Low-costAvant-garde?ContradictionsinIndustrializedHousinginthe1920s
KathrinSiebert
ETHZürich/Institutegta,[email protected]
1
ABSTRACT
Basedonselectedexamplesofavant-gardehousingproducedinthe1920s,Iwilldiscussthefollowing
questions:WhatdoestheAvant-gardecost?WhoispayingfortheAvant-garde?WhyistheAvant-gardeinthe
1920sinterestedinindustrialbuilding?AtthesametimeIwouldliketoquestionifthe'lowcost'built
examplesinfactwereaffordableforworkers.Exampleswillrepresentthethreescalesofindustrialized
housing:masshousing,pilothousingandcasestudyhouses.
Thehousingquestionwasoneofthemosturgentproblemstosolveinthe1920s.WorldWarOneandthe
urbanizationcausedahugelackofdwellings.Housingconditionsforworkerswereespeciallyunbearable.The
participationofgovernmentintheprocessofbuildingforthefirsttime,bysettingnewlawsandproviding
subsidy,enabledexperimentsinhousing.Thearchitecturalavant-gardeofthistime,theprotagonistsofthe
NeuesBauenmovement,includedWalterGropius,LeCorbusier,ErnstMay,BrunoTaut,MartStamandHans
Schmidt.AftercompletingtheWeissenhofsiedlunginStuttgart1927,theybuiltuptheCIAMasaplatformfor
theircommonbutalsocontradictoryandcompetinginterestsinhousing:ontheonehand,adesirefor
aestheticchange;ontheother,costreductionandanincreaseinproductionandquality.Industrialized
buildingseemedtoallowforboth.
FortheSwissarchitectHansSchmidt(1893–1972),economicefficiencywasthetopaiminhisworkwith
industrializedbuildingmethodsinhousing.ToSchmidt,NeuesBauenwasamethodof(economic)production.
KEYWORDS
Avant-garde,NeuesBauen,HousingQuestion,IndustrializedBuilding,CIAM
AUTHORBIOGRAPHY
KathrinSiebertisanarchitectandarthistorian.Since2013sheisaPhDstudentattheChairofArchitecture
andArtHistoryProf.DrPhilipUrsprung.SheworkedasanarchitectinRotterdamandDelft.Whilestudyingat
theUniversityofZurich,sheworkedasavolunteerattheCollectionofPrintsandDrawingsETHZurich.
AfterwardssheresearchedandtaughtasassistantandlecturerattheInstitutegtaatETHZurich.Shedirected
theteachingandresearchproject«UrbanHistoryonline.Thecity'sarchitecturefrommodernityuntiltoday».
2
1Introduction
Thehousingquestionwasoneofthemosturgentproblemstosolveinthe1920s.WorldWarOneand
urbanizationcausedbyindustrializationledtoahugelackofdwellings.Housingconditionsforworkerswere
especiallyunbearable.Theurgencyledtogovernmentinterveningintheprocessofbuildingforthefirsttime,
bysettingnewlaws(Reichsheimstättengesetz1920)andprovidingsubsidy(Hauszinssteuer1924),enabled
experimentsinhousing.Homesteadact1920(Reichsheimstättengesetz):wasintroducedtoenableprotected
acquisitionandownershipofresidentialproperty.theso-calledhomesteader(Heimstätter)couldacquire
propertyofahomestead(Heimstätte),buttherightsofownershipwerelimited,toprotecttheownerofa
homestead(stateormunicipalinstitutions).Federalhouserenttax1924(Hauszinssteuer):Taxonincomefrom
thehousingofhomeownerstofinancetheReichsheimstättengesetz(HomesteadAct).
Thearchitecturalavant-gardeofthistime,theprotagonistsoftheNeuesBauenmovement,builtuptheCIAM
asaplatformfortheircommonbutalsocontradictoryandcompetinginterestsinhousing:ontheonehand,a
desireforaestheticchange;ontheother,costreductionandanincreaseinproductionandquality.
Industrializedbuildingseemedtoallowforboth.
Basedonselectedexamplesofavant-gardehousingproducedinthe1920s,Iwilldiscussthefollowing
questions:WhatisthecostoftheAvant-garde?WhopaysfortheAvant-garde?WhyistheAvant-gardeinthe
1920sinterestedinindustrialbuilding?AtthesametimeIwouldliketoquestionifthe'lowcost'built
examplesinfactwereaffordableforworkers.Exampleswillrepresentthreescalesofindustrializedhousing:
masshousing,pilothousingandcasestudyhouses.Idistinguishbeetweenthesethreedifferentscales,
becauseIconsiderthesethreeasimportantfieldsofdifferentexperimentsoftheavantgarde.
2MainText
1.MASSHOUSING(largesettlement,tosatisfymassdemand)
MartinWagnerandBrunoTautinBerlin
*SiedlungBritz(Hufeisensiedlung)1925–1930,firstmasshousingestateingermany,over1000accomodation
units.
Objectives?Productionofmasshousingwithdistinctivesocialobjectivesinordertoreducehousingshortage.
Investmentsshouldfocusonlargehousingestatesandindustrialmethodsofhousingconstruction.Affordable
housingforallincomegroupsshouldbecreatedthroughrationalmasshousing.
SituationinBerlin?ThehousingshortageafterWorldWarOnewasserious.Between1925and1929the
numberofregisteredhouseseekersrosefrom75000to179000.Thedemandforsmallandcheapapartments
amountedfrom100000to130000units.ThebasisfornewsocialhousingwasbuildupbyReformBuilding
Regulations(Reformbauordnung)forBerlinin1925.Looseningoftheresidentialareasandclearseparationof
functionsoftheindividualareaswerefocusedandformedthewholecityindifferentbuildingzones:Fromthe
citycenterwitha5-storeyconstructionthebuildingdensitytotheborderregionsdecreasedto2-3-storey
construction.MartinWagnerascitycouncilorforconstruction,from1926to1933,definedkeyhousingpolicy
andurbanplanningguidelines.Inonlysevenyears,between1924and1931,morethan140000flatswere
built,aconstructionvolumeunattainedduringthepostwar1950s.InBerlin,thiswasmadepossiblethroughan
extraordinarynewfinancingsystembasedonunionizedcooperatives,municipalorothernon-profitbuilding
societies.
Client?BuildingownerofBritzwasGEHAG(GemeinnützigeHeimstättenAG).GEHAGwasfoundedatthe
initiativeofMartinWagnerbyunionsandcooperativesin1924anddevelopedintotheleadingproperty
developmentcompanynotonlyinBerlinbutinallofGermany.Withtheirwealthofbusinessvolumeand
especiallythroughthecreativepoweroftheirhousearchitectBrunoTauttheGEHAGhadastrongimpacton
urbandevelopmentandarchitectureoftheBerlinsettlementconstruction.
Featuresandcosts?Smallapartmentswithspaciouslight,similaraspossiblebedroomsandlivingrooms,
kitchenandbathroomseparately,GEHAGkitchen,goodventilationpossibilities,minimumsizeforasingle
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room14squaremeters,foraflat45squaremeters,contactwithnaturethroughterraces,loggiasorprivate
gardenandopenspaces.Wehavenopreciseinformationaboutcosts.Wagner'sideasoftyping,
standardizationandrationalizationinhousingwerefirstimplemented,without,however,reducingtheactual
productioncosts.«Rationalizationdebatesinconstructionhaveindeedledtothefactory-basedprefabrication,
butnottoanyreductioninthecostofhousing,theultimategoalofthesedebates,sowehave'notresponded
totheneeds'.» Industrialbuilding?Rationalizationinconstruction,machineworkinsteadofcraftwork(excavator,conveyor
belts,railvehicles),stricttypingandstandardization.Every1000unitsarebasedonfourdifferentfloorplans,
eachwith1.5,2.5,3.5and4.5rooms.Typedcomponents.
Inhabitants?Theapartmentsweretoalargeextentinhabitedbywhite-collarworkerfamilies(ca50%).
Reason:Theyhadnotbeenabletoreducethecosts,asWagnerhadimagined.
Propaganda?Journal«Wohnungswirtschaft»(since1926,editedbyMartinWagner),journal«NeuesBerlin»
(since1929,editedbyMartinWagnerandAdolfBehne),Film«Rationalizationinbuildingindustry»1925,
propagandacars1926,electionpostersSPD1929,Germanconstructionexhibition1931.
ErnstMayinFrankfurt
*SiedlungPraunheim1926–1929,Reichsheimstättensiedlung,1400accomodationunits.
Objectives?TheReichsheimstättenlawallowedfamiliesthepurchaseoftheirownhomeonfavourable
conditions.
SituationinFrankfurt?SerioushousingshortageinFrankfurtaswell.Buildinglandwassoexpensivethat
economicalconstructionseemedimpossible.
1925:30,000houseseekers,467000inhabitants.Inautumnthecityparliamentdecidedabouthousing
program,ten-yearprogram.ErnstMaybecomescitycouncilorforconstructionandsettlementdepartment
head.Until193012000dwellingswerebuilt,2000apartmentsmorethanplanned.
Client?CityofFrankfurtandhousingassociations:citytookover50%ofthecost(50%financedwithrenttax
(Hauszinssteuer),30%withloansofcitysavingsbanks,restwithgrantsfromthecitybudget).Theother50%
tookoverthehousingassociations(20%equityofhousingcompanies,loans,bonds).Becauseofthehighprice
oflandnotdesignatedbuildingland,butagriculturallandontheoutskirtswereused.Thislandwastransferred
byexpropriationtomunicipalownership.
Featuresandcosts?Morethan15differenttypesofhouses,eachapartmentwasequippedwiththeFrankfurt
kitchenandbathroom.Thepurchasepriceofahomewasdependingonbuildingtypebetween14000upto
22000RM.Exceptforabasicinvestmentof500RMnoadditionalcapitalwasrequired.Topayofftheloanand
interestfromtherenttaxmortgageandmunicipalloanshadmonthlybetween57RMand95RMtobe
expendedduringaperiodof33upto46years(atanaverageblue-collarworkersmonthlysalaryof240RMin
1925).MayusedconcreteslabconstructionforafewofthehousesinFrankfurt,butthisturnedouttobe
slightlymoreexpensivethanbrickworkandmuchlesssatisfactoryinkeepingoutmoisture.
Industrialbuilding?Tentesthouseswerebuildinprefab(Frankfurtmountingmethod).Largeblock
construction.Standardizationofcomponents.ComponentstofurnishingswerecatalogedintheFrankfurt
Register.AsFrankfurtstandardaprogramwasdevelopedthatnormalizedforapartmentscomponentssuchas
windowsandconcreteelementsandcreativelymatchingcommoditiessuchasdoorknobs,furniture,dishes.
Forthispurpose,aDepartmentoftyping(AbteilungfürTypisierung)wasestablished.
Inhabitants?60%civilservants,independentprofessions,teachers,26%workers,24%clerks.
Propaganda?Journal«NeuesFrankfurt»(since1926),variousbooks,films.
2.PILOTHOUSING(exhibition/modelsettlement,severalprototypes)
WeissenhofsiedlunginStuttgart,1927
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Objectivesof(Werkbund)Exhibition?ThedecisiveimpetusfortheconstructionoftheWeissenhofsiedlungwas
asmallgroupofyoungprogressiveartistsandarchitectsfromtheregion.Theywantedtobringina
contributionforsolvingthehousingproblem,whichshouldbeplacedinthepublicdiscussion.Thecityof
Stuttgarthasbeenobtainedfortheplan.Thespecificationofthecitywastocreatecheapandhealthyhousing
formoderncitypeople.
SituationinStuttgart?ThepoliticalandeconomicsituationinWürttembergnormalisedafterWorldWarOne
fasterthaninotherplacesandalsotheconstructionindustryrecoveredquickly.In1919,anewlocalbuilding
lawcameintoforce,whichwouldserveasthebasisfortheacquisitionandcontrolsystemsoflandforthe
now-startingdevelopmentprojectsinStuttgart.Whereasonly8469dwellingswerebuiltbetween1919to
1927inStuttgart,18730dwellingswerebuiltuntil1932.ResistancetotheWerkbundprojectcamefromall
sidesasitwasbeingplanned:theleftabandonedtheproject,becauseonlyvillasfortherichandtoolittle
socialprogresswouldbeplanned.Therightfeltuncomfortablewiththeinternationalorientation,forthemit
wastooun-Germanandtooliberal.
Client?RoleofWerkbund?TheWerkbundwascommissionedbythecityandsuggestedamodelsettlement
andtwoexhibitions.Oneexhibitionshouldpresentinternationalplansandmodelsofnewarchitecture.
Anotherexhibitionshouldpresentobjectsofhomefurnishingsandhomeeconomics.MiesvanderRohewas
chosenbytheWerkbundasartisticdirectorandprojectmanagerofthemodelsettlement.Theselectionofthe
15architectsmadecleartheideologicalmanifestation:architectureshouldbepresentedasanewstyle.
Featuresandcosts?In1926theStuttgartCityCouncilhadtodecideonahousingprogrammeof16.6million
RM.1600apartmentsweretobebuilt,ofwhich60wereplannedfortheWerkbundproject.Thefinalcost
detailsofthelocalsitemanagerandthefinalcostcalculationsofthecityvariedgreatly.Contractpricewas940
122RM,calculationofDöcker1,016,694RM,finalcostscountedbythebuildingdepartmentofStuttgart
amountto1,537,521RM.Sothecostsdeterminedbythecityarehalfamillionhigher.FiguresfromtheRFB:
annualrentMies1100to1800RM,Oud1800RM,Stam2400RM,Gropius3000RM,Corbusier5000RM.
Oud:5onefamilyhouseswith4roomsand73sqmeach.Buildingcosts114300RM,rentalcosts2RM/sqm,
150RM/month.
Construktion/Equipment?ConcreteStructureSystemKossel,north-southoriented,economicgroundplan,
built-incupboards,hand-wound,exteriorspaces.
LeCorbusierconsciouslyignoredtheguidelines.Hecamenottobuildcheapapartments,butheusedhis
buildingstodemonstratehisaestheticideastothepublic.Duringtheexhibition,abrochureabouthistwo
houseswaspublished.Herehis'Fivepointstowardsanewarchitecture'areexplained(postasasupporting
foundation,freeplan,freefacade,horizontalwindow,roofgardenasalivingroom).
Industrialbuilding?MieschangedtheoriginalprinciplesfortheSiedlungwhileworkingonit.Attheenditwas
nolongeraboutmethodsofrationalmassproductionbutmoreaboutformandstyle.GropiusandMay
continuedtotaketheleadinprefabrication.Gropius'ssteel-framedhousewithpanelsofcork,asbestos,and
fiberwasthemostcompletelyindustrializedhouseintheexhibition.May,whohadwantedtobringthe
WerkbundexhibitiontoFrankfurt,erectedontheexperimentalexhibitiongroundsnexttotheSiedlunga
demonstrationofhisconcreteplatesystemthatstoodasarebuketothemoreconventionalmethodsusedin
theSiedlungitself.
Inhabitants?TheWeissenhofsiedlungremainedaftercompletionoftheexhibitioninthepossessionofthecity,
sothatthehousesarepreservedintheiroriginalstate(orderoftheMayor).Theapartmentswererentedby
thecity.Astenants,onlythosefamilieswereeligiblewhohaveanattitudeofappreciationforthe
Weissenhofsiedlung(orderofexhibitionmanagementtotheMayor).Becauseoftherelativelyhighrents,only
householdswithasecureandnottoosmallincomecouldaffordtomovehere,mostlyself-employed,senior
officials,doctorsandartists.
Propaganda?Innovativedesignofposters,brochures,catalogsandbooks.Responsibleforthepropagandawas
thepressandadvertisingdepartmentofWerkbundExhibition.
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3.CASESTUDYHOUSES(singleproject,singularprototype)
HansSchmidt,HausSchaefferinRiehen,1927–1929
WhoisHansSchmidt?FortheSwissarchitectHansSchmidt(1893–1972),economicefficiencywasthe
foremostaiminhisworkwithindustrializedbuildingmethodsinhousing.Hesuccessfullyarguedtoinclude
economicpointsinthefirstCIAM-congressin1928,whichwentagainstLeCorbusier'sapproach,whowas
fightingforhisfiveaestheticpoints.ToSchmidt,NeuesBauenwasamethodof(economic)production.
Schmidt'stypologicalworkinthe1920swascommittedtothesearchforthemostaffordable,smallest,and
mostefficienthousing.Hisworkwasshownonthesecond1929andthethird1930CIAM-congressabout
AccommodationfortheSubsistence(WohnungfürdasExistenzminimum)andRationalLandDevelopment
(RationelleBebauungsweisen).Butfinallyandhefailedeconomically.Claimsforcompensationbecauseof
constructionfaultsofsomeofhisexperimentalbuilticonsofSwissNeuesBauenhadbeensohighthathis
partnershipwithPaulArtariahadtobedeclaredbankruptin1930.
Objectives?Schmidt'sobjectiveontheonehandwastobuildaone-family-houseforaprivateclient.Buton
theotherhandhehadasecretideawhiledoingthisproject.Actuallyhedevelopedaprototypeoffor
settlementoftownhouses.Thereforetheprojectwasshownin1929atthe2ndCIAMCongressinFrankfurt
presentingdwellingforthesubsistence.Schmidtnevermentionedhisideatotheclientandsohecould
develophispersonalidealandsellitto'rich'people.Thehousecanalsobeseenasacriticalcommentonthe
two-family-houseofLeCorbusierintheWeissenhofsiedlung.Schmidtusesthemetaphorof'Wohnford'.His
interpretationislessplayfulandartisticthanLeCorbusier's,butratherconsistentinoptimizationofthelandusetypeandthestrictdifferentiationoffunctions.
SituationinBasel?Onlyinfaceoftheextraordinaryhousingshortagein1918/19,therewereattemptstoward
acoordinatedhousingpolicyandrelatedsubsidiesbythefederalgovernment,cantonsandmunicipalities.But
thefederalsubsidieswerecancelledin1924,followedintheearly1930sbythemunicipalitiesandcantons.
Onlythankstomunicipalfinancialassistanceduringtheinterwarperioddidnonprofitcooperativesbecomea
supportingpillarofthehousingsupply.InBasel,cooperativesalsobuiltrentalhousing.However,
predominantlysingle-familytownhouseswerecreatedandsoldtoresidents.In1927,theconstructionindustry
againstartedtoboom.Decreasedconstructioncostsandmortgageratesmadebuildingprofitable,whilerents
rose.
Client?Privateclients.
Featuresandcosts?Thefloorplanisclearlyseparatedbyfunction.Incontrasttothespaciousinteriordesign
inthelivingareainthegroundflooraconcisespacedistributionwasaimedonthesecondfloor.Thefive
bedroomsarelineduplikesleeperberthsalongthecorridor.Corridorandroomsareseparatedbybuilt-in
cupboards(seeCorbusier).Unfortunatelythereisnopreciseinformationaboutthecosts.
Industrialbuilding?Thearchitectstriedtotypifytheirfloorplanstoindustrialstandardstoproducethehouse
ontheconveyorbelt.Thisrepresentstheideaof'Wohnford'(SchmidtadoptedthetermofOud).The
supportingsteelskeletonwasinfilledwithconcreteslabs(Bimsbetonplatten)andabricklayerisolatedthe
house.Constructiontookjustsevenmonths.Slidingwindowwithironframeandcementeddoubleglazing
havebeenspecificallydevelopedandpatented.Itwasthefirstapplicationofafirmlycementeddoubleglazing
inSwitzerland.However,thecementingsolvedalreadyinthefirstfewyears,sothatthewindowshavebeen
replacedbysingle-glazedpanes,whichthendrewmassiveinsulationproblems.
Propaganda?Thehousewaspresentedinthejournal«ABCBeiträgezumBauen»,editedbySchmidthimself
andatthe2ndCIAMexhibitioninFrankfurt.
3Conclusion
Standardizationhadbeenattackedfromthefirstyearsofitsexpandinguseasathreattothecreative,
individualisticsoul.Forsomeprogressivearchitectsindustrializedbuildingseemtobetheonlyexpressionof
avantgardeandfuture.Otherprogressivesfocussedaestheticquestionsindependentlyfrombuildingmethods.
TheAvantgardeofthe1920swasdividedintothesetwoparts.
Buttherewerealsoeconomicreasonsforthesefearsinthelater1920s.Unemploymentcontinuedathigh
levelsthroughoutthedecade,andworkersandtheirunionsfeltthreatenedbythefanfareoverlaborsaving
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methods.Resistancewasparticularlystronginthebuildingindustries,whereskilledcraftsmenpredominated,
andindustrializationhadfartogoStonemasons,bricklayers,androofersspokethroughtheirprofessional
journalsagainsttheconcreteandframestructuresandthetarpapered,flatroofsoftheNeuesBauen.The
Avantgardefocussednotonlyform,styleandbuildingmethods,butalsointhesesocialconditions.
Bythelate1920sandearly1930s,ithadbecomeapparentthatrationalizationinhousingwasnotreducing
costsorimprovingqualitysignificantly,aswehaveseeninthepresentedexamples.Andwehavealsoseen
thatrentsinmosthousingprojectsremainedtoohighfortheworkingclass.
Withthefailureofthenewhousingprogramstoreducecostsorimprovestandardsinthelate1920s,some
modernarchitectsrenouncedorqualifiedtheirfaithinrationalizationratherthan,likeGropiusandMay,
advocatingstillmoreofit.BrunoTautwasoneofthoseheretics.Afewyearsafterpraisingrationalization(for
itsethicalvirtues),heconcludedthatitwouldsavelittlecomparedtothecostsoffinancingnewhousing.And
MartinWagner,thoughremainingmoreconfidentthatmassproductioncouldreducebuildingcosts,cameto
believethatinterestratesalsohadtobeloweredifcheaperhousingweretobeproduced.
InconclusionIwouldliketosumupsevenimportantfactsinfluencingthedevelopmentinthe1920sandmay
bediscussablefortoday:1.Regulationofthehousingmarket(fundingtroughsubsidies,taxes,laws,measures
regardinglandownership)2.Needfornew/affordablehousing3.Developmentofnewmaterialsand
constructionsystems4.Innovativeindividualpersonalities5.Architectsinpoliticalkeyfeatures6.Opennessto
newideas(newsocietyconcepts,financingsystems,architecturalandurbandesigns)7.Marketing.
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