Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55 – 89 www.elsevier.com/locate/earscirev The quantification of geology: from abacus to Pentium A chronicle of people, places, and phenomena Daniel F. Merriam * Kansas Geological Survey, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA Received 17 September 2003; accepted 17 February 2004 Abstract The geological profession has only recently become numerically literate but highly so in a relatively short time. Mathematics was applied to geological problems mostly in the fields of hydrology, engineering geology, and geophysics until the past few decades. Statistics were used by sedimentologists and paleontologists to describe populations with some univariate, bivariate, and multivariate statistics used by a few avant garde workers. Geocomputing really started in the 1960s but the slow start became an avalanche in the 1980s with the introduction of microcomputer [personal computer (PC)]. The trend towards increasing quantification of the discipline is noticeable, and in recent years, this trend has been accelerating. There is seemingly no limit to the information and communication revolution. D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Computers; Statistics; Mathematics; Numerical geology 1. Introduction The quantitative approach leads in most situations to a deepened insight into a problem. The Age of Zap, Richard A. Reyment (1974) The roots of quantitative geology are deep—deeper than previously acknowledged (Merriam, 1981a; Howarth, 2001). Early workers used numbers to describe and analyze geological conditions as early as the 17th Century. Agricola (1556) reported the use of trigonometry in mining surveying in his De Re Metallica. Numerical methods were also used in mapping and navigation. Thus, although the beginnings of quantitative studies in geology per se are * Fax: +1-785-864-5317. E-mail address: [email protected] (D.F. Merriam). 0012-8252/$ - see front matter D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.02.002 fuzzy, one of the first straightforward publications of importance was Perraults’ (1674) book that quantitatively related rainfall to runoff. It is true, however, that practitioners of quantitative methods were few and unfortunately had little impact on mainstream geology until much later. From this modest beginning, quantitative geology has grown to where it is today; it is rare now to read a scientific geological paper with no numerical computations nor computer processing. Much of modern geology, such as plate tectonics, seismic tomography, planetary geology, geostatistiques, remote sensing, geologic simulation, etc., would not be feasible without dependence on numerical methods and computers. . . .when you can measure what you are speaking about and express it in numbers you know something about it; but when you cannot measure 56 D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind. Electrical Units of Measurement, Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1883) Geology has been mainly a descriptive, historical science and many of the concepts and features would be difficult to describe in precise terms (numbers). Hubbert (1974) questioned ‘Is Being Quantitative Sufficient?’ and cited numerous examples of advances in geology made by reasoning (nonquantitative) including the understanding of discordant strata, continental glaciation, and the duration of geologic time. He further cautioned (p. 34) ‘‘. . .that the application of quantitative methods. . .do not necessarily lead to valid results,’’ a comment cogent yet today. . . .if we are not careful we may easily become victims of the fallacy that conclusions arrived at in papers heavily laden with mathematical equations and numerical data, or with computer results, have, ipso facto, a higher degree of reliability than those arrived at by more primitive methods. Is Being Quantitative Sufficient, M. King Hubbert (1974) Because the vast majority of archival data in the geological sciences are of a historic and nonquantitative nature, much will remain ‘lost’; the cost of converting this enormous amount of data would be staggering and perhaps would be of doubtful value anyway. As data capture, storage, and manipulation became easier, and technology became available to handle the historical record, the situation has changed, and, indeed, in the past decade, it has. As noted by Wadge (1993), ‘‘As professional geologists in the 1990s, we are awash with information.’’ The development in data capture, manipulation, storage, and display has been termed geoinformatics—a term recently coined by the Japanese.1 Geologists were slow to adopt, and adapt to, quantitative approaches. That attitude rapidly 1 ‘Geoinformatics’ (geology and informatics) apparently was used in the first circular (1990) for the International Geological Congress (IGC) in Kyoto. The Japanese Society of Geoinformatics not only includes Information Technology (IT) in the definition but also the techniques used in solving geological problems (Kaichiro Yamamoto, written communication, 2002). changed as the ever-present microcomputer pervaded the scene. It is perhaps easy to see why early workers shunned the use of quantitative descriptions and computer methods. There was (1) a lack of support technology, (2) the subject of geology has a strong background in the arts (see Agterberg, 1974), and (3) methods were lacking for data handling and analysis. These constraints severely limited the options and possibilities even if the data were in numeric form and the investigator had a quantitative bent; the analyses were limited to available mathematical techniques. Now, of course, the microcomputer is indispensable. Its serves as a secretary in keeping a calendar, word processor (what used to be termed typing), and doing correspondence for any and all occasions. It handles spelling checks, dictionary use, and is a thesaurus. It is a draftsman—just about any type of graphics can be accomplished in the way of illustrations and in color. It is a technician, a resident statistician, and mathematician doing calculations, and a bookkeeper, maintaining records. It can access on-line databases anywhere in the world and supply almost immediately an infinite amount of data. It can do library work by accessing bibliographic databases and do reference searches. It serves as a communication device via e-mail and fax, allowing correspondence with other workers all over the world (see Leblanc, 1993 for a summary on the use of computers in writing and communication). What a labor- and time-saving device, and it is limited essentially only by the inventiveness of the user! By the mid-20th Century, practitioners were using mathematics to solve geological problems, especially in the fields of geohydrology (Matalas, 1969), geophysics (Landsberg, 1958), geochemistry (Krauskopf, 1967), structural geology (Whitten, 1966), mineralogy (Dana, 1932), and engineering geology (Johnson, 1970). In the Preface to their book on Statistical Analysis in the Geological Sciences, Miller and Kahn (1962) give a brief history on the application of statistics in the earth sciences and divide the history into three periods: 1890 to 1930s; 1930s to WWII, and post-WWII (to the early 1960s). The development of the field of quantitative geology, which includes mathematics and statistics applied to geological problems, has progressed through several phases to today’s modern, integrated state where the new generation of D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 57 investigators have at their fingertips the tremendous, in fact, almost unlimited, amount of brain power through the use of the computer. People who are thinking about what they are doing are using computers. P.C. Hammer (personal communication, 1966) The introduction of computers that ushered in the space age also brought about a new set of problems, as with the introduction of any new technology. There has been an invasion of privacy, many trades and practices have been declared obsolete and redundant, and an impersonal touch has been added to an everincreasing complex society. There is a tendency to regard any database on-line as high quality, but depending on the source, this may or may not be true. Computer viruses and worms also have added another dimension to the new way of life. The way in which geologists think and accomplish things have radically changed as traditional approaches have been altered as the science transforms from a qualitatively to quantitatively oriented one. Since the end of the last millennium, the computer revolution has marched on. As predicted a decade ago, computers have gotten yet smaller in size, larger in capacity, and faster in operation than ever imagined2 (Fig. 1). It is noted that the speed of computers has increased by a factor of about 1 million, whereas the cost has decreased by a factor of about 20,000. Supercomputers now can calculate at a speed of about 12.3 trillion calculations/s. With the introduction of Pentium 4 processor, the supercomputer (workstation) is now on your desktop, and with the Internet connections, the world is at your fingertips. One of the fears (if there is one) is that a generation of geologists now are dependent on databases of perhaps questionable quality or at least without the user’s verification. No longer does the geoscientist necessarily collect his/her own data, but can search the net for ‘suitable’ data sets. Nevertheless, the Information Age is here and the revolution is 2 The limits of technology, however, may be close (Normile, 2001). According to Moore’s Law (the doubling of the number of transistors on a chip every 18 months with an increase in performance and a corresponding decrease in price), this limit could be reached as early as 2014, or will it? (Lundstrom, 2003). Fig. 1. Graph of computer power as viewed in Sejnowski’s (1987) review of Computing and Connections by W.D. Hillis. Speed increases as log per second through time. CM is Connection Machine and GF-11 is IBM experimental machine. As noted by this illustration and later by Normile (2001), limits to increase computer power may be near or not near depending (Lundstrom, 2003). based on the technology of electronics and material science—we must make the best of it. This communication or information revolution is taking place as a result of the computer, especially the microcomputer or as it is affectionately known—the personal computer (PC). Chronicled here then is the story of the beginnings of part of that revolution in one branch of science— geology—for according to the old adage, those who do not know history are destined to repeat it. 2. Background and history There have been several major conceptual revolutions in geology that accompanied or followed technological advances of the time, allowing for rapid developments of science. The first revolution was the result of Copernicus’ discovery that the Sun, not the Earth, was the center of the solar system. The 58 D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 second from the work of James Hutton and Charles Lyell, founders of modern geology, in their elucidation of time and processes (‘no vestiges of a beginning and no prospect of an end’; and ‘the present is the key to the past,’ uniformitarianism). The third was Darwin’s revelation of man’s place; the fourth was the integrated theory of plate tectonics, and the fifth? Many of the conceptual revolutions were dependent on advances in technology, such as the wheel (Mechanized Age), compass (Exploration Age), telescope (Discovery Age), steam engine (Industrial Revolution), and computer (Information Age), which allowed quantum leaps in changes. Invention of the compass allowed exploration of the globe and recognition of the world’s geography (Aczel, 2001). In the 17th Century, Galileo (1564 – 1642) and Johannes Keppler (1571 –1630) utilized the telescope, invented in the previous century, to make observations that led to the verification of Copernicus’ (1473 – 1543) ideas. Invention and development of the steam engine by James Watts (1736 –1819) in the later part of the 17th and early part of the 18th Century allowed the massive changes in manufacturing and transportation in the 19th Century, which was instrumental in the creation of leisure time so necessary for scientific pursuits. The computer, which dates from Charles Babbages’ work in the 19th Century, allows the massive digestion of data and information on a worldwide basis. Each subsequent advance was built on the previous one(s) and only time will tell what good will be wrought from the information revolution but the possibilities seem unlimited. [The] computer [is] one of the very most important mathematical events of all time. Historiography: a Perspective for Computer Scientists, K.O. May (1980) Howarth (2002) has documented in detail the history of importance of graphic displays from the hand-drawn illustrations of the early 1800s to the intensive application of computers to the design and presentation of illustrations today. Included in his coverage are maps, graphs, scatterplots, diagrams, bar charts, and pie diagrams, as well as a description of statistical thinking, mathematical modeling, and geostatistiques, all in relation to the utilization of the all-powerful computer. This history gives evidence of major technological and conceptional advances and one reason for the rapid acceptance and adoption of the computer and computer methods by the geological community. The ability to acquire, manipulate, and analyze massive amounts of data facilitated the acceptance of plate tectonics in a matter of just a few years. In each instance, the technological product was an extension of a human faculty—the compass: orientation; the telescope: sight; the steam engine: muscle; and the computer: the mind. The power of the computer was recognized early by many and best said by P.C. Hammer. A computer is an intelligence amplifier. P.C. Hammer (personal communication, 1966) How prophetic! The use of computers obviously is linked closely with developments and availability of hardware and software. The dawn of the computer age in geology usually is dated as starting from the publication in 1958 of a geologically oriented computer program in a recognized journal by W.C. Krumbein (1902 – 1979) Father of Computer Geology and his coworker, L.L. Sloss (1913 – 1996) (Table 1). Advances in many aspects of geology since that time have been dependent on utilization of computers. The origins of modern geology and the computer both date back to the early part of the 19th Century where an amazing group of far-sighted scientists lived in London. Included in this group was Charles Lyell (geology), Charles Babbage (mathematics), Charles Darwin (biology), Humphrey Davy and Notes to Table 1: IAMG: International Association for Mathematical Geology. IUGS: International Union of Geological Sciences. AAPG: American Association of Petroleum Geologists. MGUS: Mathematical Geologists of the United States. COGS: Computer-Oriented Geologists Society. SEPM: Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists. COGEODATA: Committee on Storage, Automatic Processing, and Retrieval of Geologic Data. IGC: International Geological Congress. KGS: Kansas Geological Survey. C&G: Computers & Geosciences. Sources: Merriam (1975a,b, 1980). D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 Table 1 Important events in computer applications in geology (adapted from Merriam, 1975a,b, 1980) 1642 1694 1804 1812 1822 1834 1842 1890 1941 1943 1944 1945 1946 1949 1951 1952 1953 1954 1958 1961 1963 1964 1966 1967 1968 1969 Blaise Pascal devised a calculating machine Leibniz’s machine to multiply and divide Jacquard loom used punched cards Charles Babbage gets the idea of calculating machines First working model of Babbage’s Difference Engine Babbage starts work on his Analytical Engine Ada Augusta ‘writes’ the first program Punched-card system developed by Herman Hollerith Z3, first electronic computer Colossus, the first programmable electronic computer Mark 1, the decimal electromechanical calculator put into operation at Harvard John von Neumann’s idea of stored memory ENIAC, built at the University of Pennsylvania, the first large, general-purpose electronic computer EDSAC, the first stored-program, digital computer UNIVAC, the first commercial computer Digital plotters introduced First FORTRAN compiler written IBM 650, the first mass-produced computer W.C. Krumbein and L.L. Sloss publish the first geologically oriented computer program in a major geological journal Transistorized second-generation computers introduced Establishment of GeoRef Arizona’s ‘Computer Applications in the Mineral Industries’ Announcement of third-generation microcircuit computers Kansas Geological Survey ‘Special Distribution Publications’ More than 100 papers on computer applications in geology BASIC introduced Time-sharing successfully used at Dartmouth University Kansas Geological Survey ‘Computer Contributions’ Kansas’ ‘Computer Applications in the Earth Sciences’ Colloquia AAPG appoints an associate editor for computer applications AAPG Committee on Storage, Automatic Processing, and Retrieval of Geologic Data formed (later the Committee on Computer Applications) COGEODATA (IUGS) formed IAMG founded in Prague at the XXIII IGC ‘Journal of Mathematical Geology’ of IAMG inaugurated ‘Geocom Bulletin’ published USGS starts a ‘Computer Contribution’ series ‘Computer Applications in the Earth Sciences,’ a book series initiated by Plenum Press (New York) First issue of ‘Journal of Mathematical Geology,’ sponsored by the IAMG Table 1 (continued ) 1970 1971 1972 1973 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 SEPM Computer Technology Group First fourth-generation machines utilizing VM More than 500 papers published on computer applications in geology First Geocom Program published (successor to KGS Computer Contributions and later merged with C&G) Syracuse University establishes a series of Geochautauquas GeoRef goes online on SDC ORBIT First release in a series ‘Informatique Geologique,’ a new section of ‘Sciences de la Terre’ The first issue of ‘Computers & Geosciences’ sponsored by IAMG Indiana Geological Survey publishes first ‘Geophysical Computer Programs’ Pergamon’s book series on ‘Computers and Geology’ The Apple II microcomputer First year more than 1000 papers on computer applications in geology reported Supercomputers, Cray-1, Cyber 205, and BSP are available Word-processing software and spreadsheets introduced MGUS holds their first meeting Announcement of fifth-generation computers with AI functions The IBM PC microcomputer introduced ‘Computer Methods in the Geosciences,’ a VNR book series COGS formed in Denver Denver GeoTech83 sponsored by COGS Lotus 1 – 2 – 3 spreadsheet software introduced Apple introduces the Macintosh with its graphic-based operating system ‘Geobyte,’ a new publication by AAPG COGS membership surpasses 1000 BITNET comes into general use IAMG inaugurates a memoir series SEPM forms a Computer Applications Committee First geological oriented paper using a supercomputer FAX come into general use The i486 chip is introduced First geological computer program published on softstrip Meta-analysis becomes available COGS ‘Computer Contributions’ merged with ‘Computers & Geosciences’ SEPM introduces its ‘Computer Contribution’ series Microsoft 3.0 ‘Windows’ software unveiled The super supercomputer, Touchstone Delta, is installed Geobyte suspends publication Palmtop systems generally available AAPG announces the ‘Computer Applications in Geology’ series The Pentium chip is introduced The IAMG celebrates its 25th Silver Anniversary in Prague 59 60 D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 Michael Faraday (chemistry), and John Herschel (astronomy). These men, following on the Scientific Revolution of the 18th Century, took an active part in the Industrial Revolution and contributed to a scientific golden age laying the foundations for modern science. Sir Charles Lyell (1797 – 1875), formulator of the Principle of Uniformitarianism, and one of the first to use statistics in geology, and Charles Babbage (1791 – 1871), mathematician and creator of the Difference and Analytical Engines, were good friends (Fig. 2). They were acquainted professionally through the Royal Society and the Geological Society of London and, in addition, entertained each other and were entertained by mutual friends. It is likely that they shared ideas and problems of work as both were Fig. 2. (Upper) Babbage’s Analytical Engine and (lower) punched cards used with the ‘computer’ (photo from British National Museum in London). D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 ingenious and inquisitive researchers. Although Lyell’s work forms much of the basis for modern geology and he was recognized for his contributions, Babbage’s calculating machines were destined for failure for lack of at-the-time-technology and, therefore, he was not given due recognition in his time (Merriam, 1983). Not much happened in the next 100 years from this modest beginning. Ada Augusta, Lady Lovelace and daughter of Lord Byron, ‘wrote’ the first computer program, which was a series of steps to compute Bernoulli numbers using Babbage’s Analytical Engine. This program was patterned after the series of card instructions used to control the weaving patterns on Jacquard looms. Later, at the turn of the 20th Century, Herman Hollerith at the U.S. Census Bureau utilized the idea of punch cards for tabulating census data (Fig. 2). Punch cards also were used in precomputer days for routinely sorting bibliographic and other large data sets; it is not surprising then that punch cards were used as input/output (I/O) for the first computers. There is a definite lack of quantitatively oriented publications in the early days and only a few applications between 1830 and 1958 can be cited from the literature. Some applications of trigonometry and geometry were made in crystallography and computations made on age determinations and heat 61 flow in the Earth. Statistics were applied to sedimentological and paleontological problems (Cubitt and Henley, 1978). Geophysicists, geochemists, engineering geologists, and hydrologists applied mathematics in solving their problems. Observations and data had been collected for 100 years and the numerical data was processed with abaci, slide rules, and calculators. Introduction of the computer ushered in the automated era where complex problems could be solved easily and quickly, large amounts of data manipulated, and data acquisition was automated; it was the harbinger of the development of French geostatistiques, applications of sophisticated techniques to geological problems, use of large realistic data sets, and development of simulation and model studies, especially those involving time (Merriam, 1981a). As with any history, this story is best told through individuals and their contributions. The story is punctuated into chapters by an event that changed the direction or acceleration of the story. As with most stories, it starts slowly and gains momentum so that events happen more frequently and are more drastic with the passage of time (Fig. 3). It may be that this acceleration is only perceived by the recentness and quickness of the passage of time, such as the Doppler effect, but, on the other hand, it maybe real and actually accelerating. Fig. 3. Stages of development of quantitative geology, 1650 – 1995. 62 D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 Table 3 Selected papers on mathematics and statistics in geology 3. Quantitative geology The genuine goal of scientific computation in geology should be insight, not numbers. Geology and Mathematics, H. Schaeben (1988) As with any multidisciplinary science, quantitative geology is the result of an interplay of several specialties and it is difficult, if not impossible, to separate them. First, there were the contributions of mathematicians, followed by those of the statisticians after the development of the subject (Tables 2 and 3). These methods were enhanced and furthered by computer scientists in the mid-1950s and beyond. This symbiotic relationship between mathematicians, statisticians, computer scientists, and geologists has resulted in major advances in the earth sciences in the past four decades with promised exciting discoveries yet to come (Fig. 4). There has been a discussion of the definition of mathematical geology or geomathematics. The successful application of mathematics in geology via computer applications in the 1960s rivals the development of geophysics in the 1940s and geochemistry in the 1950s. Again, the practical (and successful) applications in numerical exploration and exploitation was foremost in promoting interest in, and development of, the subject (Merriam, Table 2 Mathematicians who contributed to geology Simon Stevin (1548 – 1620) Belgian Gottfried Leibnitz (1646 – 1716) John Playfair (1748 – 1819) German Pierre de Laplace (1749 – 1847) Charles Babbage (1790 – 1871) John Henry Pratt (1811 – 1871) Charles S. Peirce (1839 – 1914) Karl Pearson (1857 – 1936) Scot French English English American English systematic studies of agents effecting changes on the Earth’s surface physical properties of the Earth 1674 1757 1762 Pierre Perrault M. Adanson Paola Frisi 1801 Abbe Hauy 1802 John Playfair 1824 William Whewell 1830 – 1833 Charles Lyell 1832 R. Everest 1837 1846 James D. Dana Samuel Haughton 1848 M.A. Delesse 1870 J. Clerk Maxwell T.M. Reade 1885 1895 1908 1909 1914 1921 1930 1935 computing dips to project at depth; application of calculus to stream transport problems planetary system calculations 1936 heat flow and competency of the Earth’s crust geodetic surveys in the Himalaya Mountains geodetic and geophysics of the Earth statistical principles applied to geology 1948 1941 1958 1958 De l’Origine des Fontaines Histoire Naturelle du Senegal. . . A Treatise on the Rivers and Torrents. . . Traite de Mineralogie, Tome Premier Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory. . . General Method of Calculating the Angles Made by Any Planes of Crystals. . . Principles of Geology, 3 volumes A Quantitative Study of Stream Transportation A System of Mineralogy With an Appendix. . . On the Laws of Equilibrium and Motion of Solids and Fluid Bodies Procede Mecanique pour Determiner al Composition des Roches On Hills and Dales The Importance of Solution as a Factor in Erosion K. Pearson Contributions to the Mathematical Theory of Evolution H.C. Sorby On the Application of Quantitative Methods to the Study of the Structure and History of Rocks J. Joly Radioactivity and Geology J.A. Udden Mechanical Composition of Clastic Sediments W. Penck Morphologische Analyse A.E. Trueman Results of Some Recent Statistical Investigations of Invertebrate Fossils C. Eisenhart A Test for the Significance of Lithological Variation William C. Application of Logarithmic Krumbein Moments to Size Frequency Distributions in Sediments A.N. The Lognormal Law of Kolmogorov Distribution of Particle Sizes.... Benjamin H. First of Three Studies in Burma Quantitative Paleontology, II John C. Petrographical Investigations Griffiths of the Salt Wash Sediments W.C. Krumbein/ High-Speed Digital Computers L.L. Sloss in Stratigraphic and Facies Analysis D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 63 Fig. 4. Tree of quantification showing some names of those involved early with interrelations of mathematics, statistics, and computer science. 64 D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 1982). Just as geostatistics can be defined as statistics applied to geology (Bates and Jackson, 1980), geomathematics can be simply defined as mathematics applied to geology. Some would even say that geomathematics is what geomathematicians do. More formal definitions include those by Vistelius (1967): definitions are essentially the same again but have been expanded to: Mathematical geology [has] posed as its goal the elucidation and solution of those problems in geology that require the development of specific mathematical methods. The simplest definition may be the best and most descriptive. It has been proposed that geomathematics be recognized as a scientific discipline in its own right with a status and importance equal to the other interdisciplinary subjects of geophysics, geochemistry, paleobiology, engineering geology, etc. (Merriam, 1982). However, much of the subject has been incorporated now into mainstream geology, and thus considered a stand-alone subject by only a few, although there are many corollaries of geomathematics (sensu stricto) with the other subdisciplines. This is probably because the subject (when analyzed in the broadest sense) is basic and is simply the use of mathematics to solve geological problems. It is unclear who first used the hybrid term geomathematics, but according to Hatten Yoder (written communication, 2000), the term was first used in 1941, although this could not be confirmed. It was used, however, by Rasmussen (1952) in a study of groundwater reservoirs; the other hybrid names came earlier—geophysics (1834), geochemistry (1838), and geobiology (1939). Mathematical geology was the name preferred by the organizing committee for the International Association for Mathematical Geology (IAMG) in 1968, largely at the insistence of Andrew Vistelius (Merriam, 1978, 2001). The quantification of geology that has taken place in several stages, which have been punctuated by certain events and certain persons, are given in Table 4 and relationships are shown in Fig. 4. and, again, by Vistelius (1968): Mathematical geology is the scientific discipline which deals with the establishment of mathematical models of geological processes; geological processes are classified according to the type of stochastic processes that—with the fundamental objective of investigating geology with mathematics—exhibit probability distribution functions with the necessary values chosen appropriately. All other applications of mathematics to geology, although they may have practical importance, are special cases or particular instances of solutions to problems that use mathematics in geology or geomathematics. and Agterberg (1974): Geomathematics, in its broadest sense, includes all applications of mathematics to studies of the earth’s crust. and in the Glossary of Geology (Gary et al., 1972), both terms are defined the same: Mathematics as applied to geology. but in the 2nd edition (Bates and Jackson, 1980), they are slightly different: Geomathematics: All applications of mathematics to studies of the Earth’s crust. Mathematical Geology: Mathematics as applied to geology. and in the 3rd and 4th editions of the Glossary (Bates and Jackson, 1987; Jackson, 1997), the Geomathematics: All applications of mathematics to studies of the Earth’s crust. Mathematical Geology: Mathematics, especially statistics and probability theory, as applied to geology. 3.1. Origins Stage (1650 –1833) Because some aspects of mathematical applications to geological problems have been with us for a long time, it is difficult to pinpoint the beginnings of quantitative geology. For example, in (1802), John Playfair (1748 – 1819) used what has been termed as quasimathematical methods for computing dips and D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 Table 4 Stages in development of quantitative geology 1650 – 1833 Origins stage Rudimentary applications of mathematics to geological problems in the areas of hydrogeology, geophysics, structural geology, and mineralogy. 1833 – 1895 Formative Application of trigonometry and stage geometry to crystallography, computations on age determinations, heat flow, etc. 1895 – 1941 Exploration The use of uni- and bivariate statistics stage to geological problems and the deterministic approach. Provided the basis for advancement in all geological fields as techniques became available; continued development of mathematical applications especially in geophysics. 1941 – 1958 Development Introduction of multivariate statistics stage which allowed an expansion into most fields of geology. Rapid development of the probabilistic approach to problem solving. 1958 – 1982 Automated Or the application of computers. stage Development of the French geostatistics; practical applications of sophisticated techniques to geological problems involving large realistic data sets; development of simulation and model studies, especially those involving time. 1982 – present Integration Use of microcomputers (PCs) in all stage aspects of data capture, manipulation, and analysis. PCs used for number crunching, word-processing, drafting, communication, and bibliographic work. PCs are being replaced by the more powerful workstations. other surface measurements to project the depth at which beds would occur downdip, calculated areas that rock types occupied in certain areas, and applied the idea of integration of small changes to the problem of gradual changes in stream valleys (Rudwick, 1972). At the turn of the 18th Century, other quantitative measurements were being made such as the determination of specific gravity of minerals, subsurface temperature gradients and heat flow in the Earth, and the estimation of volume of blocks of material being transported by streams and glaciers (which was used as evidence that streams cut their own valleys). 65 Most of these applications were arithmetic or geometric, with the exception of the application of calculus by Playfair. Other applications of calculus to geological problems were being made at that time by astronomers and physicists who were calculating planetary motions. One of the foremost problems that faced workers at that time in applying their mathematical expertise was stated aptly by Playfair (1802, p. 457) ‘‘. . .where every object changes, it is difficult to find a measure of change, or a fixed point from which the computation may begin. The astronomers already feel this inconvenience, and when they would refer their observations to an immoveable plane, that shall preserve its position the same in all ages, they meet with difficulties, which cannot be removed but by a profound mathematical investigation. In geology, we cannot hope to be delivered from this embarrassment in the same manner; and we have no resource but to multiply observations of the difference of level: to make them as exact as possible, and to select points of comparison that have a chance of being long distinguished.’’ This plea was in response to the efforts at the time to determine apparent changes in sea level. John Playfair, a friend of James Hutton (1728 – 1799), was professor of mathematics and later held the chair of natural philosophy at the University of Edinburgh. It was through Playfair’s Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory that Hutton’s work was recognized (McIntyre and McKirdy, 1997). Hutton (1788) wrote in an awkward and heavy style that Playfair rewrote into prose along with added interpretations of some of his friend’s ideas. Therefore, it was only natural that he use mathematical concepts in explaining the Huttonian Theory, and in fact, he may have been responsible for modifying some of Hutton’s original ideas. At about the same time, another mathematician, Paolo Frisi (1728 – 1784), in his mathematical discourses (1782 – 1785), was considering the problem of change in position of masses of transported sediment in effecting the motion of the Earth. He calculated how much waste might be eroded from the continents and deposited in the sea per unit of time and then determined what change in motion of the globe should be as a result and concluded that the change ‘‘. . .exceeds more than ten times the age of any historical record.’’ He based his conclusion on his premise that ‘‘. . .if any considerable mass of matter were accumulated in the interior of the ocean, the diurnal motion of the globe 66 D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 Table 5 Some early quantitative papers, 1674 – 1833 (Origins stage) P. Perrault M. Adanson Abbe Hauy John Playfair 1674 1757 1801 1802 P. Frisi 1818 De l’Origine des Fontaines Histoire Naturelle du Senegal Traite de Mineralogie Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth A Treatise on the Rivers and Torrents; With the Method of Regulating Their Course and Channels would be disturbed, and consequently, it would be perceptible. . .’’ As early as 1762, Frisi (1818) described and measured attributes of rivers including calculations of velocity and quantity of water per second, etc., in a study of transportation of material and hydraulics. In this study, which is one of the first quantitative studies on sediment transport, Frisi postulated several principles of water flow.3 Some of these ideas may have come from the French naturalist Pierre Perrault (1611 –1680) and his early quantitative work on De l’Origine des Fontaines (The Source of Water in Springs and Rivers), which was published in 1674 (Mather and Mason, 1939); he related rainfall to stream flow (Table 5). In fact, Ellenberger (1996, p. 109) credits Perrault with being the pioneer of modern hydrogeology. According to von Zittel (1901, p. 186), Simon Stevin, a Belgian mathematician, also carried out systematic studies in the 17th Century of agents effecting changes on the Earth’s surface. At about this same time, geophysicists were busy making contributions on calculations of the terrestrial magnetism and density of the Earth (see Howarth, 2001). John Mitchell (1724? – 1793), an English astronomer, developed the first torsion balance and methods for reducing the data. These early quantitative studies were carried on and enhanced by the French geophysicist, Pierre Bouguer (1698 –1758). An English clergyman, Robert Everest (c. 1805 – 1875), who was surveyor-general of India; John Pratt (1811 – 1871), an English mathematician; George Airy (1801 – 1892), an English astronomer; and 3 Everest (1832) continued this line of study on sediment transport as well as other studies in his paper on ‘‘A Quantitative Study of Stream Transport.’’ Charles Babbage, the English mathematician, all contributed to the background for C.E. Dutton’s (1841 –1912) principle of isostasy, proposed much later. While the geophysicists were making their calculations, the experimental chemists Lazarro Spallanzani (1729 – 1799) and later, Sir James Hall (1761 –1832) were perfecting their methods for the analysis of rocks. Some of them were highly quantitative requiring carefully controlled conditions, so by the mid- and late 18th Century, mineralogists had developed blowpipe analysis and chemical analyses to the point where the analytical tests for identification were standardized and there were established classification schemes. 3.2. Formative Stage (1833 – 1895) As soon as an Analytical Engine exists, it will necessarily guide the future course of science. Passages from the Life of a Philosopher, Charles Babbage (1864) Thus, while crystallographers and microscopists were busy with their calculations, Charles Lyell came along with his proposal on how to subdivide the Tertiary. In 1828, Lyell, visiting Paris on his way home from an extensive trip in Europe, part of which was in the company of Sir Roderick I. Murchison (1792 – 1871), met the conchologist Paul Deshayes (1795 – 1875), who was busy describing and sorting his extensive mollusk collections. Lyell stayed and worked with Deshayes to learn more of his methods and ideas and in doing so, apparently, reinforced his own ideas on uniformitarianism and developed and refined a scheme of subdividing the Tertiary on the basis of percentage of living vs. extinct fossil forms (Fisher, 1953, pp. 2– 3). Geologists prior to Lyell had recognized the sequences of strata, which we know as Primary and Secondary, using in the first place the regularity of order of superposition at the same locality. They also observed that particular components of these formations could be recognized, although far apart, by their characteristic fossils.4 They could not, by these 4 See, for example, Torrens (2003) on Phillips’ 1844 memoirs of William Smith and Simon Winchester’s (2001) description of William [Strata] Smith’s discoveries and accomplishments as a surveyor and mapmaker. D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 means, recognize or establish the order among the Tertiary rocks, for, in the part of the world then accessible, these occur in patches and not over wide areas overlying one another. Lyell determined the order and assigned to the successive rock masses the names they now bear by a purely statistical argument. A rich group of strata might yield so many as 1000 recognizable fossil species, mostly marine mollusks. A certain number of these might be still living in the seas of some part of the world or at least be morphologically indistinguishable from such a living species. It was as though a statistician had a recent census record without recorded ages, and a series of undated records of previous censuses in which some of the same individuals could be recognized. A knowledge of the Life Table would then give him estimates of the dates, and, even without the Life Table, he could set in chronological order, merely by comparing the proportion in each of those who were still living. With the aid of the eminent French M. Deshayes, Lyell proceeded to list the identified fossils occurring in one or more strata and to ascertain the proportions now living. To a Sicilian group with 96% surviving, he later gave the name of Pleistocene (mostly recent). Some sub-Appennine Italian rocks, and the English Crag with about 40% of survivors, were called Pliocene (majority recent). Forty percent may seem to be a poor sort of majority but no doubt scrutiny of the identifications continued after the name was first bestowed, and the separation of the Pleistocene must have further lowered the proportion of the remainder (Fisher, 1953). The Miocene, meaning ‘minority recent,’ had 18%, and the Eocene, ‘the dawn of the recent,’ only 3% or 4% of living species. Not only did Lyell immortalize these statistical estimates in the names used for the great divisions of the Tertiary Series, but in an Appendix in his third volume, he occupies no less than 56 pages with details of the classification of each particular form and of the calculations based on the numbers counted. There can be no doubt that, at the time, the whole process, and its results, gave Lyell the keenest intellectual satisfaction. According to his own account, Lyell (1863, p. 3) conceived the idea in 1828 for ‘‘. . .classing the whole of this series [the Tertiary] of strata according to the different degrees of affinity which their fossil testacea bore to living fauna.’’ He proposed this statistical technique to help interpret the chronology 67 Table 6 1833 – 1895 Formative stage Charles Lyell R. Everest 1830 – 1833 1832 James Dana Samuel Haughton 1837 1846 J. Clerk Maxwell 1870 Principles of Geology Quantitative Study of Stream Transportation System of Mineralogy On the Laws of Equilibrium and Motion of Solid and Fluid Bodies On Hills and Dales of the Tertiary by punctuating ‘‘. . .a uniform overall rate of change in the organic world’’ (Rudwick, 1972, p. 183). Lyell’s (1830 – 1833) efforts appeared as an Appendix in volume 3 in the first edition of the Principles of Geology (published as Table 6 in 1833).5 No less than 56 pages on the classification of each particular form and of the calculations based on the numbers counted were detailed. Lyell later (1863) used this same idea in determining the age of Pliocene deposits in marine terraces when illustrating a point on climate changes. While Lyell worked with Deshayes, he seemingly was not aware of similar work by a German paleontologist, Heinrick Bronn (1800 – 1862). In Heidelberg, Bronn independently proposed a similar but broader classification scheme in his work of 1831 (Rudwick, 1972, p. 190). Nor does Lyell seem to have known of the work done in numerical taxonomy by the great French botanist Michael Adanson, which is strange considering his extensive travels and interest in others work. Adanson (1757) used unweighted characters to determine similarity between taxa of mollusks. With few exceptions (e.g., Whewell, 1840), Adanson’s work was not followed up until an upsurge of activity in the 1950s spearheaded by R.R. Sokal and P.H.A. Sneath. Sokal and Sneath (1963) published their 5 The data tables incidentally were not included in future editions of Principles and there has been some discussion as to whether the concepts on the Tertiary subdivision was original with Lyell. Paul Tasch in an unpublished manuscript concluded that ‘‘. . .the achievement of bringing the total data to a ‘gestalt,’ living and fossil mollusks and geological field evidence from different basins, belongs to Lyell. . .Lyell had no coequals in the matter of priority in delineation of the definitive Tertiary epoch.’’ 68 D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 definitive work on numerical taxonomy that resulted in a rapid advance of the field of biometrics. It is interesting to speculate whether Charles Babbage influenced his friend Lyell’s thinking on quantification. Babbage, Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge, published several papers on geology (Van Sinderen, 1980; Merriam, 1983). Lyell and Babbage attended geological meetings together and sometimes social functions. Lyell (1881, v. 1, p. 363) noted that Babbage ‘‘ . . .unconsciously jokes and reasons in high mathematics, talks of the ‘algebraic equation’ of such a one’s character, in regard to the truth of his stories, & c.’’. Although there is no evidence of cooperation or exchange of ideas specifically on the application of mathematics to geological problems, it is highly likely that, now and then, the two discussed problems of mutual interest including Lyell’s proposed subdivision of the Tertiary.6 Another interesting suggestion at this time was the proposal by H.H. Hayden in 1820 for a series of questions—the first field coding form—for ‘‘Geologists, mineralogists, and other persons of correct observation, as being intimately connected with the subjects contained in his work, and calculated to and assist in all future researchers of a number kind.’’ The checklist of 100 questions served as a prompter for a systematic examination of an area and recording the data (Merriam, 1981b). (The list could have been set up as in binary form for use with a portapunch.) Interestingly enough, little or nothing was done about coding forms in geology from Hayden’s time until Parker (1946) proposed a form for recording well data in Illinois. However, automatic data collection, coding, and processing developed rapidly after introduction of the computer, and resulted in the development of large integrated data-management systems such as G-EXEC, SAFRAS, GIPSY, etc. In other areas and nearly simultaneously, J.D. Dana (1813 – 1895), in his first edition of System of 6 At about the same time Lyell was developing his ideas, Charles Babbage was formulating his, but seemingly there was no connection between Babbage’s interest in geology and his work on his calculating engine. He saw the application of his Analytical Engine to mathematical pursuits of all types but primarily in the fields of astronomy, statistics, navigation, and pure mathematics (see Merriam, 1981a). Mineralogy (Dana, 1837), included An Appendix Containing the Application of Mathematics to Crystallographic Investigations. This Appendix is essentially the application of analytical geometry to crystallography. Dana also cites the work of C.F. Naumann of 1830 in this field as well as in Abbe Hauy’s (1743 – 1822) application of plane trigonometry to crystallography (Abbe Hauy, 1801). Another mineralogist, Delesse (1848), determined that relative volumes of minerals in rocks could be measured from random sections. Other examples of mathematical applications in this period include Haughton’s (1846) On the Laws of Equilibrium and Motion of Solid and Fluid Bodies, published in the Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal. A contemporary of Haughton’s was William Hopkins, a mathematician at Cambridge. Hopkins’ main contribution was through his students—several of whom gained prominence in science—including Lord Kelvin (1824 – 1907) and James Clerk Maxwell (1838 – 1879) (Cockbain, 1980). The influence of mathematicians, and those with a strong background in mathematics, thus perhaps may have been more widespread than heretofore realized or admitted. Some workers were trained as philosophers or clergymen; others had solid backgrounds in mathematics and the physical sciences— astronomy, chemistry, and physics—or medicine. During the 19th Century, much speculation on the age of the Earth and climatic changes were made based on mathematical calculations. In addition, geodesy, experimental petrology, and chemical applications required a certain amount of mathematical expertise. Several mathematicians were active in the early and formative years of quantitative geology including Robert Hooke, Baron von Leibnitz, Laplace, and of course, John Playfair and Charles Babbage. Understandably, some misunderstandings must have occurred and, therefore, suspicions between mathematicians and geologists arose to such an extent that by 1869, Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882), in a letter to J.D. Hooker, advised his colleagues to beware of trusting mathematicians (Darwin and Seward, 1903, p. 314). Part of this cautiousness undoubtedly was the result of criticism he received from mathematically oriented scientists about his book, The Origins of Species (Hull, 1973). D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 The latter part of the 19th Century saw other advances and retreats in quantification. Advances include Thomas Reade’s (1832 – 1909) quantitative work (Reade, 1885) on solution as a factor of erosion, and Clarke Maxwell’s On Hills and Dales (Clerk Maxwell, 1870). Also at this time, much effort was being put into calculation of the age of the Earth. Lord Kelvin’s (Sir William Thomson) attempt was one of those that, if not regressive, was certainly no help— his calculations were far too conservative because they were based on a fatal flaw in the inferences. It was not the conservative estimates that were so detrimental, but the considerable creditability given them by the fact they had been determined by Lord Kelvin. Therefore, it took years to dispel the erroneous ages. So, too, were other calculations based on the amount of salt in the oceans or sediment accumulation rates by Sam Haughton in 1878 (Holmes, 1965, p. 351). Although the ‘sodium method’ was suggested by Edmund Halley in 1715, it was not until 1898 that John Joly was able to collect the data necessary for a reasonable value on age, and even that value, as Kelvin’s, was an underestimate because of faulty assumptions (Joly, 1909). It was not until radioactive-age dating, which was developed in the early part of the 20th Century, that calculations could be made accurately, calculations which incidentally required considerable computations. Therefore, at the turn of the 19th Century, marked changes were taking place in geology and the Formative Stage in the development of quantitative geology drew to a close. The close of the Formative Stage was punctuated in 1895 by publication of a paper on Contributions to the Mathematical Theory of Evolution by the great statistician and founder of modern statistics Karl Pearson (Cubitt and Henley, 1978). The scattered papers on application of trigonometry and geometry to solving geological problems published up to this time seemingly had little effect on later workers and in most aspects of geology. Part of the problem was the education of geologists, and as aptly noted by Van Bemmelen (Agterberg, 1974), geologists can be categorized into two types: artists and scientists, and the artistic side (qualitative aspects) developed faster and more broadly in scope than the scientific side (quantitative aspects). Porter (1977, p. 4) notes that, 69 ‘‘There was continuous pressure to render the pursuit more ‘scientific,’ while criteria of the ‘scientific’ themselves developed in course of time. Methods, techniques and standards were forged which were claimed to be more rigorous, philosophically sophisticated and appropriate to the object. Pragmatically speaking, these moves bore fruit.’’ This quantification is taking place yet today and the wide use of computer techniques has accelerated the process. Therefore, it is interesting to note that Lyell’s statistical contribution based on ratios was made even prior to the formalization to the subject of statistics, and the basis on which one of his major contributions was made was lost subsequently and its impact limited (Fisher, 1953). Thus, the point is that the statistical argument by which one of the revolutions in geological sciences was affected was almost immediately forgotten. In later editions of the Lyell’s Principles, this great Appendix, in which so much labor had been expended, disappeared; it survived, indeed, only 2 years (until publication of the 2nd edition). It had served its purpose, but the ladder by which the height had been scaled was kicked down. 3.3. Exploration Stage (1895 –1941) In the case of nearly all branches of science a great advance was made when accurate quantitative methods were used instead of merely qualitative. On the Application of Quantitative Methods to the Study of Structure and History of Rocks, H.C. Sorby (1908) There was little improvement during the next half-century during the Exploration Stage, but Karl Pearson’s (1857 – 1936) paper on Mathematical Contributions. . .signaled a definite change (Pearson, 1895). The subject of Pearson’s paper was elicited in the subtitle On a Form of Spurious Correlation Which May Arise When Indices are Used in the Measurement of Organs. A few numerically inclined workers pioneered the application of the new field of statistics to geology. Paleontologists (see especially Rowe, 1899; Trueman, 1930; Brinkmann, 1929) and sedimentologists (Sorby, 1908; Udden, 1914; Wentworth, 1929; Krumbein, 1936) made use of statistical techniques to summarize and present 70 D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 Table 7 1895 – 1941 Exploration stage Karl Pearson 1895 Contributions to the Mathematical Theory of Evolution J.A. Udden 1898 The Mechanical Composition of Wind Deposits A.W. Rowe 1899 An Analysis of the Genus Micraster, as Determined by Rigid Zonal Collecting From the Zone of Rhynchonella cuvieri to That of Micraster coranairinum H.C. Sorby 1908 On the Application of Quantitative Methods to the Study of the Structure and History of Rocks J. Joly 1909 Radioactivity and Geology, an Account of the Influence of Radioactive Energy on Terrestrial History W. Penck 1921 Morphologische Analyse W.A. Richardson 1923 The Frequency-Distribution of Igneous Rocks C.K. Wentworth 1929 Method of Computing Mechanical Composition Types in Sediments A.E. Trueman 1930 Results of Some Recent Statistical Investigations of Invertebrate Fossils W.C. Krumbein 1934 The Probable Error of Sampling Sediment for Mechanical Analysis C. Eisenhart 1935 A Test for Significance of Lithological Variation W.C. Krumbein 1936 Application of Logarithmic Moments to Size Frequency Distributions of Sediments H. Korn 1938 Schechtung und Absolute Zeit their enormous amounts of data on populations (Table 7). Henry Clifton Sorby (1826 – 1908) published his classic paper, On the Application of Quantitative Methods to the Study of the Structure and History of Rocks in 1908 (Sorby, 1908). His purpose was to apply quantitative methods to the mass of data accumulated in his stream experiments and investigations of slaty cleavage. His last paper, perhaps his most important one geologically, set the stage for additional advances in quantitative geology by suggesting additional studies and lines of inquiry. Many examples of univariate and bivariate statistical applications could be given for the early part of the 20th Century. In petrology, studies could be cited starting with Reyer (1877) and extended to Richardson’s (1923) paper, in stratigraphy by Eisenhart (1935) and Korn (1938), and in geomorphology by Penck (1921). 3.4. Development Stage (1941 –1958) Many geologists have been caught short in the computer revolution: educated in a tradition which emphasized the qualitative at the expense of the quantitative, they are inadequately prepared in mathematics, unfamiliar with statistics. Statistics and Data Analysis in Geology, J.C. Davis (1973) The next stage comes with another statistician’s contribution, Kolmogorov (1941), who introduced probability methods into geology (Table 8). These types of academic studies, however, were interrupted by WWII. Nevertheless, the definitive paper by Bagnold (1941) on The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes, which was a highly quantitative analysis of the subject, appeared just about the time of the war. This stage continued after the war but was really underdeveloped in the strictest sense because of the laborious calculations necessary to do anything meaningful. About this time, Ben Burma initiated his multivariate studies in paleontology, resulting in his trilogy of contributions on ‘Studies in Quantitative Paleontology’ (Burma, 1948, 1949, 1953). [Burma] ‘‘. . .was a pioneer in the study of quantitative invertebrate paleontology in the days when the involved and tiresome mathematical calculations were performed by hand Table 8 1941 – 1958 Development stage A.N. Kolmogorov 1941 H.E. Horton 1945 A.B. Vistelius 1947 A.H. Strahler H.J. Pincus 1952 1952 R.L. Miller 1953 W.C. Krumbein 1955 A.H. Strahler F. Chayes L.H. Ahrens 1956 1956 1957 The Lognormal Law of Distribution of Particle Sizes During Crushing Erosional Development of Streams and Their Drainage Basins Stochastic Basis of a O.V. Sarmanov Geologically Important Probability Distribution Dynamic Basis of Geomorphology Some Methods for Operating on Orientation Data Introduction to Special Issues on Statistics in Geology Experimental Design in the Earth Sciences Quantitative Slope Analysis Petrographic Modal Analysis Lognormal-type Distributions D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 71 Fig. 5. (Upper) G. Baily Price worked in Operations Research (OR) unit in Bletchley Park, England, during WWII from 1943 to 1945, where Colossus was located. Price visited Bletchley again in 2002 where a replica of Colossus was on display (he is on the right, caretaker on the left). Price was head of KU Department of Mathematics and Chairman of University Committee that recommended KU secure its first computer— IBM 650. Early experience with computers at KU is similar to other American academic institutions. (Lower) IBM 650 at University of Kansas, ca. 1957, with the first director of ‘computer center,’ Urs Hochstrasser of the Department of Mathematics. 72 D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 rather than on a pocket or desktop calculator’’ (Kaska, 1986). WWII was the time of accelerated development of automated methods and development of computers to deal with problems of the war effort, a push in the development of technology (Table 1; Fig. 5). After the war, as things gradually changed, these advances and developments were made available commercially. In 1954, IBM unveiled its 650 computer that used punched cards for input/output, and results were printed by specially designed wired-print boards on another machine. Calculations were made using ma- Fig. 6. Computer program written in machine language SOAP for IBM 650 (from Krumbein and Sloss, 1958). D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 73 Fig. 6 (continued ). chine language or the programming language SOAP (Fig. 6). The early computers (the IBM 650 and later IBM’s 700 series) used vacuum tubes, which were subject to failure because of the heat generated and because there were so many tubes in a unit, the failures came often. (The airconditioners typically occupied more space than the computer.) This problem was solved 74 D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 after ‘invention’ and use of transistors in place of vacuum tubes, and, in addition, transistors facilitated calculations (Fig. 7). The early quantitatively oriented workers were viewed with some suspicion and were not accepted widely by fellow workers because of some feeling of distrust in mathematical and computer-oriented studies—this was mainly because the ‘artistic ones’ did not comprehend the basics of the different approach. The Development Stage offered some interesting geological papers, but the real impetus for accelerated development was the introduction of the computer. All at once, difficult or impossible things were available easily and, therefore, progress towards quantification took a real leap forward and the computer age was upon us (Merriam, 1981b). The IBM 650 (Fig. 5), thus, set the stage for the automation of geology which was announced to the geologic public via Krumbein and Sloss’ (1958) paper; Babbage’s prediction of 1864 was fulfilled. 3.5. Automated Stage (1958 – 1982) Among the earliest uses of the digital computer in geology was its application to relatively simple statistical analysis. . .then to map studies and multiple regression. From these beginnings. . .use of the computer spread into virtually all fields of geology. . .. The Computer in Geological Perspective, William C. Krumbein (1969) 3.5.1. Early developments The conceptual stage of computer applications in geology took place during the 1950s. The story is told well by perusing the Bibliography of Computer Applications in the Earth Sciences, 1948– 1970 compiled by Merriam (1988). Early workers include W.C. Krumbein (1902 – 1979), J.C. Griffiths (1912 – 1992), A.B. Vistelius (1915 – 1995), Felix Chayes (1916 – 1993), and Georges Matheron (1930 – 2000); all had a profound affect on the development of the subject. It was during this time that geologists recognized the potential of the new tool as an extension of the mind (Merriam, 1981b). Early applications were mainly calculations that had been done previously by hand or by calculator. Geophysicists, geochemists, engineering geologists, and others, who were quantitatively inclined, simply exchanged their calculators and slide rules for computers where computation was speeded up and fewer errors were made—hallmark of computers: reliability and reproducibility. Many papers were published containing suggestions of possibilities, and the literature was long on ideas but short on meaningful applications (Table 9). Fig. 7. IBM 1620, second-generation machine at University of Kansas, ca. 1966. D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 Table 9 1958 – 1982 Automated stage W.C. Krumbein/ L.L. Sloss R.R. Sokal/ P.H.A. Sneath G. Matheron D.F. Merriam/ J.W. Harbaugh W.C. Krumbein/ F.A. Graybill A.B. Vistelius J.C. Griffiths 1958 1963 1963 1964 1965 1967 1967 J.W. Harbaugh/ D.F. Merriam J.E. Robinson/ H.A.K. Charlesworth/ M.J. Ellis J.W. Harbaugh/ G.F. Bonham-Carter F. Chayes J.C. Davis 1968 1971 1973 F.P. Agterberg W. Schwarzacher 1974 1975 K.G. Jöreskog/ J.E. Klovan/ R.A. Reyment I. Clark J.E. Robinson 1976 1979 1982 R.W. LeMaitre 1982 1969 1970 High-Speed Digital Computers in Analysis Stratigraphic and Facies Principles of Numerical Taxonomy Principles of Geostatistics Trend-Surface Analysis of Regional and Residual Components of Geologic Structure in Kansas An Introduction to Statistical Models in Geology Studies in Mathematical Geology Scientific Method in Analysis of Sediments Computer Applications in Stratigraphic Analysis Structural Analysis Using Spatial Filtering in Interior Plains of South-Central Alberta Computer Simulation in Geology Ratio Correlation Statistics and Data Analysis in Geology Geomathematics Sedimentation Models and Quantitative Stratigraphy Geological Factor Analysis Practical Geostatistics Computer Applications in Petroleum Geology Numerical Petrology It was also a time when a number of textbooks on the subject were published. Following the lead of Miller and Kahn’s (1962) book on statistics in the geological sciences, Krumbein and Graybill (1965) published An Introduction to Statistical Models in Geology. Griffiths (1967) looked into sampling and statistics in the analysis of sediments in his authoritative book on the subject. And in (1968), Harbaugh and Merriam summarized the use of computers in stratigraphy. Part of the problem in the early days was simply the limit of the machines; the amount of data that could be processed was limited by storage space and run time. Only the simplest computations could be done and those only with difficulty. Programming was extremely awkward and tedious, for example, in 75 machine language and cards or paper tape because input had to be punched; run time was long and many errors could occur during processing time; and the vision of applications mainly was limited by the user and the technology to analytical techniques. In addition, most geologists were cautious and even suspicious of computers which no doubt dated from the time of Darwin and his warning to beware of trusting mathematicians (and by extension, to computers). To process large databases, it was necessary to analyze available geological data and determine how they could be stored and retrieved in machines with limited capacity (Hubaux, 1969, 1970). To handle the enormous amount of accumulated data in the early days, it was necessary to code them with semantic symbols (Dixon, 1970). A good summary of data processing and databases used in geology as of the early 1970s is given by Bergeron et al. (1972). This approach was difficult and awkward and was fortunately superseded shortly by machines with larger memories, making it possible to use full citations. It was at this time that the petroleum and mining companies became interested in using computers for both exploration and exploitation (in addition to bookkeeping chores; see, for example, Dillon, 1964). IBM formed a group headed by Bill Peikert, one of Krumbein’s students, to promote the use of their computers in the petroleum industry (Peikert, 1969). Their published computer programs and instructions served as a model for the Kansas Geological Survey Special Distribution Publications and later, the Computer Contributions (Merriam, 1999). Mining companies were concerned mainly with ore-reserve estimations and Georges Matheron and Danie Krige pioneered these efforts. Because companies could afford real computing power, their numerically oriented geologists often were miles ahead of the academics and thus could and did make numerous notable contributions. 3.5.2. A decade of rapid development Toward the end of the 1950s, 2nd-generation computers (Fig. 8) and higher-level languages were introduced. Programming became easier; machines were made accessible; and computing became more economical. As a result, geologists branched out into modifying statistical techniques and mathematical procedures to solve their problems; algorithms were borrowed form other disciplines; and many papers 76 D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 Fig. 8. (Upper) IBM 7040 at University of Kansas, which replaced IBM 1620 in ca. 1968, and (lower) IBM 7090 at Stanford University in 1963. Both second-generation machines used transistors. D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 were published demonstrating the use of different techniques (Table 10). In the 1960s, multivariate statistical techniques, such as trend analysis, were applied (Fig. 9). Trend analysis, separating a largescale effect from the local effects, became popular because it was a technique that geologists could understand and interpret the results; they had been using such a procedure and computing and plotting the data by hand (Fig. 10). The concept of simulation (modeling) was introduced early (see Chapter 8 of Harbaugh and Merriam, 1968; and later, Whitten, 1983; Schaeben, 1988); Harbaugh and Bonham-Carter’s (1970) book on geologic simulation was a decade or so ahead of its time but a forerunner of things to come. In analyzing the subject matter of some of these early papers, it is interesting to note that certain nationalistic trends occur. For example, geologists in Germany, France, Canada, and Czechoslovakia were concerned with data, its collections, and treatment. Geologists in other countries were more concerned with applications—in the United Kingdom, to sedimentological, paleontological, and geomorphological problems; in India, to petrological ones; in Italy, to geochemical problems; and in the USSR, to sedimentological and petrological problems. Much work was done on structural and tectonic problems by the Germans, hydrology by the French, and mineral exploration by the Canadians, South Africans, and Czechs. Trend analysis was popular in the UK, India, and Australia; factor analysis in France; power-spectra studies in Romania; and simulation in the United States. These generalities reflected to some extent Table 10 Some techniques available to geologists Sequential Power spectrum Variograms Cross-correlation Autocorrelation Cross-association Autoassociation Markov chains Spatial autocorrelation 2D power strata kriging bicubic spline trend analysis 2D Fourier analysis 3D trend analysis discriminant functions Fourier analysis spatial filtering Moving averages fractals Time trend Dimension-free correlation coefficients regression analysis cluster analysis principal components factor analysis canonical correlation 77 the availability of hardware, workable software, local problems, and interest of those geologists working with computers (Merriam, 1974a). Rapid growth and accelerated interest in computer use occurred during the 1960s as many saw the potential of this powerful tool. Dissemination of information was paramount and had to be timely. In pre-Internet time, dissemination was by hardcopy. GeoRef, the leading bibliographic database was established, Computer Applications in the Mineral Industries (APCOM), a series of meetings in the mineral industries, and the Kansas Colloquia were established (with accompanying proceedings), and the Kansas Computer Contributions made their debut (Merriam, 1999). The International Association for Mathematical Geology (IAMG) was founded at the ill-fated International Geological Congress in Prague in 1968, largely at the instigation of Richard A. Reyment (Merriam, 1978). The IAMG, affiliated both with the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) and the International Statistical Institute (ISI), in a few short years, established three international journals [Mathematical Geology, 1969; Computers & Geosciences, 1975; and Natural Resources Research (formerly Nonrenewable Resources), 1992] and a newsletter, sponsored numerous meetings, and fostered and facilitated an exchange of ideas on a worldwide basis. For a time, in the late 1970s and 1980s, a group of interested workers formed a society in Denver concerned with microcomputing—Computer-Oriented Geological Society (GOGS). They were successful in disseminating information to interested workers through publications and a series of meetings. The status of computer use in the different geological disciplines was summarized in a collection of papers published in 1969 (Merriam, 1969) and updated a decade later (Merriam, 1981d). By the 1980s, however, the proliferation of the hardware and software was so widespread in the geosciences, making assessment of the status in subdisciplines of geology difficult, and the surveys were not continued. Some workers at this time in the field began to publish their works including F.P. Agterberg (mineral resources), G.F. Bonham-Carter (mineral resources/ pollution), F. Chayes (petrology), J.M. Forgotson, Jr. (petroleum), W.T. Fox (sedimentology), G.M. Fried- 78 D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 Fig. 9. (A) Subset of geological subjects, methods of data analysis, and time in 2-year periods. (B) Horizontal slice to show time of entry of computer applications in stratigraphy. Dashed lines indicate precomputer applications of methods shown. (C) Vertical slice cut to show spread of Markov models into various geological fields by year (from Krumbein, 1969). man (sedimentology), J.W. Harbaugh (petroleum), J. Imbrie (paleoecology), R.L. Kaesler (paleontology), G.S. Koch, Jr. (mining), D.G. Krige (mining), T.V. Loudon (structure), G. Matheron (mining), R.B. McCammon (stratigraphy), D.B. McIntyre (petrology), D.F. Merriam (stratigraphy), A.T. Miesch (geochemistry), R.A. Reyment (paleontology), W. Schwarzacher (stratigraphy), and E.H.T. Whitten (structure). 3.5.3. Pervasion of computers in geology By the 1970s, computers had become available and were easier and economical to use (Merriam, 1981c). High-level symbolic languages were available with the 3rd-generation machines and interactive systems forecasted the demise of cards and paper tape; terminals were everywhere. Sequential and spatial analysis were being used extensively and Fig. 10. Example of early computer graphics—lineprinter output of: (A) first-, (B) second-, and (C) third-degree trend surfaces representing regional geologic structure in Kansas (from Merriam and Harbaugh, 1964; made with BALGOL computer program on Stanford IBM 7090, Harbaugh, 1963). D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 79 80 D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 dimension-free methods were gaining popularity (Table 10). Simulation was introduced and the modeling of geological processes now was realistic. GeoRef and GeoArchives both went on-line. In addition, meetings were held on the subject first with the Kansas Geological Survey Colloquia followed by the Syracuse University Geochautauquas, which, in the early days, were the longest lasting and most effective forum for disseminating information on geomathematics and geocomputing. Databases proliferated and were accessible through timesharing networks. Different countries, especially Canada, Romania, and Czechoslovakia, worked towards development of large archival files; others toward special files for mapping, mineral resources, geochemistry, paleontology, well information, etc. (Merriam, 1974b). GEOMAP was developed in Sweden for field mapping data and GRENVILLE in Canada. CRIB contained the mineral-resource data of the U.S. Geological Survey and RASS contained their geochemical data. COGEODATA (a committee of the IUGS) looked after standards and quality control for the international exchange of data. Database Management Systems (DBMS) came into being to handle these databases. G-EXEC, GIPSY, SASFRAS, GRASP, and CLAIR (all acronyms for their specialties) were just a few of the DBMS which came into existence at this time. The large databases and sophisticated programs available set the stage for the supercomputer (Bethke et al., 1988). The journal Mathematical Geology, the premier hardcopy computer publication disseminating geomathematical information, was joined by the IAMG journal, Computers & Geosciences (C&G). C&G is devoted to the rapid publication of computer programs in widely used languages and their applications (Merriam, 1992). C&G was the successor to GEOCOM Bulletin, which took over publishing computer programs in 1971 at the conclusion of the Kansas Geological Survey’s series of successful Computer Contributions. In 1990, C&G took over publication of the COGS software and, in 1993, assumed the papers from the demise of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists’ Geobyte. The aim of C&G is to serve as a public medium for exchange of ideas between the geological and computer sciences—a concise statement as to an interdisciplinary venture approximately 150 years after constitution of the parent bodies (geology and computer science). Interestingly, in a study of specialized journals, Payne and Merriam (1992, 1993) determined that the C&G was cited more than anticipated, and that more authors outside the geosciences cited the journal than expected. An experiment in publishing computer programs on softstrip was initiated for C&G, but this unique system did not gain acceptance. Although softstrip was permanent, durable, and easy to reproduce and distribute, it required special equipment to produce and read. Thus, the user could not ‘translate’ the bar code easily. This problem was solved by floppy disks (initially 5 1/4 in., and later 3 1/2 in. ones), which were readable almost anywhere. The 3 1/2-in. floppy has a capacity of 720K and is readily portable, and thus became the preferred method of hardcopy communication. Now, CDs are used for storage and distribution of all types of computer-oriented data (Merriam, 1991). A new generation of workers appeared in the late 1970s. Their foundation in mathematics and statistics was solid, along with their good geological background. Just a few of the many outstanding workers to be mentioned include J.C. Brower, Isobel Clark, J.M. Cubitt, Michel David, J.C. Davis, J.H. Doveton, P.A. Dowd, Steve Henley, Michael Ed. Hohn, Richard J. Howarth, A. Journel, and Donald E. Myers. 3.6. Integration Stage (1982 – present) Like a canal navigator watching an iron horse steam by, like a railroad engineer sighting a horseless carriage, the geologist viewing images on computer screen is witness to a paradigm shift. Unrecognized assumptions lose their validity, and things will never be the same again. Geoscience after IT, T.V. Loudon (2000) 3.6.1. The PC era In the fourth decade of computer applications, the physical size of the machines decreased enormously and they became user-friendly. These attributes were the result of advances in technology (Table 11; McIntyre, 1981). Such developments as virtual memory (VM), bubble memory, memory D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 81 Table 11 Progression of computer development to present 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s Time technology Software Orientation 1st-generation machines—vacuum tubes 2nd-generation machines—transistors 3rd-generation machines— integrated circuits—minis Machine language Cards and paper tape Low-level symbolic languages, e.g., SOAP, ALGOL, COBOL High-level symbolic-languages, e.g., macroassembler; BASIC, Pascal, USP: Database management e.g., ADABAS; Database languages, e.g., IMS Virtual memory; special high-level languages; user friendly spreadsheets, e.g., VisaCalc and Lotus 1,2,3, query languages Cards, RJEs, magnetic tape, batch Windows; specialist languages for data manipulation and graphics CD-ROMs, communications, laser disks, optic scanners 4th-generation machines—VLSI circuits, micros (PCs), supercomputers neXT computers, Hypercubes 5th-generation machines—parallel processing – —workstations/RISC, Palmtops FORTRAN, chips, optical fibers, large-scale and very large scale integrated (LSI and VLSI) circuits revolutionized the hardware.7 Microcomputers became ubiquitous. The personal computer (PC), because of its low cost and user orientation, was almost instantly accepted (Krajewski, 1986). Software was improved with fast algorithms such as the fast Fourier transform (FFT), user-friendly languages, and telecommunications. Networking became ubiquitous. The invention of metalanguage(s) for solving geological problems was proposed by Griffiths (1982). To date, however, none have been forthcoming, with the exception of geostatistiques, a development of the French school, which is the only technique developed expressibly for solving geological problems (Matheron, 1962, 1963). Synthesizers were introduced so that it was possible to transmit instructions to computer vocally. 3.6.2. The Pentium Developments now are literally taking place faster than they can be chronicled. New and more powerful mainframe computers have been introduced including the IBM 9000 series and super supercomputers. There is an increase in use of optical scanners. The i486 chip is obsolete and its successor, the Pentium, which has been incorporated into the new computer lines, 7 The latest development is the terabyte disk drive with anticipation of petabyte drives in the near future (Hayes, 2002). Interactive sharing disks, CRTs Networking, floppy disks, smart terminals, interactive, and color graphics improves speed and capacity. Palmtop systems have been introduced and the trend is to be even smaller and faster (Merriam, 1991). In software, there has been an improvement and introduction of new and better operation systems. DOS and UNIX are used widely; Windows has proven popular. An extensive use has been made of high-level and specialized languages such as LISP, Turbo-Pascal, PROLOG, C, and J (Table 12). Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have become widely used (Bonham-Carter, 1994). New mathematical/statistical techniques have become available including chaos theory, fractals, and meta-analysis; these trends as noted by Cox (1991) continue. FORTRAN is declining if compared with other languages (from 100% in 1975 to 50% in 1992). APL, PL/1, and ALGOL essentially are gone and have been for several years. BASIC seems to have peaked in the late 1980s as other new and specialist languages, such as PROLOG, LISP, and C, took over. Recently, there has been an increase in the use of spreadsheets and specialist languages for data manipulation and graphics. These trends are likely to continue in the future. New approaches have been developed, paralleling the advances in hardware/software. Workstations give geologist an integrated look at their problems (Table 13). Compact discs with read-only memory (CD-ROMs) put tremendous amounts of data at their fingertips; networks connect electronic 82 D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 Table 12 Numbers of articles listing programs in various languages in Computers & Geosciences, Volumes 1 – 18, 1975 – 1992 (adapted from Cox, 1991) Year Volume FORTRAN 1975 – 1976 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 Total 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 20 17 23 20 13 16 27 20 18 17 31 31 23 20 32 36 36 25 425 a APL 1 1 BASIC Pl/1 ALGOL PASCAL C LISP PROLOG Othersa Total 1 9 9 19 20 21 26 20 21 20 29 21 21 22 40 40 40 38 66 57 69 49 620 3 1 7 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 7 1 3 4 8 7 11 9 20 5 12 6 99 1 1 3 6 8 4 6 1 30 1 3 2 1 2 1 3 7 6 7 27 1 1 2 3 1 3 5 Others include mostly spreadsheets and specialist languages for data manipulation and graphics. mail to supercomputers and on-line databases (both factual and bibliographical). Along with e-mail, fax transmission has improved our ability to communicate and communicate fast (Merriam, 1990). Much of our ‘substantial’ information exchange now takes place through these communication networks before hardcopy publication. It is necessary to be linked into the communications network to be fully aware of current happenings. New journals are on-line (no hardcopy) and established journals are being put on-line. Most journals ask for digitized text and illustrations along with the hardcopy, or require authors to submit the manuscript directly via e-mail. It is now possible to submit a paper for publication and have the review, revision, editing, typesetting, and publication all take place electronically with no hardcopy involved. Table 13 Examples of generations of microcomputers (adapted from Barr, 1985) 1977 1979 1981 1983 1991 1st generation, 8 bit 2nd generation, 8 bit 3rd generation, 8/16 bit 4th generation, 16/32 bit 5th generation, 32 bit Examples Dominant processor Operating system Apple II, PET, TRS 80, BBC Micro, Commodore 64 Superbrain, RML 380 Z, Osborne, Epson QX 10 Sirius 1, IBM PC, DEC Rainbow 100, ACT Apricot Apple Lisa, Sage 6502 Z80 Apple DOS, Commodore, Tandy, Acorn CP/M 8088 CP/M 86, MS-DOS 68000 UNIX? 88000 80386SX i486 Pentium UNIX and Microsoft OS/2 Sun workstations SiliconGraphics Macintosh D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 Undoubtedly, there will be more hardware/software creations, changes, and improvements. Machines will become faster, more compact, and more portable (Table 14). Software will become more user-friendly, more easily available, and more powerful. Communications will continue to improve and program/data exchange will be almost instantaneous and available to anyone desiring or needing it. Large databases are accessible to the users that are tied into networks; bulletin boards serve as newsletters for organizations. Off-line CD-ROMs provide an enormous amount of instantly available data/information. Manuscripts, as noted, are being submitted via the network. All phases of science will be faster, more intense, more focused, and require better education and background than required of geologists today. It will be a challenge for users to stay aware of these new hardware/software advances and innovative applications. Loudon (2000) took a look into the future with his predictions in Geoscience After IT, IT being Information Technology. He notes that IT handles tools for information, computers, and networks, and IT, which is more efficient, allows a better expression of concepts and an exchange of ideas. IT is how geoscientists investigate the real world, how they are organized, and what they know and how they think. His summary, therefore, is IT is the way of the future. In 1972, I predicted (in general terms; Merriam, 1972) that ‘‘Computers undoubtedly will be Table 14 A. Computation speeds (modified from Knuth, 1976) Man (pencil and paper) Man (abacus) Mechanical calculator Medium-speed computer Fast computer Super fast computer 0.2/s 1/s 4/s 200,000/s 200,000,000/s 32,000,000,000/s 1,000,000,000,000/s B. Cubic feet/1 million characters of storage (data from IBM) 1953 1959 1970 1976 1979 1991 400 ft3 100 ft3 8.0 ft3 0.3 ft3 0.03 ft3 0.00003 ft3 83 easier to communicate with and become faster and larger (in capacity). Graphic displays will be more sophisticated and realistic. Programs will be easier to use and available through various exchanges developed on national and international levels. Programs will be thoroughly tested, thus reliable, increasing the credibility of the results. Databases will be compatible and available through national and international organizations. Cooperation among geologists will increase as they strive to fully use their data for all the information it contains.’’ All of these predictions have come to pass and exceed expectations. The next 20 years is most likely to see a continuation of these trends and even an acceleration! As implied by Vic Loudon, one of the few things that we can be sure of in this world is change, only the rate is unknown. Acknowledgements I would like to thank Alan P. Brynes of the Kansas Geological Survey, John C. Davis of Baker University, John W. Harbaugh of Stanford University, Richard J. Howarth of Imperial College (London), Richard A. Reyment of the University of Uppsala (Sweden), Donald B. McIntyre, formerly of Pamona College, now residing in Perth, Scotland, Floyd W. Preston of the University of Kansas, and Gerry Friedman of the Rensselaer Center of Applied Geology for reading a preliminary version of the manuscript and offering helpful, insightful suggestions. As usual, I was abetted in many ways by the Survey’s information specialist Janice Sorensen; I owe her undue thanks for help. Appendix A . Kansas Geological Survey Colloquia The first colloquium was organized and held at the Kansas Geological Survey, The University of Kansas in 1966. This series of meetings was organized to fulfill a definite need to disseminate information on the latest developments in quantitative geology and computer applications. All eight meetings that were held are shown in Table A1. In 84 D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 Table A1 List of colloquia hosted by the KGS (from Merriam, 1999) Table A2 Geochautauquas 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th Classification Precedures (KGS/CC7) Trend Analysis (KGS/CC12) Time-Series Analysis (KGS/CC18) Simulation (KGS/CC22) Sampling (KGS/CC30) Computer Applications (CAES/1)a Optical-Data Processing (no publication) Geostatistics (CAES/2)a 1 1972 Syracuse 2 1973 Syracuse 3 4 5 1974 1975 1976 Syracuse Syracuse Syracuse KGS/CC: Kansas Geological Survey Computer Contributions. CAES: Computer Applications in the Earth Sciences, a book series sponsored by the IAMG and published by Plenum Press. a Cohosted by the IAMG. 6 7 1977 1978 Syracuse Syracuse 8 1979 Syracuse 1971, the meetings at KGS/KU were continued as the Geochautauquas at Syracuse University. 9 1980 Miami 10 1981 Ottawa 11 1982 Urbana 12 1983 Lawrence 13 1984 Morgantown 14 1985 Wichita 15 1986 Calgary 16 17 1987 1988 Pribram Tucson 18 19 1989 1990 Newark Freiburg 20 1991 Denver 21 1992 Kyoto 22 1993 Prague 23 1994 Mt. Tremblant 24 1995 Osaka 1966 1967 1967 1968 1968 1969 1970 1970 Colloquium Colloquium Colloquium Colloquium Colloquium Colloquium Colloquium Colloquium on on on on on on on on Appendix B . Syracuse University Geochautauquas The Geochautauquas were the follow-up organized meetings of the KGS Colloquia. The first one was held at Syracuse University in the fall of 1972 and others were held yearly after that (Table A2). In 1980, the meetings started to rotate to interested organizations that wanted to host the group. In 1986, the meetings went international with the first meeting outside the United States in Calgary, Canada. Starting in 1991. The meetings consisted of a session in conjunction with another meeting and continued in that venue until discontinuance in 1997 after the establishment of the IAMG’s Annual Meetings in 1994. Appendix C . International Association for Mathematical Geology (IAMG) Annual Meetings In 1994, IAMG decided to hold annual stand-alone meetings with the exception of those years of the IGC when they would have sessions in conjunction with the Congress (Table A3). These meetings have been successful and a publication has resulted from each. Appendix D . APCOM Meetings The first meeting in the APCOM (APplication of COMputers and operational research in the mineral industries) series was initiated and sponsored by the The Impact of Quantification on Geology Geologic Data Analysis with Computers Computers and Mineral Resources CAI in Geology Computer Software in the Geosciences Quantitative Stratigraphic Correlation Mathematical Models in the Earth Sciences Computer Applications in the Earth Sciences, an Update of the 1970s Climate Models and the Past, The Role of Oceans on Geochemical Cycles, and Natural Resource Discovery and Models Use of computers in MineralResources Evaluation New Developments in Quantification of Coal Geology Think Deep: Computer Methods in the Subsurface Big Programs on Small Machines: Research Methods on Mini and Microcomputers Computer Applications in Petroleum Exploration and Development Computers in the Petroleum Industry: ‘‘Integrated Approaches’’ Mathematical Methods in Geology Computers for the Analysis of Geochemical and Hydrogeochemical Data Mineral-Resource Assessment Three-Dimensional Computer Graphics in Modeling Geologic Structures and Simulating Geologic Processes Mapping algorithms and applications (with Denver GeoTech ’91) Mathematical and statistical analyses of geological data (with 29th International Geological Congress) Mathematical, statistical, and computing problems in the geological sciences (with 25th Silver Anniversary Meeting of IAMG) Basin analysis (with IAMG Annual Meeting) Mathematical Methods in the Earth Sciences (with 2nd Annual Meeting of IAMG) (continued on next page ) D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 Table A2 (continued ) 25 26 1996 1997 Beijing Barcelona Mathematical and Statistical Data Analysis in Geology (with 30th IGC, session 19-5) Quantitative Methods in the Earth Sciences (in conjunction with 3rd IAMG Annual Meeting-IAMG’97) Meetings and session superseded by IAMG Annual Meetings. University of Arizona College of Mines at Tucson, AZ, in 1961 (Table A4). (The acronym APCOM was originated by the organizers of the 10th symposium in Johannesburg, South Africa, in 1972.) The conferences are organized by an informal council composed of past and future hosts of the meeting. Jay C. Dotson was editor of a 2-volume proceedings entitled as a Short Course on ‘‘Computers and Computer Applications in the Mineral Industries.’’ Most of the papers in this softback publication were concerned with an introduction to computing and related problems, business and accounting, and applications in mining. The IBM 650 was the machine used in the short course and SOAP the programming language. From this modest beginning, the meetings expanded to their present-day international coverage. The second meeting was held the next year because of the success of the first meeting and again was held in Tucson. Subject matter included in addition was papers on geostatistics, a subject which has been emphasized ever since. John C. Griffiths, Danie Krige, and George Koch and Dick Link were among those on the conference program. By 1963, the conference sponsorship was expanded to include the Stanford University School of Earth Sciences. The subject matter was also expanded to Table A3 IAMG Annual Meetings 1 2 3 1994 1995 1996 4 5 6 7 1997 1998 1999 2000 8 9 10 11 2001 2002 2003 2004 Mt. Tremblant, Quebec, Canada Osaka, Japan Beijing, Peoples Republic of China (in conjunction with 30th IGC) Barcelona, Spain Ischia, Italy Trondheim, Norway Rio de Janeiro, Brasil (in conjunction with 31st IGC) Cancun, Mexico Berlin, Germany Portsmouth, England Florence, Italy (in conjunction with the 32nd IGC) 85 Table A4 List of APCOM meetings and international symposia 1 1961 Tucson, AZ 2 1962 Tucson, AZ 3 1963 Stanford, CA 4 1964 Golden, CO 5 1965 Tucson, AZ 6 1966 7 1968 University Park, PA Golden, CO 8 1969 9 1970 10 1972 11 1973 12 13 1974 1975 Golden, CO Clausthal, Germany 14 1976 15 1977 University Park, PA Brisbane, Australia 16 17 1979 1982 Tucson, AZ Golden, CO 18 1984 London, England 19 1986 20 1987 21 22 23 1989 1990 1992 University Park, PA Marshalltown, Transval, South Africa Golden, CO Berlin, Germany Tucson, AZ Salt Lake City, UT Montreal, Canada Johannesburg, South Africa Tucson, AZ Computers and computer applications in the Mineral Industries Mathematical techniques and computer applications in mining and exploration Computers in the mineral industries Applications of statistics, operations research, and computers in the mineral industries Computers and computer applications in mining and exploration Computers and operations research in mineral industries Symposium on OR and computer applications in the mineral industries A decade of digital computing in the mineral industries Techniques for decision-making in the mineral industries Application of computer methods in the mineral industries Computer applications in the mineral industries Application of computer and mathematics for decision-making in the mineral industries Application of computers and operations research in the mineral industries Application of computers and operations research in the mineral industry Application of computers and mathematics in the mineral industries Application of computers and operations research in the mineral industry 86 D.F. Merriam / Earth-Science Reviews 67 (2004) 55–89 include petroleum. There were sessions on geophysics and petroleum exploration and production. Paper were presented by John P. Dowds, J.L. Morrison, Ed. L. Dillon, John C. Griffiths, Robert L. Miller, D.F. Merriam, John W. Harbaugh, Floyd W. Preston, Z.V. Jizba, and D.R. Ojakangas. In 1964, the Colorado School of Mines was the host and numerous papers were included on geology and geophysics. Back in Tucson for the 5th (1965) meeting, they included sessions on Exploration, Exploitation and Geology, and Exploration and Geophysics, plus short courses, demonstrations, and exhibits. Familiar names showed up on the program including DeVerle Harris, John W. Harbaugh, Floyd W. Preston, Scott W. Hazen, Vaclav Nemec, Frits P. Agterberg, John C. Griffiths, and Larry Drew. In 1966, the meeting moved to the Pennsylvania State University and some of the same participants were on the program again including Krige, Agterberg, Griffiths, Harris, and Harbaugh. The meetings went international with the Johannesburg, South Africa meeting in 1972. The publications, for the most part, are softback, unedited, and author-prepared. However, they give a good account of the development of computers and computer applications in the mining industry especially. Certain names reoccur throughout the history of the organization. Danie Krige and John C. Griffiths both have been honored by the group for their support and contributions during the years. The meetings have emphasized geostatistiques in all phases of the mining industry from an early time. This is understandable because the subject was largely developed by mining geologists and engineers from the French School of Geostatistiques in Fontainebleau, France. 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Computers and geological information: the depth and the width of it. Geoscientist 3 (2), 10 – 13. Wentworth, C.K., 1929. Method of computing mechanical composition types in sediments. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 40 (4), 771 – 790. Whewell, W., 1840. The philosophy of the inductive sciences, founded upon their history, 2 vols. Parker, London and Deighton, Cambridge. Whitten, E.H.T., 1966. Structural Geology of Folded Rocks. Rand McNally, Chicago, 663 pp. Whitten, E.H.T., 1983. Twenty-five years of mathematical geology: a new threshold. Math. Geol. 15 (2), 237 – 243. Winchester, S., 2001. The Map that Changed the World. Harper Collins, New York, 329 pp. Daniel F. Merriam is a Senior Research Scientist (emeritus) with the Kansas Geological Survey at the University of Kansas. He received his BS, MS, and PhD from the University of Kansas, and MSc and DSc from Leicester University (England). He was with the KGS from 1953 to 1971, serving as Chief of Geologic Research in his last position. From 1971 to 1981, he was the Jessie Page Heroy Professor of Geology and head of the Department of Geology at Syracuse University. In 1981, he returned to Wichita State University as Endowment Association Distinguished Professor of the Natural Sciences and chairman of the Department of Geology and Geography. He rejoined the Survey in 1991 and retired in 1997 but remains active. He has been a Visiting Research Scientist at Stanford University, a Fulbright – Hays Senior Research Fellow to the United Kingdom, Director of the American Geological Institute’s International Field Institute to Japan, an American Geological Institute’s Visiting Geological Scientist, a Participant in Project COMPUTe, Dartmouth College, an Esso Distinguished Lecturer at the University Sydney (Australia), a Visiting Professor at the Centre d’Informatique Geologique, Ecole des Mines de Paris (Fontainebleau), and a Visiting Scientist at the GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam (Germany). His interests are mainly in late Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic stratigraphy in the Midcontinent area including petroleum geology, plains-type folds and structural development of cratonic basins, geothermics, Pennsylvanian cyclic sedimentation, computer applications in geology, spatial analysis, information studies and dissemination, and history of geology.
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