GEOL 180 - Winter 2008 Syllabus
Introduction to Oceanography
Instructor:
Frank Buonaiuto
Email:
[email protected]
Phone
(212) 650-3092
Office hours:
Rm 1049 HN Mon, Wed 4:45 - 5:45 pm
Lecture hours:
Rm 511 HW Mon - Thu 1:00 - 4:45 pm
Course Description:
This course will offer an introduction to the fascinating
and complex subject of Oceanography. We will discuss
physical, chemical, biological and geological aspects of
the oceans. We will learn about the structure and
motion of the atmosphere and how they influence ocean
circulation. We will discuss waves, tides and coasts, and
we will make discuss environmental issues connected with
the world’s oceans as we discuss all these topics.
In addition, although the focus of this course is not
biological oceanography, whenever possible we will
discuss primary productivity and the distribution of life
within the oceans.
1
Required Text: Oceanography – CUNY, Hunter
College, 1th edition, Garrison, T. , 2007, Thomson.
Oceanography
An Invitation to Marine Science
6th Edition
by
Tom Garrison
http://oceanography.brookscole.com/garrison6e
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Grades: Grades are based on attendance, class
participation and quizes.
Attendance
– 20%
Participation
– 20%
Chapter Quizes
- 60%
(8-10 quizes)
Grading is as follows:
90-100=A; 80-89=B; 70-79=C; 60-69=D; <60=F.
Come to class, participate and if you encounter
difficulties, bring them to the professor’s
attention as soon as you find them, don’t wait
till the end of the semester!
Keep in mind: One of your best friends in this course is
the textbook.
Makeup Exams: will NOT be given except in the most
extreme cases.
Academic Dishonesty: Hunter College regards acts of
academic dishonesty (e.g., plagiarism, cheating on
examinations, obtaining unfair advantage, and
falsification of records and official documents as
serious offenses against the values of intellectual
honesty. The College is committed to enforcing the
CUNY Policy on Academic Integrity and will pursue
cases of academic dishonesty according to the Hunter
College Academic Integrity Procedures.
3
Introduction To Oceanography
GEOL 180
Tentative Lecture Schedule Winter, 2008
Month
Date
Day
Lec
Subject
Reading
Jan
02
Wed
01
Introductory Lecture
Chapter 1
03
Thu
02
Space, Time, Origins
Chapter 2
07
Mon
03
Earth Structure & Plate Tectonics
Chapter 3
08
Tue
04
Continental Margins & Ocean Basins
Chapter 4
09
Wed
05
Sediments
Chapter 5
10
Thu
06
Water & Ocean Structure
Chapter 6
14
Mon
07
Ocean Chemistry
Chapter 7
15
Tue
08
Circulation of the Atmosphere
Chapter 8
16
Wed
09
Circulation of the Ocean
Chapter 9
17
Thu
10
Waves
Chapter 10
21
Mon
22
Tue
11
Tides
Chapter 11
23
Wed
12
Coasts, Beaches & Estuaries
Chapter 12
No Class Martin Luther King Jr. Day
Chapter 1
Knowing the Ocean World
Oceanography
Subdisciplines
The World’s Oceans – general characteristics
The History of Oceanography
Erastosthenes and the size and shape of Earth
Latitude and Longitude
Longitude and Time
4
Oceanography: is the study of the earth's oceans and their
interlinked ecosystems , geological, chemical and physical
processes.
•Geological oceanography: the study of geologic processes in
the oceans (plate tectonics, coastal morphology)
•Chemical oceanography: the study of the chemistry of the
oceans
•Meteorological oceanography: the study of the interaction
between atmosphere and the oceans
•Physical oceanography: the study of the physical attributes
of the oceans (temperature-salinity structure, waves, tides,
currents)
•Biological oceanography: the study of the flora and fauna
of the oceans
Chapter 1 - General description of the world’s oceans,
Latitude and Longitude or how to find an ‘address’ on Earth,
some history of scientific discovery.
Chapter 2 - Earth and its origins, life and the oceans
Geological oceanography: the study of geologic processes in
the oceans (plate tectonics, coastal morphology)
Inner structure of the Earth and how oceans and
continents form – Chapter 3 – Ocean floor, continental
margins and ocean basins – Chapter 4 – A look at what
makes ocean features: sediments – Chapter 5.
Chemical oceanography: the study of the chemistry of the
oceans
This is a lot about physics too, as it deals with the internal
structure of the matter that makes the oceans: water –
Chapter 6 – Then ocean water is not just pure water, it has
salt and many other dissolved components – Chapter 7.
5
•Meteorological oceanography: the study of the interaction
between atmosphere and the oceans
Where there is ocean there is motion: the waters move
because the air moves. Hence, where there is oceans there
is an atmosphere, and they interact – Chapter 8.
•Physical oceanography: the study of the physical attributes
of the oceans (temperature-salinity structure, waves, tides,
currents)
Finally we look into the motion of sea water in detail, first
at the surface currents and how surface motion relates to
motion deeper in the oceans – Chapter 9 – Motion of energy
across the sea surface by waves: big waves, small waves,
internal waves, huge-enormous waves – Chapter 10 – The
longest of all oceans waves: the tides – Chapter 11.
Chapter 12 – Coasts & Estuaries is a lot about connections
among all other chapters!
Three of the most
prominent
oceanographic
institutions in the US:
Lamont-Doherty Earth
Observatory of
Columbia University, NY
Woods Hole
Oceanographic
Institute, Cape Code,
MA (MIT)
Scripps Institution of
Oceanography, La Jolla
CA (UC-San Diego)
6
Summary of the relative amount of water in various locations on or
near Earth’s surface. More than 97% of the water lies in the ocean.
Of all water at Earth’s surface, ice on land contains about 1.7%,
groundwater 0.8%, rivers and lakes 0.007%, and the atmosphere
0.001%. NONE, as small as they may be, are unimportant!
Mid-Atlantic
Ridge
The average depth of
the ocean is 4 ½ times
as great as average
land elevation (about
840 m or ½ mile). Note
the extent of the
Pacific Ocean, Earth’s
most prominent single
feature.
Ocean’s
deepest
spot
Earth’s
highest
mountain
Pacific Ocean Basin,
Earth’s largest feature
7
Curiosity
A question arises about an event or
situation: Why and how does this
happen? Why are things this way?
Law
Theories can evolve into larger
constructs: laws. Laws explain events in
nature that occur with unvarying uniformity under identical conditions. Laws
summarize experimental observations.
Observations, measurements
Our senses are brought to bear: What is
happening? Under what circumstances?
When? How does it operate? Does there
appear to be a dependable cause-andeffect relationship at work?
Theory
Patterns emerge. If one or more of the
relationships hold, the hypothesis
becomes a theory, an explanation for
the observations that is accepted by
most researchers.
Hypothesis
A tentative explanation is proposed.
Controlled experiments are planned to
prove or disprove potential cause-andeffect relationships. A good hypothesis
can predict future occurrences under
similar circumstances.
Experiments
Tests are undertaken in nature or in
the laboratory. These tests permit
manipulating and controlling the
conditions under which observations
are made.
Stepped Art
Fig. 1-5, p. 6
8
Understanding the Ocean Began with
Voyaging for Trade and Exploration
9
Voyaging on water was important to many early civilizations. The
Egyptians, Cretans, and Phoenicians were all skilled sailors.
9
Cartographers, or chart makers, recorded information about locations
and landmarks and currents.
9
Today, charts are detailed graphic representations of water and waterrelated information.
9
The Library at Alexandria, in Egypt, was founded in the third century
B.C. This library stored information on every area of human endeavor.
9
Eratosthenes of Cyrene was the second librarian at Alexandria. He was
the first to calculate the circumference of Earth. He also invented a system
of longitude and latitude.
9
The principles of celestial navigation were invented at the Library at
Alexandria.
Eratosthenes (200 B.C.) calculated what Pythagoras
(~ 500 B.C.) already knew: size of Earth
Parallel
rays
from sun
Vertical pole
at Alexandria
785 km
(491 mi)
Shadow of pole
~7° 1/50 circle
Center
of Earth
1/50 circle ~7°
Vertical well
at Syene
A diagram showing Eratosthenes’s technique for calculating the
circumference of Earth. He used simple geometric reasoning based on
the assumptions that Earth is spherical and that the sun is very far away.
Using this method, he was able to discover the circumference of Earth
to within about 8% of its true value.
9
The ‘world’ of Eratosthenes: first lines of latitude and longitude
Parallel Thule
NORTHERN OCEAN
EUROPE
Borysthenes
Byzantium
Rhodes
Alexandria
Ganges
ASIA
Tropic line
Libya
Meridian
of the
Indus
Meridian
of the
Alexandr
ia
Meridian of
the Pillars
of Hercules
North
Pole
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Meridian
of the
Ganges
India
Meroe
Latitude
60°N
30°N
Latitude
0°
Equator
30°S
South
Pole
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Determining Longitudes
North
Pole
Reference:
Prime
meridian
Longitude
60°W
0°
at Greenwich
South
Pole
North
Pole
60°
N
30°
N
B’
60°
W
B
30°
W
South
Pole
A’
0
°
A
0
°
30°
E
30°
S
NOTE: Lines of latitude are
always the same distance apart
(1° is always equal to 1°!) but
the distance between two lines
of longitude varies with
latitude. This means that:
1. For example, the distance
between the latitudes of the
equator (0°) and of 30°N is
the same as the distance
between the latitudes of 30°N
and 60°N.
2. At the latitudes of the
equator (0°) and of 30°N
there is 30° of longitude
between points A and B and
between the points A’ and B’
but the distance between A
and B is different (larger)
than the distance between A’
and B’.
11
Natural Time – Earth around Sun
Earth’s Rotation
One complete
revolution in 1
day = 24 hours
(360°)
Average
Earth’s Radius:
~ 6400 km
Earth’s shape:
Oblate Spheroid
12
How many degrees longitude does the earth rotate in 1 hour?
Longitude and Time
The clock is set to
noon when the Sun is
at its zenith above
the prime meridian
Every 15° of
longitude
correspond to 1
hour
13
1. Which circle of latitude or longitude has the smallest circumference?
a. the equator
b. 30°N
d. 45°S
e. 80°S
c. the prime meridian
2. If a clock is set to Greenwich Mean Time (GTM) and the sun is observed to reach its zenith at 10:00AM, what
is the longitude? How many degrees longitude did you travel?
3. If a clock is set to Greenwich Mean Time (GTM) and the sun is observed to reach its zenith at 3:20PM, what is
the longitude? How many degrees longitude did you travel?
4. A clock is set to noon at your home port (42oN, 74oW). While sailing along the same line of latitude you notice
the sun reaches its zenith at 9:40AM. What is your present location?
5. A clock is set to noon at your home port (42oN, 74oW). While traveling along the same line of latitude you
notice the sun reaches its zenith at 1:40PM. What is your present location, and are you on a boat?
6. During the Southern Hemisphere's summer
a. the Earth is closest to the sun
b. the Earth is furthest from the sun
c. the Sun stands directly above the equator
d. the Sun stands directly above 23.5°S latitude
7. The sun stands directly above the equator
a. once each year
b. twice each year
c. once in midwinter (Northern Hemisphere)
d. once in midsummer (Northern Hemisphere)
History of Oceanography
– Late 1800’s Ocean Science Begins
• Telegraph Cables
– 1873 “The Depths of the Sea”
• Charles Thompson
• First Oceanography Book
• Lightning (915 m), Porcupine (4300 m)
14
The First Scientific Expeditions Were
Undertaken by Governments
•
The United States Exploring Expedition launched in 1838 was a naval and scientific
expedition.
•
The HMS Beagle, on which Charles Darwin served as a naturalist, voyaged to South
America and some Pacific Islands.
•
(BELOW) HMS Challenger expedition of 1872-1876 was the first oceanic expedition
dedicated to scientific research.
History of Oceanography
– Challenger Expedition 1872
•
•
•
•
Charles Thompson & John Murray
3.5 year voyage
361 depth soundings
1000’s of water & bottom samples, temp.
readings
• 20 years to analyze data
• 50 volumes
• Began descriptive oceanography
15
Contemporary Oceanography Makes Use of
Modern Oceanography
What advances in oceanic exploration occurred in the twentieth
century?
• Polar Exploration – explorers reached both the North and South
poles in the twentieth century
• The Meteor Expedition – the first expedition to use modern optical
and electronic equipment for oceanographic investigation
• The Atlantis – investigations by scientists on this research vessel
confirmed the presence of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
• The Trieste – a blimp-like bathyscaphe which descended into the
Challenger Deep area of the Mariana Trench
• Glomar Challenger – samples obtained by scientists on this drilling
ship provided confirming evidence for seafloor spreading and plate
tectonics.
20th Century Voyages Contributed to
Oceanographic Knowledge
(right) Echo sounders sense the
contour of the seafloor by beaming
sound waves to the bottom and
measuring the time required for the
sound waves to bounce back to the
ship.
If the round-trip travel time and
wave velocity are known, distance
to the bottom can be calculated.
This technique was first used on a
large scale by the German research
vessel Meteor in the 1920s.
16
History of Oceanography
– World War II
• Sonar Development “submarine detection”
• Data collection “bomb testing”
• Coastal Oceanography/ Engineering
– “Glomar Challenger” Deep Sea Drilling Prog.
• 1968
• Computers Onboard
• Data Processing at Sea = adjust the project
History of Oceanography
– NOAA (Nat. Oceanic & Atmospheric Admin.)
•
•
•
•
•
•
1970
National Ocean Survey (NOS)
National Weather Service (NWS)
National Marine Fisheries
Environmental Research Laboratories (ERL)
Sea Grant College Program
– Hydrothermal Vents (late 1970’s)
– Improved Ocean Circulation (satellites)
17
History of Oceanography
– Environmental Awareness 1980’s
• Fisheries Degradation
• Biological Productivity
– GOOS “Global Ocean Observing Systems”
• 1991
• Increase understanding/ warning “El Nino”
– MARA “Mid-Atlantic Regional Association
• 2004 – 2005 Global Environmental Change
In: 50 Years of Ocean Discovery: National Science
Foundation 1950-2000 (NAP, 2000)
The Importance of Ocean Sciences to Society.
HUMAN HEALTH AND THE OCEANS (NRC, 1999)
In 1997, the NRC’s Governing Board approved a project
proposed by the Ocean Studies Board (OSB), in
cooperation with the Institute of Medicine’s Division of
Health Science Policy entitled “The Ocean’s Role in Human
Health.”
Topics addressed in this project:
• Marine natural disasters and public health: Can we
better model and predict marine natural disasters? Can we
better anticipate effects on public health?
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Climate and the incidence of infectious diseases: Are
waterborne diseases detectable and predictable? How do
changes in climate—both regional and global—impact
disease vectors?
• Hazards associated with toxic algal blooms: What
causes toxic algae to bloom? Can their outbreak be
predicted, mitigated, and prevented? Why has the
incidence of these blooms been increasing?
• The therapeutic potential of marine natural products:
What are the implications of the discovery of life a
thousand meters below the seafloor? Have we adequately
examined marine biotechnology for medically important
products?
• Marine organisms as models for biomedical research:
Are there marine species that could serve as useful
medical models? Can marine species offer new
understanding of human development or physiology?
•
National Research Council (NRC). 1999. From Monsoons to Microbes: Understanding the Ocean’s Role in Human Health. National Academy
Press, Washington, D.C.
Table 1-1a, p. 34
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Table 1-1b, p. 35
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