Book excerpt
So Much More than the ABCs:
The Early Phases of Reading and Writing
by Judith A. Schickedanz & Molly F. Collins
About this book
By engaging infants, toddlers, and preschoolers in experiences that foster oral
language and content knowledge, literacy skills, and cognitive ability, we build a
foundation for children’s later academic success.
This book addresses four main points:
1. What children need to learn in these early years
2. The strategies that teachers can use to help children acquire these foundations
3. The features of emergent literacy and language understandings and skills
4. How to design the physical environment in early childhood classrooms to
support language and literacy learning
This book will help early childhood professionals and families support young
children in acquiring the understandings, knowledge, and skills needed for later
success in learning to read and write.
About this excerpt
This excerpt (Chapter 6, “What’s Involved in Writing?”) provides a brief overview
of the two main processes involved in writing—generating and organizing ideas
(composing) and representing these meanings. It also describes some milestones
of writing development up through adolescence, and discusses major issues related to writing in preschool, kindergarten, and the early primary grades.
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© Ellen B. Senisi
6
What’s Involved in
Writing?
T
he understandings and skills that provide a foundation for reading also comprise a large part of what young children need for learning to write. Some additional knowledge and abilities also come into play, especially in the early years, when
the physical act of writing can challenge a young child’s fine motor skills.
This chapter provides a brief overview of the two main processes involved
in writing—generating and organizing ideas (composing) and representing these
meanings. Each process involves a number of understandings and skills. We also
describe some milestones of writing development up through adolescence, and
discuss major issues related to writing in preschool, kindergarten, and the early
primary grades. These include the balance between code-related skills and meaning, the question of where drawing and talking fit into writing, and the amount of
attention handwriting should receive.
Creating messages
Writers think about the message they want to communicate, sometimes putting it
into oral form (talking it through) before they write it. This meaning-creation part
of the writing process is called composing.
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Composing draws on the writer’s content knowledge (i.e., knowledge of the
physical, biological, and social world), understanding of different genres (e.g., fiction, nonfiction, lab report, friendly letter, note, sign), and language and cognitive
skills. Planning is part of the composing process, and older writers often prepare
an outline before they start.
The degree of challenge involved in composing depends, in part, on the message and its purpose. For example, a short note written to a friend about an upcoming meeting is far easier to compose than a short story or a persuasive essay. When
the message is fairly complex (i.e., a story, an essay, a newspaper column), writers
usually rework their message several times before it expresses well what they had
intended. The reworking of drafts is called revising.
When revising, writers scrutinize a draft for accuracy, adequacy (e.g., “Is there
enough detail and information?”), clarity (e.g., “Will a reader understand what
I mean?”), and appeal (e.g., “Will my intended audience like this?”). Revising by
mature writers is a complex process because they look for various problems (e.g.,
in meaning, sentence structure, and spelling). Once found, the problems must be
repaired. Especially important for expert adult writers is skill in evaluating the
meaning in their drafts. This requires some of the same skills that readers use to
comprehend text (Hayes 2000).
Representing messages
Of course, as writers compose a message, they represent it in some way. For some
older preschoolers, school-age children, and adults, representation takes the form
of written words, which requires knowing how to create and arrange symbols (i.e.,
alphabet letters/graphemes) to spell specific words. Language skills (i.e., syntactic
and grammatical knowledge) then guide the writer in arranging her words into sentences. By the primary grades, children are also expected to place words on a writing surface, such as paper or a white board, according to established conventions
(e.g., from left to right and from top to bottom, leaving space in between them,
using uppercase and lowercase letters appropriately), and to use punctuation.
Younger, emergent writers (i.e., preschoolers, kindergartners) usually do not
check to make sure their spelling is correct (Adams 1990). For one thing, because
they are not yet reading, they have not inspected words carefully, which is how
children become aware of the conventional spellings of most words. But even
though unconventional, some young writers’ spellings show that they know something about their language’s basic spelling rules.
For example, when a child wrote a note to a friend near the end of kindergarten
(Figure 6-1), he placed two vowels in the middle of Dear, an acceptable representation for tense vowel phonemes in some word contexts, but the wrong pair (Deer) for
this word’s standard spelling. Similarly, the child placed a vowel before ‘ng’ in the
grammatical morpheme in feeling, but used a more literal spelling (feeleang) than
the standard ‘i.’ Specifically, he chose two letters that are an acceptable representation for the tense vowel in this spot in some words (e.g., peat), even though it is not
the standard spelling needed for the same sound in this particular word context.
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Likewise, he spelled better with just one
‘t,’ not two. He did include the ‘e’ between the
‘t’ and ‘r,’ which indicates an understanding
of the requirement that each syllable have
a vowel. Or, if he did not know this specific
English spelling rule, he knew that he had
never seen the consonants ‘tr’ in this sequence at the end of a word, but instead had
always seen another kind of letter (vowel) in
between them. He might have guessed which
one to use. The words I, you, are, and love
were all spelled correctly, which illustrates
that young children learn many standard
spellings from having seen them frequently,
especially as they are learning to read.
Figure 6-1
Phases of writing development
We can think of writing development in terms of three major phases: (1) emergent,
(2) beginning conventional, and (3) more mature conventional. Developing skill in
writing takes years. The timeframes for these phases are rough approximations,
not sharply delineated stages. There is also considerable development within each
phase.
Emergent writing
The emergent phase starts around 1 year of age and continues through kindergarten and into first grade (Figure 6-2). There is a world of difference, of course, between an emergent writer who is a toddler and one who is a preschooler, and also
between a preschooler and a kindergartner, and a kindergartner and a first-grader.
For example, in the early part of the emergent phase, infants and toddlers make
marks, but just to explore mark making and the tools used, for their own sake, not
to represent messages. The preschool and kindergarten child, in contrast, draw
and label pictures that represent objects and events, write their names, and also
use scribble writing and mock words (i.e., letter strings that look like words, but
are not actual words) to create grocery lists, notes to friends, and signs for block
buildings. An older first-grader also spells more words correctly than a kindergartner, invents others that closely resemble their conventional spelling (Figures 6-2c
and 6-2d), and separates words by a space (Figure 6-2d).
There are also major differences in the complexity of messages created by
younger emergent writers, compared to older ones. Although older toddlers sometimes name scribble drawings after having created them, they have relatively little
to say beyond the label. By 4 years of age, children typically set out to draw with
intention (i.e., to represent something), and they use details that help convey their
meanings. They might also add some scribble or mock word writing to “tell” their
message, although they use oral language to relate much of their meaning, and an
adult sometimes writes down what they say.
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Seventeen-month-old’s scribble.
Four-year-old’s name used to sign his picture.
Figure 6-2b
Figure 6-2a
Picture with writing (“This kind of
dinosaur feeds on trees”). Convention
of using space in between words is not
used.
Figure 6-2c
Older first-grader’s thank-you note to his
father, with spaces separating words.
Figure 6-2d
The emergent period of writing can be divided into three sub-phases:
1. Pre-Representational: Marks are not intended to convey a message (see
Chapter 7).
2. Intentional Representation with Multiple Symbol Systems: Marks convey
meaning. Scribble or mock words are added to “help” represent meaning,
but children convey much of their meaning orally, because neither their
drawing nor their writing conveys as much as they wish to express (see
Chapter 8).
3. Intentional Representation with More Balanced Symbol Systems: Children’s drawings convey more of their meaning. Marks intended as writing
are more letter-like in form, and creatively spelled words are often readable. Talking about drawings and writing to explain what they “say,” is still
extremely important for older preschoolers and kindergartners, and also for
first-graders, because their full meaning is sometimes hard to convey with
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only drawing and writing. By late in the preschool years, many children can
represent some simpler meanings with writing marks, alone (e.g., “I love
you,” grocery list in scribble writing or mock words) (see Chapter 8).
Beginning conventional
From kindergarten through third grade, writing and drawing are almost always
intentional (i.e., convey intended meanings). Kindergarten and primary grade
children also create more complex messages than preschoolers, and begin to use
features that distinguish one genre from another (e.g., stories versus informational
text) (Duke & Kays 1998). First-graders, compared to preschool and kindergarten
children, also begin thinking more about the content of their writing, and often use
sentence forms and content from familiar books (Dahl & Freppon 1995).
Yet, first grade writers are still quite spontaneous—they do not engage in
extensive planning before beginning (Graves 1981). They talk a bit about what they
are going to write and also talk as they write and draw (Cioffi 1984). Moreover, if a
message includes several ideas, first-graders formulate each in the moment (i.e.,
each is an “add-on”). They do not revise the whole as they think of new ideas.
The first grade child forms alphabet letters fairly well. Handwriting skill increases over the primary years and becomes more automatic (i.e., children form
letters without thinking much about it). First- and second-graders develop considerable skill in spelling, and acquire more knowledge about punctuation and the
appropriate uses of uppercase and lowercase letters. Much of this learning comes
from reading.
As children gain skill in these writing mechanics, they can devote more time
and energy to thinking about what they will write. But although first and second
grade children have considerable skill in creating written words, they still use
drawings to represent some of their meanings. Kindergartners and first-graders, in
particular, still need to use oral language to communicate much of their meaning.
More mature writing
As language skill, knowledge, and spelling and other technical skills increase, a
writer’s messages increase in length and depth, and the words used to convey messages increase in specificity. In fact, a good vocabulary is as important for writing
as for reading, if not more so (Johnson 2000). Good instructional support for writing
also includes vocabulary development (Kelley et al. 2010). For example, when reviewing a draft of an autobiography with a second-grader, the teacher might discuss
word use, such as when several words are used where one higher-level word would
capture the meaning. For example, a teacher might say, “Right here, you’ve said, ‘I
like soccer better than baseball, basketball, or hockey. I like soccer more than any
other sport.’ For the second sentence, you could say, ‘Soccer is my favorite sport.’
Just that one word would express ‘more than any other sport’ all by itself.”
As children progress through school, they craft sentences to express increasingly complex relationships, and they write more clearly and with more coherence. They also think more specifically about the intended audience and gradually
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develop skill in writing for a wider range of purposes. Children’s writing progress is
enhanced if they receive helpful feedback from teachers and peers.
Effective early childhood practices
Unfortunately, research shows that the majority of high school students in the U.S.
are not proficient writers (Achieve, Inc. 2005; Persky, Daane, & Jin 2003; Salahu-Din,
Persky, & Miller 2008). One misstep in U.S. education followed from the publication of the “Report of the National Reading Panel” (National Reading Panel 2000).
This happened because research on writing did not clearly show effects on reading
skill development, and the panel’s report did not recommend writing practices as
a strategy for supporting reading development. As schools tried to make language
arts instruction “scientifically based,” writing was often neglected. Now that the
Common Core State Standards for the English Language Arts (National Governors
Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers 2010),
which include writing, have been adopted by all but a handful of states, we will
likely see improvement in children’s writing.
There are many things that early childhood teachers can do to help children
get off to a good start. We highlight some of the ways to help, along with some
pitfalls to avoid. Chapters 7 and 8 will discuss specific writing-related information
and strategies more fully.
Read to young children
Reading to children, starting in infancy, helps children develop language and
become familiar with different forms of written discourse. Children also learn a
lot about people and the natural world from books, especially when adults engage
children in conversation about them.
Expose children to a range of purposes for writing
Young children benefit from seeing writing used for a wide variety of purposes
(e.g., menus, lists, signs, greetings, stories, poetry, labels). They can use scribble
writing and mock letters and words for many of these purposes, in house pretend
play (e.g., making a grocery list, leaving a note for a babysitter), in play in the block
area (e.g., signs for buildings and streets), and when making a card for an absent
friend or creating a drawing and note for the teacher at the writing center. (See
Figure 8-5 in Chapter 8.)
Using writing for these purposes is highly motivating to young children no
matter their level of skill (e.g., scribble, mock letters, mock words). If we confine
preschoolers’ writing to set tasks, such as alphabet letter and name writing, we
stifle their motivation to write and severely limit their opportunities to learn.
Provide mark-making experiences early
Early mark-making experiences gradually lead to the creation of pictures and
scribble writing, to which children attribute meaning. Because the physical form
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of a young child’s representations does not give others access to its meaning, very
young children relate meanings orally. Early marking provides a wonderful opportunity for adults to talk with children about their meanings.
Talk with children about their writing and drawing
As adults talk with young children about their drawings and writing, they learn not
only about oral language, but also about message creation (e.g., how much detail
to include, how to organize messages). When adults prompt children to tell more,
it helps to develop their narrative skills (Peterson & McCabe 1994).
Keep the focus on meaning
Of course, preschoolers begin to learn how to form alphabet letters, link letters
to sounds, and use various print conventions. But if code-based and handwriting skills are the primary focus in the early years, while meaning is given little
attention, children are not served well for the long run. It is important for early
childhood teachers to keep a primary focus of writing on meaning, and on communicating it, rather than focusing mostly on code-related and handwriting skills.
Experiences in the early years must be balanced.
Understanding the young child’s approach to representing meaning
Dyson (2000) and Genishi and Dyson (2009) point out that young children, including first- and second-graders, have several well-established ways of conveying
meaning, before they can use writing well for this purpose. For example, they
engage in pretend play, draw, use gestures, and talk. Of course, young children are
more comfortable using these forms, instead of writing, to convey their meanings.
Although it takes years for children to develop skill in handwriting and spelling,
they try to express complex meanings
from very early in life. It’s important to
Figure 6-3. “This is a lady with a green hat
keep meaning afloat in these early years, and polka dot eyes and nose, and a mouth.”
and not focus narrowly on requiring
children to represent ideas only in writing, or to include writing with all of their
pictures. For example, when a 3-year-old
boy drew a fairly detailed picture of a
lady in a green hat, he told a lot about
it, but did not add writing to the picture.
His teacher accepted his oral commentary and did not ask him to add any
writing (Figure 6-3).
The challenge for early childhood
teachers is to help children acquire skill
in using written forms of communication,
while also maintaining and nurturing
their skill in communicating meanings
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© Julia Luckenbill
through pretend play, drawing,
and talking. Doing this requires
giving children freedom to use
multiple means to represent
and convey meaning (e.g.,
drawing, writing, talking),
and accepting writing as a
somewhat minor player in the
communication of meaning, for
a while.
As a start, early childhood
teachers can do more than ask
children to label their drawings (e.g., “What is it?”) and
then move quickly to saying,
“Let me write that down” (e.g.,
“This is a bird’s nest”). Learning that “we can write down what we say” is easy for
children, and fairly trivial in the grand scheme of things, especially when the teacher elicits only a few labels. If we ask a child first to “tell me about your picture” and
he says, “It’s a bird’s nest,” we can ask, “Did you see a bird’s nest somewhere?” to
prompt him to provide more information. A teacher can then ask a second followup question after the child responds, to keep the conversation going, if the child
seems interested.
Far better for the child in the long run to talk more about what she means, and
worry less about writing it down. Far better too, if the teacher writes down messages for young children, rather than expect them to write complex meanings by
themselves. While there is a time and a place for expecting independence in action,
pushing independence too soon in some realms stifles what children are willing to
think and say, because representing it by themselves is overwhelming.
Concluding thoughts about writing
Early childhood teachers can open up various means of symbolizing and communicating for young children if they provide ample opportunities for pretend play,
block building, and drawing, painting, and writing. Notably, the Common Core
State Standards for the English Language Arts, K-6 (National Governors Association
Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers 2010) recognize
the importance of drawing and dictating messages in the kindergarten-level writing
standards. Preschool teachers can certainly follow suit.
Good preschool programs nurture a balance, tipped at first toward the development of meaning and the use of multiple symbolic strategies (i.e., drawing, talking, and writing) to represent them. To nurture their writing, teachers and parents
must provide children with many opportunities and sufficient time, and must interact and assist in numerous ways, all along the way. Chapters 7 and 8 provide many
examples of how early childhood teachers and parents might do this.
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