to have an activity as a banker. A banker who acts
created a spatial development and planning mission, or a
in a manner that is consistent with the orientations of its
development service, and I think it is a culture they did
activity only asks for the guarantee to be repaid. Once this
not have. They had a culture as a banker and so they
condition has been fulfilled, it does not need to express
made a risk analysis of projects, but I think they lacked the
an opinion on what the borrower will do with the money
culture of development.”
obtained: “This is where it is said that the administrative
procedures need to be eased, we do not need to justify
This reference to the activity, to the rationale of the activity,
this, but rather to justify our repayment ability.” “In my
can be found in Martinique in various forms. Here again, it
opinion, to the contrary, they should have eased things
leads to seek, define, or ask what AFD is, i.e. what is its
and returned to a real market-based rationale, with their
activity, its mission, its vocation? “It is not only a banker,
specific advantage: rates subsidised by the State.”
but a financial partner in a lot of activities. […] It is true that
the closer you get to development projects, the more they
At the same time, the question arises of whether AFD,
have a characteristic that is not simply to be a banker.”
with its grandeur as a representative of the State ensuring
He who is “only a banker”, the characteristic of which is
the common good, is waiting for prospective applicants
“simply to be a banker”, is in opposition to he who has the
or, acting as a banker seeking to get rich, is not ashamed
higher (more noble) mission of engaging in “development
to prospect clients. The discretion it shows is appropriate
projects”. In this reference to the activity, it is up to
if its status is that of a representative of the majesty of
everyone to “do their job” and they are judged on this basis.
the State. However, to the contrary, if it has the status of
The activity’s standards define what is “logical”, “normal”,
banker, this is a sign of a lack of commercial dynamism.
“not scandalous”, or on the contrary, what one “has trouble
There are statements such as: “But I have the impression
understanding”: “Otherwise, for nearly all banks, in all banks,
that there is a marketing which is not very good. I mean
we find this slowness in decision-making because there is
that we do not really know whether AFD needs or wants
a circuit to respect. But it is logical, I worked in banking
to lend, or whether it is there to possibly receive people
for twelve years and I know what I am talking about.” “AFD
who are seeking to borrow or public authorities who are
sometimes asks for certain guarantees, which is normal,
seeking to borrow.” On the one hand, the “real banker”
that is its activity of lending, so guarantees are required.”
who does business, “needs, wants to lend”, on the other
hand, the representative of the public authority is there “to
The idea of partnership, which is often mentioned, takes on
receive” applicants. These two attitudes are incompatible.
a special meaning in this rationale of activity. It involves not
Similarly, another of our respondents asks: “AFD is there
simply providing a standard product, but taking an interest
to do what? […] Does AFD make profits, what is AFD’s
in the client and its problems and needs, and customising
status? I have no idea, it is a public institution.” The same
in an inventive way. For example, one of our respondents
opposition can be found among those who hold to a vision
in New Caledonia notes: “We expressed our needs, the
© AFD Working Paper No 23
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 20147
1. French and Anglo-Saxons: Two forms of impersonal relationships
headquarters’ services worked on the subject and were
analysis and expertise. That is, it does more, it will go
then able to present a product that was entirely suited
further in the analysis, in the relationship with the client.”
to what we were asking for […] It is a good financial
product that had to be devised. But that is exactly what
In this type of relationship, people speak to each other,
we needed. […] Today, AFD is a development partner
explain things to each other, endeavour to understand each
of SECAL. […] They fully understood our needs.” Once
other. Working together, consulting each other, means that
the client had expressed its needs, they had been fully
the root of the problem is examined together. However,
“understood”. The banker did not simply propose a classic
irrespective of the good relationship, there is no question
product, but “worked on the subject”, thanks to which he
of doing favours for each other, even if friendships have
was able to “devise” something new, which corresponded
also been developed. People remain very professional.
“exactly” to the need. The person in question also said
Everyone has their mission, which remains the fundamental
that “they were very competent”, adding: “I am not
benchmark. For example, for one of our respondents in
sure that we would have had the same proposals from
New Caledonia: “Apart from the story of the Club House,
other financial institutions, certainly not from traditional
which was not eligible for them, for all the others, they
banks, because they have not understood this logic.”
found that it corresponded firstly to the mission that was
It involves understanding the client’s problems as a real
entrusted to us, to our status, to our role as a port
professional, with all the expertise that this requires. We
authority and, secondly, that it was part of their mission.”
found an identical conception of partnership in Martinique
This aspect goes hand in hand with relations that are civil,
with our respondents the most marked by the standard
but do not need to be close, and in which the concern for
French benchmarks. In relationships with one’s partners,
things outweighs the ties between individuals: “Everyone
it is a question of being aware of their problems, analysing
works on their own. But we had contacts for this file
them as a professional or expert in one’s field, and coming
because both parties conducted analyses on its financial
up with solutions for them: “It has a better capability for
aspects”, notes one of our respondents in Martinique.
1.2 Anglo-Saxon references in South Africa
Most of the respondents in South Africa belonged to the
or not [...]. If they are interested we come to the next
white Establishment. It was difficult to differentiate between
their references and those found among their American7
step, give figures. It may not be explicit but implicitly it’s
cooperation.”
or British counterparts. The reference to the market, to
competition and to the ethics that allow them to function
Competition reigns on a market. All do not succeed
properly is omnipresent.
equally: “We necessarily have to be the n° 1 player of
the market.” To achieve this, it is necessary to apply the
The market is the central reference. Everyone meets their
basic management principles. It is necessary to be more
partners on a market and seeks to conduct transactions or
attractive than the competition: “We have found a more
set up operations in line with the interests of all the parties
competitive solution.” It is necessary to be dynamic,
concerned. People work together when they have detected
to know how to seize opportunities that arise: “To take
common interests: “Neither one of us needs desperately
advantage of this opportunity.” There is a need to know
the other but both are interested. I think it’s quite good.”
one’s market and primarily the expectations of one’s clients:
“Generally speaking, if we have an idea for DFI we share
“AFD has made big efforts to understand the South African
with all of them [...]. They will tell us if they are interested
market and municipal market. My perception is that they
are successful for this reason.” Having good products
7 See La logique de l’honneur, second section.
© AFD Working Paper No 23
is not enough, you need to know how to sell them and
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 20148
1. French and Anglo-Saxons: Two forms of impersonal relationships
to approach those they are likely to interest: “They did
transparent. We are not in the market of playing poker
approach us, being very active in doing their marketing.”
games. […] I don’t think one can come to us and say ‘you
are not playing the game.’”
The price of the transaction is the normal means of
adjustment between the parties. As long as the profit
To develop relationships of trust, there is a need to behave
opportunities are reasonable, there is nothing further to
correctly with one’s partners: “Once we started to speak
demand from those with whom one is doing business. In
to AFD we actually didn’t talk or try to talk with other DFI
this regard, development agencies’ desire to know what is
because of transparency and the need of building trust.”
done with their money appears as unwarranted interference
There is a need to act in a non-discriminatory manner: “We
in the way in which their clients manage their own affairs:
cannot do different deals from one to the other.” A certain
“I am coming from commercial banking. One asks questions
balance of power needs to be found: “Both parties are
and get responses. Then you evaluate management
always looking for establishing a balance of power, which
ability to do something or not, and in most cases if you talk
may not exist in less developed financial markets.”
to the management and to the staff you have a very good
idea and feeling of what management is capable of doing.
It is, of course, good to help those who are in difficulty,
Once you have that, then you decide whether you loan
the “disadvantaged” (compassionate capitalism): “DFI
money or not. Things are different with AFD or with many
could be helpful [...]. I might ask for help from the DFI
aid organisations. They want to know exactly what those
community.” However, even when it comes to development
ten millions are made for… and it doesn’t always work
and assistance to the most disadvantaged, the reference
like that.” Everyone should manage their own activities,
to market principles remains central. It is still a question
without it being legitimate to hold them accountable for
of taking a place on the market, even if it is a specific
something other than their results: “Making decisions is
market: “One of their goals was to be more introduced to
after all our business.”
the informal market [...], to get into new businesses.”
To achieve this, it is necessary to find products and an
Certification agencies are a factor in the proper functioning
organisation that are suitable: “You can change your
of the market. They allow everyone to avoid making their
business model.”. But this does not mean wasting one’s
in-house functioning public: “We see ourselves as a strong
money: “What we found very positive was that AFD
reputable organisation rated by international agencies.
was really keen to move away from the way they were
Perhaps the due diligence, the amount of information that
traditionally doing business, looking at other ways. But
you need to supply, is just too much in order to get involved
without throwing money away.” It is good to reconcile
for a line. You should say: ‘Just give us your annual report
the fight against poverty and sound financial management,
and that’s it.’”
particularly when one manages a “poverty equity fund”: “I
have never ever written off any money that I have loaned to
Generally speaking, the independence of parties and
people. We have never lost money.”
the recognised right for everyone to make their own
decisions under their own responsibility are highly valued.
The attention paid to a clear determination of responsibilities,
Consequently, everyone is free to propose to its partners
which marks the relationships between organisations, is
the product that they intend to provide: “AFD’s rate is much
seen when it comes to individuals within each organisation.
higher than other DFI. I don’t say right or wrong, this is
It is important to well define the powers of the people with
their own priority.”
whom you are dealing: “They have the ability to negotiate
at this level.” “People from the region explained their
At the same time, the proper functioning of the market
mandate has been extended so there is wider space for
requires everyone to respect certain rules of the game,
our cooperation.” Consequently, it does not matter whether
while freely defending their interests: “We are totally
the contact is near or far, or whether the relationships with it
© AFD Working Paper No 23
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 20149
1. French and Anglo-Saxons: Two forms of impersonal relationships
are more or less personal: “It is easier for us to deal directly
people to work with. They wanted to help us from the
with Paris, straight to the right level of technicity. Local
start […]. Very interested in the way we approached the
people bring the right people to us. They manage the visit
market.”
very well. Once we have made this connection, we work
directly. Maybe sometimes we should not forget to have
It is only very rarely, and for situations where the relational
local people on the loop.”
dimension was especially significant, that we received
comments with a more emotional tone from this population,
The reference to good contacts, to good human relations,
for example, when one of our respondents stated: “PSG
is not absent, but their instrumental dimension is essential.
decided to abandon us.” It was not a question of simple
It is a question of being effective together: “Local people
business relations, but a sort of severing of the relationship
and people who came from France, they were super nice
between a subsidiary and its parent company.
© AFD Working Paper No 23
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 201410
2. Chad, Morocco, Senegal: Three forms of cooperation focused on relationships between individuals
2. C
had, Morocco, Senegal: Three forms of cooperation focused on
relationships between individuals
In Chad, Morocco and Senegal, we found few references
anything from each other, is central. Differences of interest
to forms of coordination independent from relationships
and rivalries over power do not, of course, disappear, but
that develop between individuals. Neither the norms of the
there is a strong desire to be in another field. In Chad, on
profession, nor the benchmarks provided by the market,
the contrary, the interplay of interests is extremely visible,
were emphasised. Good personal relationships were not
including in relationships between “friends”. Getting on well
only mentioned as a possible complement to mainly
together in no way precludes negotiating openly and firmly,
professional relationship (a complement which is pleasant
but involves accepting to enter into a long process of mutual
and sometimes useful, but far from being necessary):
adjustment, by not putting forward any pretension to an
such personal relationships are presented as an essential
ingredient of effective professional cooperation.8 The way
“objective” vision of things. In Senegal, it is more a question
in which they are conceived does, however, differ from
much more than in Morocco, there is in an opposite way of
country to country. In Morocco, the image of a community
Chad, a reference to a process whereby one can ultimately
within which one is close, where everyone helps each other,
reach some form of consensus thanks to a high level of
anticipates the desires of each other, where no one hides
mutual transparency.
of consultation. While differences of interest are highlighted
2.1 Morocco
The comments made by our Moroccan respondents
for each other: “We have special contacts, partners. They
were mainly of a relational register (even though, as
are available.”
we shall see, it is less exclusive there than in Chad or
Senegal). This register is structured by major oppositions:
between proximity and distance; between respect and
These friendly relations are in no way considered as being
free from any perspective of self-interest.9 Firstly, it seems
authoritarianism; between trust and distrust.
normal to put forward the quality of relations to request
more material assistance: “Our expectations? We want
Many of our respondents mentioned partnerships, or
projects to have a sizeable social component. Increase
partner relationships, within which one is not only in a
the funding in terms of volume, in view of the needs and
business relation, but where one is bound like with friends
the quality of cooperation with France.” Secondly, when
or colleagues: “There is above all a contact that binds
one chooses with whom one has good relations, it seems
us”; “We call our friends at AFD. […] We have explained
normal to wonder what can be gained from this materially:
this to our friends.” In such relationships, people are
“There are donors whose terms are not as attractive.”
close: “We have a close relationship with AFD”; “We are
The call for sharing builds a bridge between the relational
permanently in contact with M. C.…” People have time
aspect and the material aspect: “We have a bond, we
share.” The material expectations can be all the greater as
8 This point is especially significant because the banking sector is an activity in which there
is a particularly high level of formalisation involving the call for impersonal rules.
© AFD Working Paper No 23
9 On this point, it is French culture, for which friendship is mainly disinterested, which
contrasts with what can be seen in most of the world.
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 201411
2. Chad, Morocco, Senegal: Three forms of cooperation focused on relationships between individuals
the relationship is closer: “That, it will come in time. We
When something is in fact imposed, various forms of
have no doubt over that. They have already given us a lot,
diplomatic presentations of things make the situation
bearable.10 The scope for choice for he who adopts the
we should also not ask them for too much.”
vision that others have of things is emphasised. Sometimes,
This closeness and sharing, combined with a relationship of
what has in fact been imposed is presented as having been
friendship, are perceived as a way of avoiding imbalanced
accepted. At the same time, when a donor’s requirements
relationships whereby he who assists imposes his will on
are in line with the interest of he who is subject to them,
he who is assisted.
and when the latter again goes beyond the desires of his
partner, we are not really in a situation of constraint: “The
For our respondents, it is clear that he who requests
conditionalities are appreciated, they move the reforms
assistance is in a position of inferiority. The terms seek,
forward. It is up to us to judge the conditionalities that
submit and request were often used. Yet the prospect of
concern us, or to propose others, it is a way of moving
being told what to do is unwelcome: “Morocco wants to
things along.”
retain its freedom in negotiations with donors; we want
donors […] to come and apply what is chosen by the
This attachment to a common understanding is heightened
government and not to propose projects that do not fit
by the fact that relationships involving a brutal imposition
in with its priorities and its strategic choices.” A form of
are particularly feared, which suggests that they are
assistance that gives priority to sharing and exchanging
widespread in Moroccan society: “It is good that donors
between friends is thus highlighted. Support is mentioned
agree together on conditions, environmental conditions for
a lot: “AFD supported us for the implementation of this
example, but not that we negotiate with them all together:
programme […] They supported us for each phase.” “AFD
we fear that people agree together to put us in a difficult
has in fact always supported us for our strategic priorities.”
situation”, says one of our respondents. Differences in
Such a prospect comes under a relationship where one
opinion are presented as leading to situations that are
supports without imposing constraints: “We necessarily have
difficult to manage: “Otherwise the donor arrives later with
a very important and very active role, always alongside the
sometimes conflicting ideas.” “AFD operates with other
project initiator.” “There is a need for an agreement with
donors, including the World Bank. Before, everyone arrived
donors; it is not a constraint, but support; we do not feel
with their own conception of things; requirements that are
alone when we define programmes.”
contradictory.”
In this regard, it is good to consult one another without
Another important aspect of good relations is the
anything being imposed: “We come, we consult each
transparency and trust that the latter allows: “It is very
other, indeed, we have exchanges in terms of how to make
transparent, very clear, very easy.” Such a call for trust
the mechanism sustainable and develop it.” “With AFD, we
is probably even stronger because it is far from being
reach agreement on the design of the operation.” Rather
straightforward. One is easily distrustful of anything that
than appearing to be subject to a partner’s requirements, it
is not completely clear. To overcome this distrust, which
is better to anticipate its wishes, respond to its concerns. “It
means that your partners easily suspect you of being up
should be said that for us too, when we make a request, as
to no good, you really have to show them that you are not
we already know what AFD’s concerns are, we prepare
hiding anything from them: “When there is a project, people
a request, but with a complete file, which goes as far as to
come from headquarters, after we discuss the situation
include the project’s technical details. We already provide
with the people in Rabat. Nothing is done without their
all the elements that we would have been asked for
knowledge.”
during an appraisal mission.”
10 Seen from outside, one is tempted to use the term “window-dressing”, but it does not
really account for the way in which things may be experienced from the inside.
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2. Chad, Morocco, Senegal: Three forms of cooperation focused on relationships between individuals
Ideally, in a close relationship, where one does not seek
we have only had good surprises, because we have already
to impose one’s views on others, where there is mutual
gone beyond the strict rules that we experience with the
trust, one manages to see things in the same way: “The
other donors.” Yet any references of an objective nature
relationship that is developed is a relationship of trust and
should not be ignored: “AFD does not follow operations on
respect, which can only be good, we have an open mind
an ad hoc basis. But it aims to be a partner with structural
and very often share the same opinions on projects.”
action and for this I think it requires certain standards in
In this case, good personal relations and the harmony of
the institution’s good governance, in performance and in
interests coincide.
maintaining performance.”
However, while the register of the quality of relations
A happy medium needs to be found between extreme
prevails in the comments made by our respondents, it
rigidity and “anything goes”: “It depends with AFD. There
is not of an exclusive nature. The reference to objective
are rules, I put it between the two, it does not block, but
standards that transcend the desires of the partners
that does not mean that it is a blank cheque.” A subsidy,
involved, corresponding to what is in itself good, is
which is part of a certain normative framework, may seem
admittedly developed little. However, unlike what – as
more legitimate than a grant, which falls within the arbitrary
we shall see – we found in Chad and to a lesser extent in
nature of the relationship: “We consider that it is a subsidy
Senegal, such standards are sometimes referred to in a
much more than a grant, because a subsidy is managed in
positive manner. Furthermore, they are not presented as a
the framework of a project, with a number of constraints,
barrier to taking into account the desires of parties and their
there is therefore ultimately a framework, which defines the
way of seeing things, which is the only legitimate aspect
allocation of this money to beneficiaries.” Similarly, we find
and can lead to agreements.
comments such as: “We are not seeking to have a blank
cheque signed, that does not interest us […] Because it
It is true that when there is mutual trust, it may be worthwhile
is the discussions that move things forward.” A pure
applying the rules with some degree of flexibility: “You see, I
relational perspective, which is not concerned with the
find that the fact of trusting us and having mutual trust and
actual quality of what is done (the “blank cheque”), is thus
launching programmes even before the loan agreement has
considered less favourably than that which allows the root
been signed is very important. So, we have reached this
of problems to be addressed (that which “moves things
level of relationship, of mutual trust, and until now, frankly,
forward”).
2.2 Chad
In the vision that constitutes a reference for our respondents
Everyone’s attachment to defending their interests is
in Chad, the importance attached to relationships between
presented in a very direct manner. For example, the
individuals can be found, but according to very different
advantage of the fact of dealing with several donors when
modalities than those aspired to in Morocco. It is neither
negotiating with each of them can be clearly shown: “I
a question of mutual assistance, nor of support, nor of
obtained a lot of things from Proparco because from the
common opinions, and conflicts of interest are shown
others, I have DEG and EIB. […] If one gives in and the
openly. However, there is a reliance on the exchange of
other resists, with the threat that we can do without it,
views over the long term, which gradually leads to everyone
it aligns with the others. We have obtained things like
becoming specifically aware of what matters for their
that.” That does not mean that one cannot consider oneself
partners so that a compromise is ultimately reached.
“friends” with the people with whom one is negotiating
and very warm relationships are widely mentioned. For
example, the respondent whose comments have just been
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2. Chad, Morocco, Senegal: Three forms of cooperation focused on relationships between individuals
quoted continues: “In the pool, no, I managed to have very
appropriate and was very expensive, and shortly after it
good relationships on a personal basis, which are very
stopped working.” There is a similarity between the needs
cordial with all those people, including with the colleagues,
of everyone and what they express as being such needs.
the friends at Proparco, the friends at EIB.” Friendship in
This is because things do not depend on a specific logic
no way precludes seeking to obtain as much as possible
(technical, professional or other) and cannot be separated
from those with whom one has dealings.
from the people they concern. For example, there are
comments such as: “I think that in terms of AFD… in any
In these conditions, it is essential for everyone to be
event, all those who arrive, they understand the problem
present in person in everything that concerns their own
of the city, they understand, they understand the city hall
affairs. To be or not to be present, to be part of what is
and the State.” “They understand the problem of the city”,
done, what is decided, is an issue that constantly comes
which concerns things, is closely associated with “they
up. If one is not present, there is a serious risk of not being
understand the city hall and the State”, which concerns
taken into account: “I think we have a closer eye on what
people.
is done […]. We can directly contact the consulting firm
or company if we notice substandard work, whereas over
A whole adjustment process between those who are
there, you have to write to MATUH to say there is this
concerned is necessary in order to ensure that the diversity
and that, it does not work. We are not listened to. The
of interests and views are taken into account. This is all the
company will take no notice.” One cannot rely much on
more irreducible as it is not possible to use conceptions
representatives or intermediaries, who are suspected of
that are deemed to be objective in terms of what is good
being tempted to act for their own account. Everyone is
(representing a technical or economic rationality) in order
seen as intending to take advantage of what they control:
to attempt to go beyond this diversity. There are also no
“My former CEO thought that if we put AFD’s financing
representatives of a general form of interest in whose name
here, he could have conditions on it. He fought tooth and
to arbitrate between individual interests: “There was this
nail. […] Consequently, people think that if they manage
major contribution to the construction of the Chari canal,
a project, they will have compensation, they will benefit
which required a multitude of discussions because at the
from it.” This need to be present concerns those who want
beginning, the option that the government preferred was
to take action in the country. If one leaves, there is a high
not quite this one.”
risk of the place being taken quickly: “They have to be
there and prospect the market.”
When it is possible, the easiest way to limit conflicts is for
everyone to clearly have their share: “So, in this case we
Not only is everyone alone to be in a position to defend their
had had some hot spots with our supervisory ministry,
interests, they are also alone to really know what concerns
because the money was shared. Such an amount, it’s for
them, and there is a risk of their needs being sidelined if
the city hall and such an amount is for MATUH [….] They
they are not listened to: “I understand that earlier, I don’t
started saying that the money must be controlled by them
remember in which year, AFD also operated in procurement
and so on. No, it’s a share: ‘You have your share, we
for generators. But already at that time, the circumstances
have our share.’”
in which these generators were procured gave rise to a lot of
criticism. In our view, not enough importance was given
The gradual integration of the elements of reality that need
to consultation, meaning that the generators that were
to be taken into account in order to reach a decision is
subsequently delivered were completely inappropriate.
considered to take place via a process whereby everyone,
I am telling you this off-microphone as they say, but the
by expressing their opinions, makes clear what they
officers told us that the generator that had been procured
are sensitive to. In this type of process, what everyone
at the time was a generator intended to run a boat! So
says must be taken into account: “We discuss our
when they brought this generator here, it wasn’t at all
expectations, these are our expectations, this is what we
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2. Chad, Morocco, Senegal: Three forms of cooperation focused on relationships between individuals
want and we stop… no one imposes anything…” When
is generally expressed with diplomacy, which guarantees a
the relationship between he who gives advice and he who
certain reconciliation between the vigorous affirmation of
receives it is mentioned, it is reinterpreted as a relationship
opinions and the search for agreement between individuals.
between people who are speaking to each other: “Yes,
Consequently, we find it is expressed in the conditional
the advice, what is it? It is when we are in a meeting, for
tense, or it is cushioned in various ways, attributed to
example, yesterday, we were working on a project that will
others, or again supported by mentioning positive points or
be financed by AFD. We discuss our opinion, we put it
excuses found for the person who is criticised.
on the table, we discuss it, this is what it is, so everyone
speaks.” It is not possible to refer to a good that would be
In this type of adjustment process, the way things are
objective, to which some would have access more than
managed is radically inseparable from relationships
others, to establish an imbalanced relationship between
between individuals. One-on-one relationships are essential
the mentor and the mentee. There are only “opinions”. The
for moving things forward: “Yes, there was the last one… a
role of a “facilitator”, who fosters consultation more than he
contract, a contract to asphalt the route of the canal, which
manages it, is promoted.
was blocked at the president’s office, the AFD director
had to go and see the president. And three days later the
This adjustment process functions in a continuous manner,
contract was signed.” It is necessary to have direct relations
without the agreements that were made at any given time
with the people with whom you will be working; without
being cast in stone, because the elements of reality that
these relations it is not possible to clearly understand their
need to be taken into account only appear gradually: “You
expectations: “We established a deeper relationship, a
see the project in the East zone, there were so many
very close partnership relationship with AFD in terms of
amendments because it was a project, well, the president
correspondence, meetings and a physical relationship
had his hands on it, it went very quickly. We did not have
with AFD.” There are two opposing forms of relationship
time to think of everything. And there are amendments
with donors. On the one hand, “At local level [with the
each time, there must have been two or three amendments
World Bank], there is no representative, someone who is
and it goes on and on, it is not finished.” However, wanting
only in charge of the urban component. […] This project, in
to set things in stone is seen as preventing the complexity
terms of direct management by the bank, the specialist task
of the reality from being taken into account: “Over there,
manager is in New York, there is the engineer in Bamako,
there are no amendments, it is such and such an amount
there is the person in charge of the social component who
and it is finished […] That, it is the project which does
is in Niamey. It is too scattered, there are no direct relations
not work compared to the needs of the city.”
and I think that this is what…”. On the other hand: “The
advantage that we have here in terms of AFD, we have the
Everyone, informed by the words of others, can gradually
direct contact who we can consult immediately, if there are
become aware of the elements of reality that they did not
problems, he is in the field. I think that we have very, very
initially grasp: “That is also an aspect of the question
good relations in this case”.
which seems important to bring to your attention.” In
this respect, the criticism made by those who perceive what
It is ultimately by seeing one another for a long time that
escapes you for the moment is seen as playing a beneficial
one can manage to touch on the realities that one was
role: “All the same, it would be good to give more visibility
not initially aware of, and that one can thus gradually
to AFD’s action, because the more people know what
integrate the diversity of interests and opinions in order to
AFD does, the better it will be for improving the way of
reach – on a case-by-case basis – compromises that are
seeing things. There will thus be more potential criticism
acceptable to all. One cannot stop at the superficial view
and this will consequently make it possible to remedy,
that “periodic missions” lead to: “They are things which
more or less rapidly, what can be observed and will
are assessed during the periodic missions that these
therefore justify rectifications or remedies.” This criticism
institutions organise quite often without any relation with
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2. Chad, Morocco, Senegal: Three forms of cooperation focused on relationships between individuals
the reality of the country.” It takes time to get into this
we see each other, perhaps for all these reasons, well,
reality: “And these realities, only a long-standing partner
we say OK, we go. But once you bring in other people,
who has been established for a long time and who has even
then you are engaging in a formalism which will be heavy.”
practically been a stakeholder in the running of the
It is probably in this sense that we can refer to “friends”,
country can understand.” There is a constant opposition
but without understanding this term according to the
in the relationships between those who know each other,
conceptions of friendship that prevail in other places: “The
and who quite easily manage to adapt to the difficult
individual, it all depends on his history and that depends
relationships, with those who are at a greater distance:
on the personal relationships that they have with people.”
“Today, for me, the bankers here, we know each other,
2.3 Senegal
In Senegal, one finds the conviction by which everyone
have some degree of flexibility, and that we can adapt it
acts by defending their own interests: “If AFD operates
to the different countries, to different situations.”
in a country and not in another, it is because it has a
particular interest here […]. I do not believe there is a
The fact that technical standards are useful for ensuring
nation in the world which in its diplomacy does something
that things run smoothly is not denied. However, these
for nothing.” At the same time, one cannot expect those
standards are not perceived as being self-existent, as having
who are not directly concerned by an issue to act with zeal
an autonomous existence, as something that one could
to move it forward: “We have seen that in the system
use at any given time, independently of the way in which
of the administration, it took almost a year to award
they have been associated until then with relationships
contracts and, subsequently, it took even longer to pay the
between individuals (as if it involved judging the accuracy
companies […]. It is a relatively long circuit and sometimes,
of a “metronome”). They only really become legitimate
if you are not dealing with actors, let’s say, who are
when they are supported by these relationships, with all
relatively diligent, it can take time, especially at the
the “supervision” that this involves: “There is really very
administrative level.”
extensive technical support from Agence Française de
Développement to ensure that the projects we do comply
As in Chad, only the parties involved are perceived as
with a certain standard […]. With the other donors, we
really knowing what their needs are. It is not possible to
sometimes decide one thing and in the end something else
replace this knowledge by using external standards (what
has perhaps been done because we are not metronomes
is “usually” done), superposed on a situation which they
[…] and they say to us in the end: ‘Why have you done
may not correspond to: “People on the committee can
this and why have you done that?’, whereas with Agence
reject the project saying that a health care centre usually
Française de Développement this is practically impossible
has five rooms, and the other says: ‘No, no, it is usually
because there is a supervision every six months or every
three rooms.’ And that sometimes means that a project is
whatever.”
rejected, whereas if it is considered at local level, people
know why they have put five rooms and not three.” It is
This vision concerns the relationships between a donor and
necessary to take account of the specific expectations of
a borrower. The image of a child whose parents do not have
the people with whom one is dealing, without being stopped
the notion that he is developing has been used to criticise
by principles that are deemed to be intangible: “I think it
a situation whereby projects are required to align with the
would be good if we were informed of what is proposed
financing and not the financing with projects: “You know, if
beforehand, and that it is not set in stone, that we can
you are with your child, sometimes you do not realise that
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2. Chad, Morocco, Senegal: Three forms of cooperation focused on relationships between individuals
he is growing up. And yet you realise the day […] when he
their partners’ concerns: “At project completion, we were
says to you: ‘Mum and dad listen, I have grown up, I am
able to use the remaining amounts in a very intelligent
no longer your little baby’ […]. For example, in terms of…
and very creative manner. And I believe that this is very
when I say that they are predefined loans, I have been
much due to […] the relations between the teams that
faced with this kind of thing, and at one stage we had
were there. There was a kind of merger, which can
to rescale the project.” The image of the “client” who has
do a lot to ensure that everyone’s concerns are taken
control over his choices is also used. He knows exactly
into account.” What is done together is mentioned many
what he wants as opposed to the “beneficiary” for whom
times: “We organise joint missions periodically, because
one seeks to do good, thinking that one knows what this
someone from the Paris headquarters sometimes comes
involves: “When you say beneficiary, you do not have
here, so we organise together a field visit to see the
an attitude whereby the client is the king and you start
that mission is being properly implemented and here
with the client’s desires.” “If you start with the client,
we are always together.” It is not only a question of a
you will inevitably have suitable products.”
compromise between diverging interests, but of common
interests: “In any case, it is mutual interests that we
Having good working relations means being willing to adopt
intend to preserve between France and Senegal.” We find
an approach whereby one adjusts to the people with whom
a smaller image of the one used so much in Morocco of a
one is working: “With the mixed groups, it was planned
relationship whereby the strong support the weak: “Agence
to create two, but we planned to create three because
Française de Développement is one of the few donors
we are three departments, they accepted that and they
who supports you.”
reconfigured the financing plan a little to this end. So,
it’s to remind you that really the working relations that there
To reach such a form of unity requires a high level of
are between us…”
mutual trust. Yet this is far from being self-evident and
one encounters a great feeling of distrust in terms of what
It is by talking to one another that one can gradually manage
may be going on behind closed doors: “I think that this aid
to integrate the diversity of opinions: “If we do not agree
has become much more effective and transparent […]
[…], I discuss further with them and then we always try
In contrast with the image that aid conveys, in any case,
to find common ground, especially as there is never
in the 1970s and 1980s, we thought that French aid
any deadlock between us and them over the changes that
was there to support large French companies, or that it
need to be made.” It involves patiently forging agreements:
was even worse, to ensure that despotic regimes were
“There is a real consultation with regard to the support that
maintained”. If there is to be trust, everyone needs to avoid
Agence Française de Développement provides. Because at
the beginning, I think that there was not all this consultation
the grey areas, they have to be open, as transparent as
possible, and ambiguities need to be avoided:11 “I believe
over projects. People had the impression that they were
that trust is essential, nothing can be built without trust. I
being brought ready-made projects.”
believe, and in my opinion, it is even sacred on both sides.
Nothing can be built without this trust and anyway what
This mutual adjustment approach is seen – more than in
can strengthen this trust is for there to be very clearly
Chad – as necessarily leading not only to compromises,
defined roles for everyone right from the start and this
as a matter of “give-and-take”, with a permanent threat
clarification needs to be made every time grey areas
of defection between interests that remain implacably
occur.”
different, or even opposed, but to a form of unity: “But,
for about ten years, I think there has been a concern to
This concern for transparency is expressed with great
involve as many actors as possible in projects, so there
really is a consensus.” The aim, within a sort of “merger”,
is for each of the parties concerned to take on board
© AFD Working Paper No 23
11 We find an important aspect of the mode of coordination analysed by Alain Henry
in Mauritania. Alain Henry, « Sensibiliser avec retenue : une démarche participative en
Mauritanie », in Iribarne, (d’), P. et al.,1998.
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 201417
2. Chad, Morocco, Senegal: Three forms of cooperation focused on relationships between individuals
emphasis and in a whole host of circumstances. For
money I gave you serves you to finance a well and this
example, it is stated that knowledge of the people with whom
money must not be used for anything other than a well.”
one is working must not be in one direction only; the banker
Complex procedures that take time are also considered as
must be as transparent for his borrower as the borrower is
an obstacle to transparency and therefore as a source of
for him: “We really need to know AFD better. By creating
distrust: “The more time we gain in the award, the more
the possibility of having reconnaissance missions of
it is transparent [….]. We have very few challenges over
AFD’s activities in the opposite direction […] I believe that
contract awards, because it goes very, very quickly.”
this physical contact is necessary.” Everything that one
party knows must be known by the other party: “Each donor
In this type of adjustment, relationships between individuals
manages its project or one donor handles all the studies
are essential (even though the term “friend”, which is so
part and then in terms of implementation, each donor
common in some other situations, is used little here and
manages its project. Consequently, there are sometimes
without a great affective resonance). Opinions on things
discussions between donors until a common ground
cannot be separated from relationships between people:
is found, it being understood that we ourselves handle
“The mayor said: ‘Everything that is done in a city is either
coordination, because when we receive information from
for the mayor or against the mayor’.” Close relations
a donor, we transfer it to the other donor. And when we
make it possible to know each other intimately and to
send information that has been requested by a donor, we
have mutual trust: “The permanent contact also makes
send it to all the donors.”
it possible not to leave grey areas.” “For the ADEL
project, I think that the partnership we forged with Agence
The same concern is found in terms of the organisation of
Française de Développement works well […]. Because we
financial circuits. Complex arrangements make it difficult
have built partnership and cooperation relationships
to have a clear view in the relationships between partners.
with the people who handle the project at AFD.” When
To be transparent, an arrangement must be simple. The
one works with another entity, it is important to have a well-
desire is expressed to have operations with impacts that
defined local contact there, with whom one can establish
are as directly visible as possible: “A partner who is
such relationships: “I didn’t use to be very convinced that
willing to support local authorities in a certain area,
when you work with Agence Française de Développement
he can say: ‘In your local development plan, I will
you could have a contact, […] and we had problems over
handle such and such a section.’ In terms of financing,
who should handle […]. But here, we know that we have a
we have defined a budget nomenclature and a pretty
manager and, when we have a problem, really, it is this
transparent management. This allows me to say that the
manager who deals with all our problems.”
© AFD Working Paper No 23
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 201418
3. Right track and harmony in Vietnam
3. Right track and harmony in Vietnam
In the cases we have examined until now, there has been
effective partner.” This effectiveness is related to a form
a clear predominance of forms of cooperation either of an
of fruitfulness: “A beneficiary must use the funds in an
impersonal nature on the one hand, or giving a central place
effective and fruitful manner.” “Generally speaking, the
to having good relationships, on the other hand. Vietnam –
projects financed by AFD are considered to be effective
and it is this which prompted us to deal with it separately
with a lot of positive impacts on the economic and social
– does not fit in with either the first or second group. With
development of Vietnam.”
our Vietnamese respondents, references to what is good in
itself coexist – sometimes in a problematic manner – with a
The register of rapidity can be associated with that of
consideration for the expectations of those with whom one
effectiveness: “There are also many projects for which the
is working and a strong concern for maintaining harmonious
relationships between individuals.12
appraisal phase is conducted in a very rapid and effective
manner.” The link is seen as being even stronger because
what is good today will not necessarily be so tomorrow:
It is important to act well, according to criteria that transcend
“There are projects where the decision that is announced
the desires of those who are immediately concerned:
is only taken the following year and the favourable
“You are on the right track.” “It is the right direction.”
conditions gradually disappear.” “The financing, it is a
“In this case, the money that is lent is used for a good
question of opportunity.”
objective and […] we will improve our management.”
This is combined with the feeling of having done well: “[We
While “acting well” is a benchmark that is constantly
are] proud that we make good use of AFD funds.” The
mentioned, this does not mean that the corresponding duty
responsibility that is thus assumed is equal to one’s position
is always respected. The real world, marked by the strength
in society: “The more AFD’s role is important, the greater
of personal interests, only partly resembles the ideal world
AFD’s responsibility”; “This means that the onus is on the
where everyone is aware of their responsibilities and where
central government in terms of its responsibility.”
things are done well. In the real world, everyone is seeking
to benefit from situations and sometimes diverts things
To act well means implementing an intense activity that
from the path they are supposed to take: “The beneficiary
can be qualified as effective, a term that constantly came
is not aware of its responsibility”. “Professionalism is
up in the comments made by our respondents: “This allows
not yet present everywhere, especially in areas where
the money spent to be used more effectively”; “It is also
standards are not very strict. If we do not follow these
an advantage for AFD: there are fewer complications
recommendations, I think that the project beneficiaries will
and the money is earmarked more effectively.” “We
use that for a different purpose.” Those who exercise
immediately saw that it was a very interesting and very
power have the responsibility of fighting against these
abuses: “The objective of the beneficiaries is to get money
12 We have already encountered this type of situation, with a sometimes problematic
connection between the two types of benchmark, in Argentina. See Iribarne (d’), chapter 4,
p. 126: “’Mafia’ Groups or Virtuous Networks: the Battle against Corruption in Argentina” in
Successful Companies in the Developing World, op. cit.
© AFD Working Paper No 23
from the loan, […] but for us it is to manage as effectively
as possible.” In the current situation of Vietnamese
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 201419
3. Right track and harmony in Vietnam
society, if several of our respondents are to be believed,
own requests and its procedures. This can cause a lot
this fight is far from always being conducted with success
of problems because of the difference. Consequently, what
and a certain laxity is widespread.
we want is a harmonisation of cofinancing procedures,
that AFD accepts the main donor’s conditions. Recently,
This register of the right track coexists with that of good
AFD brought some flexibility in order to follow the main
relations: “The relations that we have with AFD are very
donor’s procedures.” It is also necessary to show some
constructive.” “We reached an agreement at the highest
flexibility oneself and, in order to do so, to take advantage
level and that facilitated the follow-up of this project.” It is
of what can appear to be a constraint: “Environmental
thus no longer a question of doing what is right in itself,
issues […] we try to adapt. No constraints, progress.”
but of meeting expectations, desires, the needs of those
It is sometimes a matter of understanding one’s partner:
with whom one is working: “It is a path that meets our
“We expect […] above all when we have such long-term
expectations.” “Vietnam’s level of development compared
assistance and such a long mutual understanding.” Such
to France is too different, we expect […] and we need
a term can have very different meanings depending on
assistance.” Depending on the case and on the institutional
cultures (from “to have a detailed technical understanding
situation of everyone – a situation that puts them to varying
of one’s needs” to “to take a conciliatory approach when it
degrees in a position of strength vis-à-vis potential lenders
is in difficulty”). Here, it probably involves being willing to
– and probably on their personality, these expectations
adapt to the specific characteristics of each situation.
are expressed with varying levels of strength, from a
requirement to a request: “We do not wish to use AFD’s
Some combination of clear-cut assertions of one’s own
resources for these projects.” “We would like AFD to
positions (both when they express a reference to the right
continue with this.” “We also have a request vis-à-vis AFD.”
track or to one’s own expectations) and of flexibility in the
relationships with one’s partners is to be found in the way
The concern for developing good relations in no way implies
in which the action of the latter is mentioned. When this
reaching a unity of conceptions: “We have our rules and
action is appreciated, the praise can be clearly expressed:
AFD too.” “This example shows the difference between the
“We highly appreciate AFD’s financing.” “AFD expressed
working methods of the French and Vietnamese.” It is not
its interest in […] urban rail transport, projects for which we
a question of imposing one’s views by encroaching on the
highly appreciate AFD’s participation.” However, when it
autonomy of others. For example, one of our respondents
involves making negative judgments, two registers coexist.
stated: “The contracting authority and beneficiary must
One finds comments that can be very brutal concerning the
be more autonomous in project implementation. The
objective aspects of the action and the consequences of the
donor should not intervene too deeply in the activities and
latter: “The AFD agency was not able to give its decision
impose its subjective visions.” The existence of close
and had to send the files to Paris. It took an extra week,
ties that could help bring points of view into line is rarely
meaning we missed the deadline. It is unfortunate.”
mentioned. In these circumstances, differences of opinion
“Our country is still a lagging agricultural country. This
are unavoidable and they should be managed without
project, we can say that AFD did not understand the
seeking to hide them.
situation and this led to the project’s failure.” However, at
the same time, such comments are constantly tempered by
To build an agreement, the problems should be put on
highlighting the approaches taken by people, the quality of
the table: “All our difficulties are resolved by very frank
their involvement, their efforts, the work and the progress
discussions with AFD.” The partner is asked to show
of he who is criticised: “AFD has made a lot of efforts and
some degree of flexibility: “In cofinanced projects, even
progress recently.” “AFD has worked actively.” “We have
those which are very effective, sometimes our remark is that
noted that AFD has made a lot of improvements in its
AFD, alongside the requests of the main donor, also has its
activities in Vietnam.”
© AFD Working Paper No 23
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 201420
3. Right track and harmony in Vietnam
The fact that if one criticises, one also has to make
This combination of firmness and understanding is based
improvements oneself can also be seen: “These are
on the belief that one is in a process whereby one is
just points that could be improved, but we too, the
constantly learning from events. In any case, there is
Vietnamese side, we are responsible for the various
always a need to improve, even if what one does is already
successes; you need to have exchanges to improve that
of high quality: “We appreciate AFD’s operations; there
[…]. For our part, we think that the skills of our project
are always areas to improve.” If there were problems in
managers should be improved.”
the past, one can rely on the future for the partner to make
progress: “Of course, there are always projects that have
One can criticise the action of the partner, whose objective
not had the expected success. According to our estimates,
impacts are considered, all the more because one states
AFD’s financing tends to have a higher price than before
that this does not mean that the latter is at fault. One either
and we think that AFD’s new financial products will also
emphasises the processes where it is improving or, if the
have their impact in the last years.” For the process to
term “fault” is used, one at least assumes part of it as one’s
work, everyone has to make efforts to improve and they
own doing: “This example […] does not mean that AFD
are entitled to expect as much from their partners: “We
made mistakes.” “They were unable to do it because they
want AFD to make more efforts and to devote more time
are too much in demand.” “One cannot say whose fault it
to understanding the actual situation in Vietnam.”
is; improvements could be made.” “It is for this reason that
we can say it is partly our fault.” In this regard, the phrase
“responsible but not guilty” could be widely used.
© AFD Working Paper No 23
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 201421
4. Multicultural societies: Martinique, New Caledonia, South Africa
4. Multicultural societies: Martinique, New Caledonia, South Africa
In Martinique, New Caledonia and South Africa, we saw
than among those we met (and, in this respect, they need
that there was little difference between the conceptions of
society that predominated among most of our respondents
to be taken into account when projects involving this
population are built).13 Such conceptions were to be found
compared to what we could have encountered in mainland
among a sufficient number of our respondents in Martinique
France, on the one hand, and in Anglo-Saxon countries
for us to have access to them in good conditions. This was
on the other hand. However, for some, these conceptions
not so in New Caledonia and South Africa, but in both these
coexisted with other more local conceptions that are
cases, it is already possible to provide some indications that
probably more widespread among the general population
additional investigations could clarify.
4.1 Martinique
Different benchmarks, more or less coexisting with standard
situation of these institutions is not flourishing.” It is a
French benchmarks (mainland France) that have already
question of being easy-going, to the point of being prepared
been mentioned, are to be found among most of our
not to claim what one is owed: “So, we discuss and very
respondents in Martinique, where relationships between
individuals are essential.14 A central place is held by
often there are companies that are very accommodating
an opposition between good relationships, whereby one
There is a need to follow through what can be done, even
though no contractual obligation exists. 14
provides support and there is mutual trust, on the one
[…], so they accept to delay the reception of payment.”
hand, and poor relationships marked, on the contrary, by a
combination of indifference to the problems of others and
This type of relationship does not mean that the fact that the
distrust, on the other hand.
partner has responsibilities in the problems he encounters
should be disregarded. It does, however, require referring
In the type of cooperation that is expected, it is less
to such responsibilities with benevolence: “For my part,
a question of demonstrating professional expertise, by
I expect exactly what AFD does, that is when we have
coming up with original responses to difficult questions,
difficulties, for them to come, for them to come and see the
than of supporting he who is in difficulty, saving him, even if
mayor, and for them to say: ‘Mr. Mayor, I have seen that
this requires taking risks oneself: “Very early on, AFD was
you are a little off track in such and such a sector, how do
identified as being an institution that could come to the
you account for that?’”
‘aid’ of project initiators.” It is in such circumstances that
a quality of cooperation can be found: “We need a greater
presence on the part of AFD, for it to be of assistance, for
it to be there if we cannot agree with the banks, for them to
say: ‘We can help you’.” “We have been able to find AFD
alongside health institutions, even though the financial
© AFD Working Paper No 23
13 Our survey concerned relationships between AFD and its main partners. The conducting of specific projects was not included in its scope.
14 We shall not address the issue of the origin of these benchmarks here and, in particular, what they owe to the legacy of a troubled history. We simply sought to find them out
by considering the way in which they structured the comments made by our respondents.
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 201422
4. Multicultural societies: Martinique, New Caledonia, South Africa
Another aspect of good relationships, such as they are
This marked opposition between trust and transparency
conceived, is that they are marked by a transparency
on the one side, distrust and secrecy on the other, goes
that creates trust: “That being said, I am the one who is
hand in hand with the extent to which relationships that are
asking. The ARH functions without that, but it is really
not only poor, but positively bad, are mentioned. Harmony
in the name of, under the principle of partnership, of
quickly becomes conflict and autonomy easily turns into a
transparency and of trust. Because if I had to sum up
radical break: “It may well be that in actual fact, AFD had
our relationship with AFD, I would say partnership, trust,
already become totally autonomous and that the divorce
there you have it.” Such a relationship is in contrast with the
had already taken place.”
secrecy and distrust that abound in ordinary relationships.
We have a whole host of comments such as: “Well, it is
The emotional dimension associated with this type of
a partner because we discuss, whereas the other banks
expectation is sometimes expressed in a positive register:
say yes or no to me, but for more secret reasons.” “You
“And for AFD to say: ‘Well, we should maybe try a little
see, it is not really openness, there are things that
harder to see whether such and such an entrepreneur or
are unspoken.” This distrust was particularly expressed
such and such a company wants to get involved in projects,
towards the survey that we were conducting (a situation
we should try to approach them more.’ I think that it gives
that we did not encounter in any of the other fields where
companies some wings.” However, this dimension is
our investigations were made): “I was wondering what is
more frequently seen in a negative register: “There are a
the objective of the research you are conducting, even if I
lot of efforts, physical and moral efforts, because you need
have fully understood that it is the perception partners have
to travel, go towards people and explain what participatory
of AFD’s image, but what is the purpose for AFD, if I am
democracy is. […] This effectively means that it weighs on
not being too intrusive of course, and on what grounds
us, weighs on us enormously.”
will the assessment be made.”
Individuals, and the way in which they behave, play a major
At the same time, a powerful partner is appreciated,
role. It is important to know the people with whom one
provided it is diplomatic and carefully avoids opening
is working personally: “Because we already know each
the door to accusations of arrogance: “AFD could have
other by our names. I remember Mr. (…) who was the
integrated itself more gently. There were tensions,
predecessor of M.C.. He is very easy to approach, but
frustrations. […] It is necessary to act with modesty […].
I would say we know each other personally. Because
You need to look at what the sensitive issues are, […]
sometimes we say to each other: ‘Yes, the AFD director,
You have to show your power, but at the same time do the
without necessarily giving a name’”. Changing people
work so that at local level you show your proximity, you
means changing relationships: “I find that since then we
have to strike a balance between the two.”
are moving towards more trust and a stronger partnership
[…]. This is perhaps due to individuals. Because it is not
The search for a certain proximity far from excludes the
sure that another person instead of Mrs. D would act in the
register of interest, but goes with it: “We each assess the
same way.”
interest that we have in cooperating and in being a
partner, so we work to this end.”
© AFD Working Paper No 23
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 201423
4. Multicultural societies: Martinique, New Caledonia, South Africa
4.2 New Caledonia
In New Caledonia, we only met one Kanak respondent.
mentioned by some: “If there is a problem, it is because:
In the benchmarks shown in his comments, it is difficult
‘Is the tool adapted to people or do people have to
to assess what is specific to the individual in question and
adapt to the tool?’ Are the bank loans made today, or
what, to the contrary, more generally characterises the
as the banks make them today, adapted – in inverted
Kanak population. However, it is possible to assume that
commas – to people who are mainly based on oral and
the fact that he largely refers to other benchmarks than
not written traditions and for whom, effectively, the notion
those that are common to all our other respondents is not
of regularity and that of the repayment schedule with
unrelated to his origin. Generally speaking, indeed, the
fixed dates are not necessarily assimilated? […] In each
conceptions of life in society that everyone conveys are
population, we find a discourse that is adapted, there
less of an expression of a distinctive orientation than the
are tools that are basically the same, but we try to
reflection of a shared vision within a culture.
develop more specifically to meet everyone’s needs.”
However, everyone does not accept that it is possible
In the comments the person concerned made on
to differentiate procedures depending on populations:
partnerships, emphasis is placed on loyalty, whereas this
“It is the ADIE experience that helped us for this fund:
was not the case for any other of our respondents met
presence in all sectors, low default rate… What is regarded
in New Caledonia: “We will always be at AFD and AFD
negatively in ADIE’s work is that they ask for an external
loyal to us.” Partners can occasionally be somewhat
guarantee. Indigenous people have a specific status and
at odds, but that is part of the normal course of life
to have a home, this shortcoming in ADIE’s rationale had
and does not mean that there cannot be a “sustainable
to be overcome, social pressure had to be applied over the
relationship”: “Once we had got through the turbulence
guarantee so that people repay the loans. The Kanaks
and we realised everything had been settled, AFD was
then wonder why Kanaks are asked for a guarantee and
very pleased with us and we too are very pleased with
not the whites.”
AFD. I think we have been friends who fell out a bit
but, well, that happens in life. And AFD is now willing to
Given this not always positive external vision, our Kanak
help us, so there have been financial operations and that
respondent clearly defended himself, stating that the
is important as well. […] I think we have a sustainable
Kanaks are far from being the only ones responsible
relationship and it is intelligent. […] Yes, now it has
for the abuses that occurred in the past in terms of loan
become people… What you call… partners.” To break off
management: “I think that at one point, in past years,
the relationship for commercial reasons, such as unpaid
they gave a little in order to please, because politically it
interest, is interpreted in a relational register: “The island
was fashionable. And afterwards I think that we became
province was abandoned.” In this type of relationship, one
a little more serious, the whistle is blown for the end of
can “try to ignore the subjectivity”, but it is clear that it is
playtime. We are willing to give to you, but we would like
“difficult for everyone”.
you to make an effort.” We are at the very least in a learning
phase. “And somehow it was good for us too. We needed it.
Furthermore, the cultural aspect of relationships between
People really feel we have to stop building a country with a
lenders and borrowers, or of the Kanak’s relationship
random management of things and approximations… […].
towards work, was mentioned by some of our “white”
But in any case, this allowed everyone to move forward.
respondents, some in a highly critical manner. Others, on
It allowed us to grow up a bit more, to stop dreaming
the contrary, rejected what they considered as unfounded
and to respect management rules a little, and then…
stereotypes. The need to adapt to the cultural context was
economic rules.”
© AFD Working Paper No 23
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 201424
4. Multicultural societies: Martinique, New Caledonia, South Africa
4.3 South Africa
In South Africa, Anglo-Saxon benchmarks were not
For example, “non-whites” and Afrikaners who do not
unknown to Afrikaners who do not belong to the upper
belong to the upper class give significant importance to a
class, as well as to our “non-white”, Black, Métis or Indian
desire for mutual understanding within relationships, which
respondents. With the exception of the Afrikaners, they
are not restricted to market relationships; to a desire for
were mentioned with some distance, more to explain
cooperation more than competitive relationships: “We have
actions or thoughts attributed to others than as quite natural
to understand our partner” (Métis); “We come to a stage
benchmarks for the person speaking: “Anglo-Saxons are
we are so familiar” (Indian); “DFI compete rather than
more gifted on marketing their ideas [....] You have to
cooperate together. They should cooperate instead of
market your ideas” (Métis). “They constantly try to market
competing” (Afrikaner).
themselves” (Indian).
Similarly, there are some “Indians” with feelings that are to
We met few respondents belonging to each of the different
be found in India: “Local banks were more than happy to
categories, not enough to attempt to piece together the
provide money”. “It has been an absolute pleasure to deal
various conceptions of society that we encounter there.
with them [...]. A very good relationship. Happy always to
The task would be all the more difficult because all the
help.”
references are intermingled with all of the individuals
concerned. Consequently, we can simply note that some
Similarly again, an Indian respondent mentioned a way of
clues – alongside standard Anglo-Saxon benchmarks, with
conceiving his work and – much more than a simple “job”
the importance they give to the reference to the market –
– sees an expression of the specific place that one has in
point to the presence of other benchmarks, which are not
society, with the rights, duties and vision of the world that
found in the comments made by the members of the white
are inherent to this place. There is something of the vision
Establishment, where it is tempting to recognise African,
of society that prevails in India: “If you are developmental
Indian and perhaps Dutch influences.
you need to act differently [...]. You need to appreciate
the kind of work that you want to do. Otherwise you are
not different.”
© AFD Working Paper No 23
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 201425
Conclusion
Conclusion
When looking at the relationships between AFD and its
that we conducted of course only gave a partial vision
partners, in each of the fields where our investigations
of such conceptions. For example, our investigations did
were conducted, we encountered general views of the
not include authority relationships within an organisation.
relationships between a borrower and a lender. Each of
However, the understanding of visions of society that it
these views fit in with a broader conception of what is
was possible to obtain already appears to shed light on the
an ordered society. Given our entry point (cooperation
diversity of local expectations with regard to a development
relations between independent partners), the interviews
agency like AFD.
Distinctive features
All the observations and analyses conducted reveal some
Depending on the culture, the reference to a form of good in
distinctive features that characterise each culture in contrast
itself – independent of the desires of the interested parties
with the others.
– as an interface between competing appetites is very
unequally developed. Such a reference leads to everyone
Depending on the culture, an ordered society is seen as
being attributed duties that correspond to what they must
giving varying levels of importance to everyone defending
do in order to be a good person, in line with an image of
their own interests. At one extreme, this defence is
grandeur, purity and nobility, regardless of whether this
made in quite a legitimate manner, by remaining within
pleases those with whom one is dealing. It is at work when
the framework of the ordered mode of functioning that
a supposedly just and benevolent power, held by a political
constitutes the reference. At the other extreme, it is
body or by experts, has a mission to direct its action without
done on the fringe of this framework, in an anarchic and
necessarily having to request the opinion of those over
more or less shameful manner. For example, both in
whom it is exercised. It is much more present in Vietnam
Chad and in South Africa’s white Establishment, everyone
(the right track), in France (the duties of the professional
defending their interests is openly integrated into the
activity) and in the Anglo-Saxon world (the strict respect
functioning of an ordered society. This is not the case in
of market disciplines) than in Morocco or, even more so,
Morocco or Vietnam, where ideals involving a very strict
in Chad and Senegal. At the same time, when it comes
integration of the individual into the community coexist
to working together, the importance of the development of
with a strong anarchic component. In France, there is an
“good relations”, and therefore the role played by the rules
intermediate situation, where the integration of interests
intended to promote this development, varies significantly
into the functioning of an ordered society is present, via
depending on the situation. In addition, what one calls
the defence of the professional activity, but its self-interest
“good relations” is far from being homogeneous.
aspect is somewhat glossed over.
© AFD Working Paper No 23
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 201426
Conclusion
Everywhere, the vigour of oppositions, criticisms and the
what is likely to be offensive. Another approach leads to
severity of situations of domination are made liveable by
being much more direct, but – as we see in Vietnam – by
forms of diplomacy and etiquette that aim to maintain a
completing what may offend with words that aim to appease
certain harmony in relationships between individuals. Each
the effect that they have.
culture does, however, have its own approach. Firstly,
sensitive issues are far from being the same everywhere.
Everywhere, it is not possible to cooperate if there is not
For example, the management of situations where one
a certain degree of trust in one’s partners. However, the
of the partners has non-negotiable demands towards the
foundations of this trust vary depending on the cultures. In
other (e.g. in terms of conditionality for loans) requires
the Anglo-Saxon world encountered in South Africa, a lot of
very specific tact in Morocco, where issues of honour are
importance is given to certification bodies, which guarantee
at stake, more than in Senegal. Furthermore, the ways
that one is dealing with individuals or organisations that
of going about carefully handling the susceptibility of
combine a good moral character and sound financial
those who could feel they have been badly treated are far
strength. When an organisation has thus been certified,
from being uniform. For example, there is a Vietnamese
it would be inappropriate to seek to find out more about
courtesy, a French courtesy, etc. In this regard, it would
the way in which it conducts its own affairs, under its own
not be legitimate to speak of an Anglo-Saxon culture, since
responsibility. To the contrary, in Senegal, it is by being
we know that British and American courtesy are different.
transparent in a much broader manner that one shows
Furthermore, in this field, too much should probably not
that one is trustworthy. Trust sometimes seems relatively
be expected from the notion of national culture, as the
easy to acquire; for example, in the standard French
forms of etiquette vary depending on social groups. This
world, it is assumed – unless the contrary is proved – that
notion does, however, remain relevant when one considers
everyone behaves in a professional manner, in line with
the same social environment, such as that of bankers or
the requirements of their activity. In other cases, such as in
senior civil servants, through the diversity of societies. An
Martinique, it would appear to be much more fragile, with
approach used by the British, for example, involves not
everyone being readily suspected of having bad reasons to
saying, or only saying in a very indirect or veiled manner,
be doing what they are seen to be doing.
Relationships between cultures
Given these differences of conceptions of an ordered society,
acting that are employed little in a certain cultural context
in the relationships between cultures it is necessary to be
– despite the fact that they are appreciated there – are
wary of one-size-fits-all terms, such as “partnership”, which
sometimes more common in other places. In this case,
are likely to have very different meanings depending on the
“exotic” practices can be very well received, even if they
cultural contexts. For example, there is a French vision of a
do not have the same meaning in places where they are
“partnership”, which leads to not simply proposing standard
willingly implemented as in places where one regrets that
products, but to resolving the problems encountered by
they are encountered so infrequently. One example is the
the “partner” in an attentive and imaginative manner. It is
fact of taking account of the constraints of the different
different from a Moroccan vision, which highlights more
participants when setting a date for a meeting. Such a way
the quality of the relationships between individuals, with
of proceeding is appreciated in Morocco, as it is considered
a high level of proximity and trust. A specific definition of
to be a sign of special consideration for individuals. It has
a partnership could even be associated with each culture.
all the more value as it is not usual. It has become much
more entrenched in France, where it is simply a matter of
Unlike what is often stated, cultural differences are not
correct relationships. It is in fact even more appreciated in
necessarily sources of difficulty. On the contrary, ways of
a Moroccan context because it is given a lot of importance.
© AFD Working Paper No 23
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 201427
Conclusion
In other cases, we are dealing with quite an opposite
bureaucratic when they are faced with a concrete problem
situation. What is commonplace in one cultural situation
for which they want to find a solution. For the French, this
may shock or disorientate in another. For example, the
combination of being cumbersome and flexible would widely
fact of refusing to go beyond one’s activity seems normal
appear to be part of the nature of things, even if this does
in mainland France, but in Martinique would be perceived
not satisfy. They probably more or less vaguely understand
as a lack of solidarity towards those who need assistance.
the deep solidarity that in French logic relates these two
elements: the controls made by the functional departments
In the interactions between a French company and
are all the more cumbersome because they suspect
foreign partners, certain salient points are specific to the
those who are in the field of being inclined to circumvent
interactions with those who are marked by such and such
them; and those who are in the field seek with even more
a culture. Others have a more general character. For
determination to bypass these controls, which appear
example, the cumbersome nature of the procedures and
excessive to them. Everyone does their job. Yet in many
controls implemented by the functional departments at
places, this consistency is not perceived. While those who
AFD’s headquarters has been noticed everywhere. This
are in the field (the local agency) are complimented on their
is also the case for the ability of those who are tasked
“flexibility”, the headquarters is criticised for its “formalism”
with implementing these procedures in the field to be non-
and AFD’s overall action seems deeply contradictory.
© AFD Working Paper No 23
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 201428
References
References
Iribarne (d’), P. (2006), L’étrangeté française, Paris, Seuil.
Iribarne (d’), P. (1989), La logique de l’honneur, Paris, Seuil.
Iribarne (d’), P. with A. Henry (2007), Successful Companies in the Developing world; Managing in Synergy with Cultures,
AFD, Notes and Documents, No 36, August, (downloadable from the Agence Française de Développement Website).
Iribarne (d’), P., A. Henry, J.-P. Segal, S. Chevrier and T. Globokar (1998), Cultures et mondialisation, Seuil.
© AFD Working Paper No 23
• AFD and its Partners. The Cultural Dimension • March 201429
Série Documents de travail / Working Papers Series
Série Documents de travail / Working Papers Series
Publiés depuis janvier 2009 / published since January 2009
Les numéros antérieurs sont consultables sur le site : http://recherche.afd.fr
Previous publications can be consulted online at: http://recherche.afd.fr
N° 78
« L’itinéraire professionnel du jeune Africain » - Les résultats d’une enquête auprès de jeunes leaders Africains sur
les dispositifs de formation professionnelle post-primaire
Richard Walther, consultant ITG, Marie Tamoifo, porte-parole de la jeunesse africaine et de la diaspora
Contact : Nicolas Lejosne, AFD - janvier 2009.
N° 79
Le ciblage des politiques de lutte contre la pauvreté : quel bilan des expériences dans les pays en développement ?
Emmanuelle Lavallée, Anne Olivier, Laure Pasquier-Doumer, Anne-Sophie Robilliard, DIAL - février 2009.
N° 80
Les nouveaux dispositifs de formation professionnelle post-primaire. Les résultats d’une enquête terrain au Cameroun,
Mali et Maroc
Richard Walther, Consultant ITG
Contact : Nicolas Lejosne, AFD - mars 2009.
N° 81
Economic Integration and Investment Incentives in Regulated Industries
Emmanuelle Auriol, Toulouse School of Economics, Sara Biancini, Université de Cergy-Pontoise, THEMA,
Comments by : Yannick Perez and Vincent Rious - April 2009.
N° 82
Capital naturel et développement durable en Nouvelle-Calédonie - Etude 1. Mesures de la « richesse totale »
et soutenabilité du développement de la Nouvelle-Calédonie
Clément Brelaud, Cécile Couharde, Vincent Géronimi, Elodie Maître d’Hôtel, Katia Radja, Patrick Schembri,
Armand Taranco, université de Versailles - Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, GEMDEV
Contact : Valérie Reboud, AFD - juin 2009.
N° 83
The Global Discourse on “Participation” and its Emergence in Biodiversity Protection
Olivier Charnoz, AFD - July 2009.
N° 84
Community Participation in Biodiversity Protection: an Enhanced Analytical Framework for Practitioners
Olivier Charnoz, AFD - August 2009.
N° 85
Les Petits opérateurs privés de la distribution d’eau à Maputo : d’un problème à une solution ?
Aymeric Blanc, Jérémie Cavé, LATTS, Emmanuel Chaponnière, Hydroconseil
Contact : Aymeric Blanc, AFD - août 2009.
N° 86
Les transports face aux défis de l’énergie et du climat
Benjamin Dessus, Global Chance.
Contact : Nils Devernois, département de la Recherche, AFD - septembre 2009.
N° 87
Fiscalité locale : une grille de lecture économique
Guy Gilbert, professeur des universités à l’Ecole normale supérieure (ENS) de Cachan
Contact : Réjane Hugounenq, AFD - septembre 2009.
N° 88
Les coûts de formation et d’insertion professionnelles - Conclusions d’une enquête terrain en Côte d’Ivoire
Richard Walther, expert AFD avec la collaboration de Boubakar Savadogo (Akilia) et de Borel Foko (Pôle de Dakar)
Contact : Nicolas Lejosne, AFD - octobre 2009.
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N° 89
Présentation de la base de données. Institutional Profiles Database 2009 (IPD 2009)
Institutional Profiles Database III - Presentation of the Institutional Profiles Database 2009 (IPD 2009)
Denis de Crombrugghe, Kristine Farla, Nicolas Meisel, Chris de Neubourg, Jacques Ould Aoudia, Adam Szirmai
Contact : Nicolas Meisel, département de la Recherche, AFD - décembre 2009.
N° 90
Migration, santé et soins médicaux à Mayotte
Sophie Florence, Jacques Lebas, Pierre Chauvin, Equipe de recherche sur les déterminants sociaux de la santé et
du recours aux soins UMRS 707 (Inserm - UPMC)
Contact : Christophe Paquet, AFD - janvier 2010.
N° 91
Capital naturel et developpement durable en Nouvelle-Calédonie - Etude 2. Soutenabilité de la croissance
néo-calédonienne : un enjeu de politiques publiques
Cécile Couharde, Vincent Géronimi, Elodie Maître d’Hôtel, Katia Radja, Patrick Schembri, Armand Taranco
université de Versailles – Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, GEMDEV
Contact : Valérie Reboud, AFD - janvier 2010.
N° 92
Community Participation Beyond Idealisation and Demonisation: Biodiversity Protection in Soufrière, St. Lucia
Olivier Charnoz, AFD - January 2010.
N° 93
Community Participation in the Pantanal, Brazil: Containment Games and Learning Processes
Participation communautaire dans le Pantanal au Brésil : stratégies d’endiguement et processus d’apprentissage
Olivier Charnoz, AFD - février 2010.
N° 94
Développer le premier cycle secondaire : enjeu rural et défis pour l’Afrique subsaharienne
Alain Mingat et Francis Ndem, IREDU, CNRS et université de Bourgogne
Contact : Jean-Claude Balmès, département Education et formation professionnelle, AFD - avril 2010
N° 95
Prévenir les crises alimentaires au Sahel : des indicateurs basés sur les prix de marché
Catherine Araujo Bonjean, Stéphanie Brunelin, Catherine Simonet, CERDI - mai 2010.
N° 96
La Thaïlande : premier exportateur de caoutchouc naturel grâce à ses agriculteurs familiaux
Jocelyne Delarue, AFD - mai 2010.
N° 97
Les réformes curriculaires par l’approche par compétences en Afrique
Francoise Cros, Jean-Marie de Ketele, Martial Dembélé, Michel Develay, Roger-François Gauthier, Najoua Ghriss,
Yves Lenoir, Augustin Murayi, Bruno Suchaut, Valérie Tehio - juin 2010.
N° 98
Les coûts de formation et d’insertion professionnelles - Les conclusions d’une enquête terrain au Burkina Faso
Richard Walther, Boubakar Savadogo, consultants en partenariat avec le Pôle de Dakar/UNESCO-BREDA.
Contact : Nicolas Lejosne, AFD - juin 2010.
N° 99
Private Sector Participation in the Indian Power Sector and Climate Change
Shashanka Bhide, Payal Malik, S.K.N. Nair, Consultants, NCAER
Contact: Aymeric Blanc, AFD - June 2010.
N° 100
Normes sanitaires et phytosanitaires : accès des pays de l’Afrique de l’Ouest au marché européen - Une étude
empirique
Abdelhakim Hammoudi, Fathi Fakhfakh, Cristina Grazia, Marie-Pierre Merlateau.
Contact : Marie-Cécile Thirion, AFD - juillet 2010.
N° 101
Hétérogénéité internationale des standards de sécurité sanitaire des aliments : Quelles stratégies pour les filières
d’exportation des PED ? Une analyse normative
Abdelhakim Hammoudi, Cristina Grazia, Eric Giraud-Héraud, Oualid Hamza.
Contact : Marie-Cécile Thirion, AFD - juillet 2010.
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N° 102
Développement touristique de l’outre-mer et dépendance au carbone
Jean-Paul Ceron, Ghislain Dubois et Louise de Torcy.
Contact : Valérie Reboud, AFD - octobre 2010.
N° 103
Les approches de la pauvreté en Polynésie française : résultats et apports de l’enquête sur les conditions de vie en 2009
Javier Herrera, IRD-DIAL, Sébastien Merceron, Insee.
Contact : Cécile Valadier, AFD - novembre 2010.
N° 104
La gestion des déchets à Coimbatore (Inde) : frictions entre politique publique et initiatives privées
Jérémie Cavé, Laboratoire Techniques, Territoires et Sociétés (LATTS), CNRS - décembre 2010.
N° 105
Migrations et soins en Guyane - Rapport final à l’Agence Française de Développement dans le cadre du contrat
AFD-Inserm
Anne Jolivet, Emmanuelle Cadot, Estelle Carde, Sophie Florence, Sophie Lesieur, Jacques Lebas, Pierre Chauvin
Contact : Christophe Paquet, AFD - décembre 2010.
N° 106
Les enjeux d’un bon usage de l’électricité : Chine, Etats-Unis, Inde et Union européenne
Benjamin Dessus et Bernard Laponche avec la collaboration de Sophie Attali (Topten International Services),
Contact : Nils Devernois, AFD - février 2011.
N° 107
Hospitalisation des patients des pays de l’Océan indien - Prises en charges spécialisées dans les hôpitaux de la Réunion
Catherine Dupilet, Dr Roland Cash, Dr Olivier Weil et Dr Georges Maguerez (cabinet AGEAL)
En partenariat avec le Centre Hospitalier Régional de la Réunion et le Fonds de coopération régionale de la Réunion
Contact : Philippe Renault, AFD - février 2011.
N° 108
Peasants against Private Property Rights: A Review of the Literature
Thomas Vendryes, Paris School of Economics - February 2011.
N° 109
Le mécanisme REDD+ de l’échelle mondiale à l’échelle locale - Enjeux et conditions de mise en oeuvre
ONF International
Contact : Tiphaine Leménager, département de la Recherche, AFD - mars 2011.
N° 110
L’aide au Commerce : état des lieux et analyse
Robert Angioletti (Ademe), Michel Raoust (Terao)
Aid for Trade: A Survey
Mariana Vijil, Marilyne Huchet-Bourdon et Chantal Le Mouël, Agrocampus Ouest, INRA, Rennes.
Contact : Marie-Cécile Thirion, AFD - avril 2011.
N° 111
Métiers porteurs : le rôle de l’entrepreneuriat, de la formation et de l’insertion professionnelle
Sandra Barlet et Christian Baron, GRET
Contact : Nicolas Lejosne, AFD - avril 2011.
N° 112
Charbon de bois et sidérurgie en Amazonie brésilienne : quelles pistes d’améliorations environnementales ?
L’exemple du pôle de Carajas
Ouvrage collectif sous la direction de Marie-Gabrielle Piketty, Cirad, UMR Marchés
Contact : Tiphaine Leménager, AFD - avril 2011.
N° 113
Gestion des risques agricoles par les petits producteurs Focus sur l’assurance-récolte indicielle et le warrantage
Guillaume Horréard, Bastien Oggeri, Ilan Rozenkopf sous l’encadrement de :
Anne Chetaille, Aurore Duffau, Damien Lagandré
N° 114
Contact : Bruno Vindel, département des Politiques alimentaires, AFD - mai 2011.
Analyse de la cohérence des politiques commerciales en Afrique de l’Ouest
Jean-Pierre Rolland, Arlène Alpha, GRET
Contact : Jean-René Cuzon, département PSP, AFD - juin 2011
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N° 115
L’accès à l’eau et à l’assainissement pour les populations en situation de crise :
comment passer de l’urgence à la reconstruction et au développement ?
Julie Patinet (Groupe URD) et Martina Rama (Académie de l’eau),
sous la direction de François Grünewald (Groupe URD)
Contact : Thierry Liscia, département du Pilotage stratégique et de la Prospective, AFD
N° 116
Formation et emploi au Maroc : état des lieux et recommandations
Jean-Christophe Maurin et Thomas Mélonio, AFD - septembre 2011.
N° 117
Student Loans: Liquidity Constraint and Higher Education in South Africa
Marc Gurgand, Adrien Lorenceau, Paris School of Economics
Contact: Thomas Mélonio, AFD - September 2011.
N° 118
Quelles(s) classe(s) moyenne(s) en Afrique ? Une revue de littérature
Dominique Darbon, IEP Bordeaux, Comi Toulabor, LAM Bordeaux
Contacts : Virginie Diaz et Thomas Mélonio, AFD - décembre 2011.
N° 119
Les réformes de l’aide au développement en perspective de la nouvelle gestion publique
Development Aid Reforms in the Context of New Public Management
Jean-David Naudet, AFD - février 2012.
N° 120
Fostering Low-Carbon Growth Initiatives in Thailand
Contact: Cécile Valadier, AFD - February 2012
N° 121
Interventionnisme public et handicaps de compétitivité : analyse du cas polynésien
Florent Venayre, Maître de conférences en sciences économiques, université de la Polynésie française et
LAMETA, université de Montpellier
Contacts : Cécile Valadier et Virginie Olive, AFD - mars 2012.
N° 122
Accès à l’électricité en Afrique subsaharienne : retours d’expérience et approches innovantes
Anjali Shanker (IED) avec les contributions de Patrick Clément (Axenne), Daniel Tapin et Martin Buchsenschutz
(Nodalis Conseil)
Contact : Valérie Reboud, AFD - avril 2012.
N° 123
Assessing Credit Guarantee Schemes for SME Finance in Africa: Evidence from Ghana, Kenya, South Africa and
Tanzania
Angela Hansen, Ciku Kimeria, Bilha Ndirangu, Nadia Oshry and Jason Wendle, Dalberg Global Development Advisors
Contact: Cécile Valadier, AFD - April 2012.
N° 124
Méthodologie PEFA et collectivités infranationales : quels enseignements pour l’AFD ?
Frédéric Audras et Jean-François Almanza, AFD - juillet 2012
N° 125
High Returns, Low Attention, Slow Implementation: The Policy Paradoxes of India’s Clean Energy Development
Ashwini Swain, University of York, Olivier Charnoz, PhD, AFD - July 2012
N° 126
In Pursuit of Energy Efficiency in India’s Agriculture: Fighting ‘Free Power’ or Working with it?
Ashwini Swain, University of York, Olivier Charnoz, PhD, AFD - August 2012
N° 127
L’empreinte écologique et l’utilisation des sols comme indicateur environnemental :
quel intérêt pour les politiques publiques ?
Jeroen van den Bergh, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona,
Fabio Grazi, département de la Recherche, AFD - octobre 2012
N° 128
China’s Coal Methane: Actors, Structures, Strategies and their Global Impacts
Ke Chen, Research Consultant & Olivier Charnoz, PhD, AFD - November 2012
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N° 129 Quel niveau de développement des départements et collectivités d’outre-mer ?
Une approche par l’indice de développement humain
Olivier Sudrie, cabinet DME
Contact : Vincent Joguet, AFD - novembre 2012
N° 130 Taille des villes, urbanisation et spécialisations économiques
Une analyse sur micro-données exhaustives des 10 000 localités maliennes
Claire Bernard, Sandrine Mesplé-Somps, Gilles Spielvogel, IRD, UMR DIAL,
Contact : Réjane Hugounenq, AFD - novembre 2012
N° 131 Approche comparée des évolutions économiques des Outre-mer français sur la période 1998-2010
Croissance économique stoppée par la crise de 2008
Claude Parain, INSEE, La Réunion, Sébastien Merceron, ISPF, Polynésie française
Contacts : Virginie Olive et Françoise Rivière, économistes, AFD - mars 2013
N° 132 Equilibre budgétaire et solvabilité des collectivités locales dans un environnement décentralisé
Quelles leçons tirer des expériences nationales ?
Guy GILBERT, Professeur émerite ENS Cachan, CES-PSE, François VAILLANCOURT, Université de Montréal,
Québec, Canada
Contact : Réjane Hugounenq, AFD - avril 2013
N° 133 Les politiques d’efficacité énergétique en Chine, Inde, Indonésie, Thaïlande et Vietnam
Loïc Chappoz et Bernard Laponche, Global Chance
Contact : Nils Devernois, AFD - avril 2013
N° 134 South-South cooperation and new agricultural development aid actors in western and southern Africa
China and Brazil - Case studies
Jean-Jacques Gabas, CIRAD, UMR ARTDev et Frédéric Goulet, CIRAD, UMR Innovation
N° 135 L’économie politique et la gestion territoriale des services environnementaux
Bernard Dafflon, université de Fribourg (Suisse)
Contact : Réjane Hugounenq, économiste, AFD – juin 2013
N° 136 Séminaire AFD – Mali : une contribution de la recherche française et européenne – Vendredi 12 avril 2013
Coordination : François Gaulme, AFD – janvier 2014
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