OUR STAKE
THE URBAN CONDITIO*
*pertinent
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4
DOMESTIC AFFAIRS DEPARTMENT, AMERICAN JEWISH COMMITTEE
165 East 56 Street, New York, N.Y. 10022
On June 28, 1978, t h e United S t a t e s Supreme C o u r t , i n Bakke v. U n i v e r s i t y o f
C a l i f o r n i a M e d i c a l S c h o o l a t D a v i s , s t r u c k down an admissions p l a n which r e s e r v e d
16 p l a c e s f o r m i n o r i t y - g r o u p a p p l i c a n t s and banned r a c i a l and e t h n i c quotas i n
s c h o o l admissions.
The Court added, however, t h a t race and e t h n i c background
c o u l d be used as one f a c t o r among o t h e r s i n student s e l e c t i o n .
On June 27, 1979, i n United S t e e l Workers o f America and K a i s e r C o r p o r a t i o n v.
Weber, t h e Court upheld a u n i o n - n e g o t i a t e d c r a f t t r a i n i n g program which r e s e r v e d
50 p e r c e n t o f t h e e l i g i b l e openings f o r B l a c k workers. And on J u l y 2, 1980, i n
F u l l i l o v e v. K l u t z n i c k , the C o u r t upheld a 10 p e r c e n t " s e t - a s i d e " f o r m i n o r i t y
b u s i n e s s e s i n F e d e r a l p u b l i c works c o n t r a c t s .
The r u l i n g s i n Weber and F u l l i l o v e , which - - l i k e Bakke e a r l i e r , were h a i l e d by
some as a major v i c t o r y f o r c i v i l r i g h t s , and denounced by o t h e r s as a green l i g h t
f o r r e v e r s e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n — w i l l have a major impact on employment p r a c t i c e s
i n both t h e p u b l i c and p r i v a t e s e c t o r s f o r y e a r s t o come. To understand the
c o n t r o v e r s i a l q u e s t i o n s and c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s the c o u r t s sought t o r e s o l v e ,
i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o look beyond t h e l e g a l t e c h n i c a l i t i e s t o t h e broader i s s u e o f
p u b l i c p o l i c y , and t o examine whether t h e o b j e c t i v e s the Court chose t o f u r t h e r
by s a n c t i o n i n g r a c i a l and e t h n i c quotas might not be b e t t e r , and more e q u i t a b l y ,
served by o t h e r means.
QUOTAS, PREFERENTIAL TREATMENT, AFFIRMATIVE ACTION
R a c i a l , e t h n i c and gender quotas have been a key i s s u e b e f o r e t h e U.S. Supreme
Court, ever s i n c e the DeFunis case i n 1974* w i t h most Black, H i s p a n i c and f e m i n i s t
groups f a v o r i n g p r e f e r e n t i a l quotas, and most Jews and o t h e r white e t h n i c groups
opposing them. Quotas a r e p r e c i s e , f i x e d p r o p o r t i o n s o r numbers o f p l a c e s used
i n a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n p l a n s t o i n s u r e t h a t an employer w i l l meet i t s o b j e c t i v e i n
h i r i n g o r promoting m i n o r i t i e s o r women.
Advocates o f quotas m a i n t a i n t h a t they a r e " t h e most p r a c t i c a l , and i n some s i t u ­
a t i o n s t h e o n l y p o s s i b l e way t o remedy t h e e f f e c t s o f p a s t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and
b r i n g m i n o r i t i e s and women i n t o t h e mainstream, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n employment. To
depend on t h e good f a i t h o f employers t o accomplish these ends, they argue, i s
often quite unrealistic.
(When, f o r example, t h e a l l - w h i t e M i s s i s s i p p i p o l i c e
force d e l i b e r a t e l y ignored several e a r l i e r court orders t o h a l t i t s d i s c r i m i n a t o r y
h i r i n g p r a c t i c e s , a court-imposed h i r i n g quota f i n a l l y assured q u a l i f i e d B l a c k s
* * * * *
*In DeFunis v. U n i v e r s i t y o f Washington Law S c h o o l
DeFunis, an a p p l i c a n t r e j e c t e d by t h e law s c h o o l , sued t h e s c h o o l c h a r g i n g r e v e r s e
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n because 36 o f t h e 37 m i n o r i t y - g r o u p a p p l i c a n t s admitted had combined
c o l l e g e g r a d e - p o i n t averages and Law S c h o o l Admission T e s t s c o r e s lower than h i s .
By t h e time t h e case reached t h e Supreme C o u r t , a m a j o r i t y o f the J u s t i c e s r e f u s e d
t o c o n s i d e r i t because they deemed i t t o be moot s i n c e DeFunis had i n t h e meantime
been admitted t o t h e law s c h o o l and was about t o graduate.
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the o p p o r t u n i t y t o j o i n the f o r c e . )
Proponents o f quotas a l s o tend to d i s c o u n t
any i n f r i n g e m e n t on the r i g h t s o f o t h e r s under quota-mandated programs, a r g u i n g
t h a t such i n f r i n g e m e n t i s minimal when balanced a g a i n s t the c o n t i n u i n g d i s c r i m i ­
n a t i o n s u f f e r e d by m i n o r i t i e s and women.
Opponents o f quotas, on the o t h e r hand, argue t h a t they d e s t r o y the m e r i t p r i n ­
c i p l e and o f t e n l e a d t o the s e l e c t i o n o r promotion o f l e s s q u a l i f i e d p e o p l e .
They p o i n t out t h a t even w e l l - i n t e n t i o n e d employers may f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o
meet a f i x e d h i r i n g quota,whereas i t i s u s u a l l y p o s s i b l e to comply w i t h more
f l e x i b l e g o a l s and t i m e t a b l e s * , and they m a i n t a i n t h a t quotas fan resentment
a g a i n s t members o f " p r e f e r r e d " groups and f o s t e r the b e l i e f t h a t anyone h i r e d
or promoted through a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n was not w e l l q u a l i f i e d , thus c r e a t i n g a
b a c k l a s h a g a i n s t a l l a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n programs.
THE
WEBER CASE
In 1974, o n l y f i v e o f the 290 s k i l l e d c r a f t jobs a t the K a i s e r s t e e l p l a n t i n
Gramercy, L o u i s i a n a were h e l d by B l a c k s , even though Blacks made up 39 p e r c e n t
o f the work f o r c e i n the s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a .
K a i s e r had been t r y i n g f o r some time
to r e c r u i t Blacks f o r c r a f t jobs, but because they had f o r many years been ex­
c l u d e d from t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s , i t was v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e to f i n d B l a c k
a p p l i c a n t s w i t h the n e c e s s a r y e x p e r i e n c e . To remedy the s i t u a t i o n without admit­
t i n g past d i s c r i m i n a t i o n (which c o u l d have c o s t the company Government o r d e r s ) ,
K a i s e r and the U n i t e d S t e e l Workers o f America n e g o t i a t e d an agreement e s t a b l i s h i n g
a t r a i n i n g program f o r u n s k i l l e d workers, w i t h t r a i n e e s chosen on the b a s i s o f
s e n i o r i t y , but from two s e p a r a t e l i s t s , one Black, the o t h e r white. F i f t y percent
o f the t o t a l p l a c e s was r e s e r v e d f o r each l i s t , which meant t h a t u n s k i l l e d whites
w i t h g r e a t e r s e n i o r i t y c o u l d be "bumped" by B l a c k workers w i t h l e s s s e n i o r i t y .
B r i a n Weber, one white worker who was so "bumped", brought s u i t i n U.S.
District
Court on b e h a l f o f h i m s e l f and o t h e r u n s k i l l e d white workers on the ground t h a t
the 50 p e r c e n t quota f o r Blacks c o n s t i t u t e d " r e v e r s e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n " i n v i o l a t i o n
o f T i t l e VII o f the 1964 C i v i l R i g h t s A c t .
T i t l e VII s t a t e s t h a t " I t s h a l l be an u n l a w f u l employment p r a c t i c e f o r any employer,
l a b o r o r g a n i z a t i o n , o r j o i n t l a b o r management committee. . .to d i s c r i m i n a t e a g a i n s t
any i n d i v i d u a l because o f h i s r a c e , c o l o r , r e l i g i o n , sex, o r n a t i o n a l o r i g i n . . ."
Weber argued not o n l y t h a t the p l a n t t r a i n i n g program d i s c r i m i n a t e d a g a i n s t whites
but a l s o t h a t t h e r e had been no j u d i c i a l f i n d i n g o f p a s t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t
B l a c k s which o t h e r c o u r t s have h e l d to mandate r e m e d i a l a c t i o n by the company and
the union.
* * * * * *
*A quota requirement means t h a t an employer w i l l be p e n a l i z e d u n l e s s a f i x e d number
or percentage o f persons i n a s p e c i f i e d c a t e g o r y , e.g., r a c e o r sex, are h i r e d or
promoted by a g i v e n date, whereas a g o a l requirement means t h a t no p e n a l t y w i l l
a t t a c h p r o v i d e d the employer has made a good f a i t h e f f o r t to meet the t a r g e t number
o r percentage o f p e r s o n s .
KAISER'S OPTIONS
Having d e c i d e d (as a r e s u l t o f p r e s s u r e from the Labor Department O f f i c e o f
F e d e r a l C o n t r a c t Compliance Programs), t o i n c r e a s e the number o f Black c r a f t
workers i n i t s Gramercy p l a n t . K a i s e r had a number o f o p t i o n s t o choose among:
These i n c l u d e d r e c r u i t m e n t t a r g e t e d to B l a c k s ; a review o f job requirements to
make sure they were performance-based and not r a c i a l l y b i a s e d ; and t r a i n i n g p r o ­
grams to q u a l i f y workers a l r e a d y i n the company's employ. As i n d i c a t e d above,
the company's e f f o r t s to expand the l o c a l p o o l o f q u a l i f i e d Black a p p l i c a n t s were
u n s u c c e s s f u l ; and though t h e r e i s no evidence t h a t K a i s e r reexamined i t s c r a f t - j o b
requirements, t h e r e i s g e n e r a l agreement on the need f o r some t r a i n i n g and/or
e x p e r i e n c e f o r any s k i l l e d work, and f o r a s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g program t o p r o v i d e i t .
But s i n c e B l a c k workers made up o n l y 14 p e r c e n t o f the t o t a l work f o r c e , and they
g e n e r a l l y had l e s s s e n i o r i t y than the white workers, a t r a i n i n g program t h a t
d i d not a l l o c a t e a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e number o f p l a c e s t o B l a c k s would not i n c r e a s e
t h e i r representation i n s k i l l e d jobs.
Was t h e r e any o t h e r way t h a t K a i s e r might have accomplished t h a t goal?
Since
39 p e r c e n t o f the u n s k i l l e d l a b o r p o o l i n the Gramercy area was Black, a t r a i n i n g
program open to a l l undoubtedly would have q u a l i f i e d a g r e a t e r number o f B l a c k s ;
the u n i o n , however, understandably, was more i n t e r e s t e d i n upgrading i t s own
members than i n p r o v i d i n g t r a i n i n g t o the g e n e r a l community. The 1974 c o l l e c t i v e
b a r g a i n i n g agreement, which d e t a i l e d the program K a i s e r adopted, r e p r e s e n t e d a
compromise between r e s t r i c t i n g the program s o l e l y to B l a c k s , and running i t s o l e l y
on the b a s i s o f s e n i o r i t y .
THE
SUPREME COURT OPINION
In the Weber case, the Supreme Court upheld the l e g a l i t y o f the K a i s e r program and
r u l e d t h a t T i t l e VII does not f o r b i d " r a c e - c o n s c i o u s " v o l u n t a r y a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n
programs t o r e c t i f y imbalances i n t r a d i t i o n a l l y s e g r e g a t e d job c a t e g o r i e s . Weber's
c l a i m t h a t the p l a n d i s c r i m i n a t e d a g a i n s t white workers was "not without f o r c e " ,
wrote J u s t i c e W i l l i a m J . Brennan i n the m a j o r i t y o p i n i o n , but the language o f
T i t l e VII should not be read i n i s o l a t i o n , s i n c e an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n " t h a t forbade
a l l r a c e - c o n s c i o u s a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n would b r i n g about an end completely at v a r i a n c e
w i t h the purpose o f the s t a t u t e and must be r e j e c t e d . "
The Court emphasized
t i v e a c t i o n programs
14th Amendment. The
i t r e q u i r e s , o r what
t h a t i t s r u l i n g was c o n f i n e d t o p r i v a t e and v o l u n t a r y a f f i r m a ­
which, u n l i k e Government programs, do not come under the
Court was d e c i d i n g what T i t l e VII p e r m i t s , r a t h e r t h a n what
some c o u r t might o r d e r t o remedy proven d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .
The o p i n i o n d i d not o f f e r much guidance t o employers concerned about the l e g a l i t y
o f t h e i r own a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n p l a n s :
". . .we need not d e f i n e today t h e l i n e o f
demarcation between p e r m i s s i b l e and i m p e r m i s s i b l e p l a n s , " J u s t i c e Brennan wrote.
Some o b s e r v e r s a l s o found the d e c i s i o n i n c o n s i s t e n t with the Bakke r u l i n g t h a t
r e s e r v i n g a f i x e d number o f p l a c e s f o r m i n o r i t i e s i n a u n i v e r s i t y admissions program
v i o l a t e d c i v i l r i g h t s law.
The C o u r t ' s r u l i n g i n the F u l l i l o v e case, which i n v o l v e d
a s e t - a s i d e f o r m i n o r i t i e s o f 10 p e r c e n t o f F e d e r a l small b u s i n e s s c o n t r a c t s , ended
some o f the s p e c u l a t i o n on t h a t i s s u e .
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THE
FULLILOVE CASE
In 1977 Congress adopted a $4 b i l l i o n c o n s t r u c t i o n program e n t i t l e d the P u b l i c
Works Employment Act, which i n c l u d e d a s e c t i o n on M i n o r i t y B u s i n e s s E n t e r p r i s e .
T h i s s e c t i o n r e q u i r e d t h a t f o r 12 months a f t e r passage o f the Act (and l o n g e r i f
Congress chose t o extend i t ) 10 p e r c e n t
o f the F e d e r a l Funds made a v a i l a b l e f o r
each c o n s t r u c t i o n grant be s e t a s i d e f o r companies owned and o p e r a t e d by mem­
b e r s o f m i n o r i t y groups.
I t d i d not take l o n g f o r t r a d e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , c o n s t r u c t i o n companies and con­
t r a c t o r s i n many p a r t s o f the c o u n t r y t o f i l e s u i t s c h a r g i n g t h a t the s e t - a s i d e
v i o l a t e d the F i f t h Amendment, the E q u a l P r o t e c t i o n Clause o f the 14th Amendment
and v a r i o u s c i v i l r i g h t s s t a t u t e s a g a i n s t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . Most o f these c h a l l e n g e s
were turned down i n F e d e r a l d i s t r i c t c o u r t s ; however, f o u r a s s o c i a t i o n s o f New
York S t a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n companies c a r r i e d t h e i r case i n F u l l i l o v e v. K l u t z n i c k
to the Court o f Appeals f o r the Second C i r c u i t and u l t i m a t e l y to the Supreme C o u r t .
The Court r u l e d t h a t the s e t - a s i d e i n the P u b l i c Works Employment A c t was a
remedial measure, p e r m i s s i b l e under the F i f t h and 14th Amendments, to assure t h a t
Congress d i d not p e r p e t u a t e the e x c l u s i o n o f m i n o r i t i e s from the b e n e f i t s o f
Government programs. As an e l e c t e d body, wrote C h i e f J u s t i c e Warren Burger f o r
the m a j o r i t y , Congress can l e g i s l a t e remedies t h a t p r i v a t e employers a c t i n g on
t h e i r own cannot always take, and t h a t c o u r t s on t h e i r own cannot o r d e r .
WHAT THE
THREE RULINGS MEAN
Out o f the Bakke, Weber and
have emerged:
1)
F u l l i l o v e d e c i s i o n s a number o f broad l e g a l p r i n c i p l e s
An employer need not await a c o u r t ' s o r a c i v i l r i g h t s agency's f i n d i n g
o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e f o r e moving to balance an overwhelmingly white work f o r c e .
Before Weber, employers o f t e n found themselves i n Catch-22 s i t u a t i o n s w i t h
r e g a r d t o a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n . Those who i n i t i a t e d programs without admit­
t i n g p r i o r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t Blacks and o t h e r m i n o r i t i e s opened them­
s e l v e s up to r e v e r s e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s u i t s under T i t l e VTI, w h i l e those who
f a i l e d to take measures to i n c r e a s e a demonstrably small m i n o r i t y represen­
t a t i o n i n t h e i r work f o r c e i n v i t e d s u i t by the E q u a l Employment O p p o r t u n i t y
Commission o r a g g r i e v e d employees.
2)
"Race-conscious" measures to end
i n a workforce are p e r m i t t e d .
gross underrepresentation
of minorities
N e i t h e r Weber, F u l l i l o v e , nor Bakke r e q u i r e s t h a t a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n be
c o l o r - b l i n d ; admissions p o l i c i e s and job t r a i n i n g programs may be t a r g e t e d
t o a t t r a c t and b e n e f i t members o f p r e v i o u s l y excluded groups. And w h i l e
Bakke banned s p e c i f i c n u m e r i c a l quotas f o r m i n o r i t i e s i n the absence o f
p r e v i o u s f i n d i n g s o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , the m a j o r i t y o f the Supreme Court agreed
t h a t a p l a n such as t h a t used by Harvard U n i v e r s i t y , which used race as a
‫־‬5-
one f a c t o r , among many, would be upheld.
Both Weber and
set-asides of s p e c i f i c places or appropriations.
Fullilove
upheld
3)
A f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n measures may not g i v e permanent p r e f e r e n c e to any group.
Both the Weber and F u l l i l o v e d e c i s i o n s e x p r e s s l y approved temporary
a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n d e s i g n e d to be phased out when i t s purpose was accom­
plished.
In Weber, the Court s a i d t h a t the K a i s e r two-track s e l e c t i o n
system f o r the t r a i n i n g program, which was t o f u n c t i o n o n l y u n t i l Blacks
comprised a t l e a s t 39 p e r c e n t o f the s k i l l e d p l a n t j o b s , met the r e q u i r e ­
ments o f T i t l e V I I ;
i n F u l l i l o v e , the Court s t r e s s e d t h a t the s e t - a s i d e
p r o v i s i o n must be r e a s s e s s e d by Congress b e f o r e i t can be extended or r e enacted. And though the Bakke r u l i n g does not d e a l e x p l i c i t l y w i t h time
l i m i t a t i o n s on p r e f e r e n t i a l treatment, many a n a l y s t s f e e l t h a t they are
i m p l i c i t i n t h a t r u l i n g i n t h a t r u l i n g as w e l l .
4)
The impact o f a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n p l a n s on n o n - m i n o r i t i e s
considered.
should
also
be
In Weber the C o u r t emphasized t h a t the K a i s e r t r a i n i n g program d i d not
" u n n e c e s s a r i l y trammel" the i n t e r e s t s o f w h i t e s , because white workers
can be admitted to the program on the b a s i s o f s e n i o r i t y i n the white
track.
And the F u l l i l o v e d e c i s i o n l e f t u n r e s t r i c t e d 90 percent o f the
F e d e r a l funds a p p r o p r i a t e d to h e l p small c o n s t r u c t i o n b u s i n e s s e s .
In
Bakke, however, the Court found t h a t n o n - m i n o r i t i e s were too s h a r p l y d i s ­
advantaged by the m e d i c a l s c h o o l ' s admission p l a n , because no white a p p l i ­
c a n t s , however poor or disadvantaged, had e v e r been admitted under the
p r e f e r e n t i a l s e t - a s i d e and, g i v e n the s t r o n g c o m p e t i t i o n f o r medical s c h o o l
admission, a white student r e f u s e d admission because o f the m i n o r i t y group
quota might w e l l l o s e the chance to become a p h y s i c i a n .
5)
The Supreme Court has p e r m i t t e d the use o f quotas o n l y i n l i m i t e d s i t u a t i o n s .
The Supreme Court d e c i s i o n s i n both Weber and F u l l i l o v e were c a r e f u l l y l i m i t e d
to the f a c t s p r e s e n t e d . Weber s a i d T i t l e VII does not p r o h i b i t quotas i n
v o l u n t a r y a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n p l a n s ; F u l l i l o v e d e c l a r e d t h a t the 14th Amend­
ment allows Congress to i n c l u d e r a c e - c o n s c i o u s remedies i n p u b l i c works
contracts.
In n e i t h e r case d i d the C o u r t r u l e t h a t quotas were r e q u i r e d
to a c h i e v e g r e a t e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r m i n o r i t y groups; indeed, there i s a
s t r o n g i m p l i c a t i o n i n Weber t h a t n e i t h e r government a g e n c i e s nor the c o u r t s
may impose quotas o r o t h e r r a c e - c o n s c i o u s remedies except where there i s a
proven h i s t o r y of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .
(The s e t - a s i d e c h a l l e n g e d i n F u l l i l o v e
was upheld as an e x t e n s i o n o f the broad r e m e d i a l powers o f Congress; the
Court i m p l i e d t h a t such an extreme remedy c o u l d not be imposed by a c o u r t
o r an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e agency.)
LOWER COURT DECISIONS
I t i s s t i l l too e a r l y t o p r e d i c t j u s t how lower c o u r t s w i l l i n t e r p r e t Weber and
Fullilove.
S e v e r a l c o u r t s , i n c l u d i n g the U.S. Court o f Appeals f o r the S i x t h
C i r c u i t i n D e t r o i t and the C a l i f o r n i a Supreme Court have c i t e d Weber i n d e c i s i o n s
u p h o l d i n g broad quota remedies. However, the U.S. D i s t r i c t Court i n Alabama, i n
-6-
C e n t r a l Alabama Paving v. James, took a l i m i t e d view o f F u l l i l o v e .
In C e n t r a l
Alabama, a group o f white c o n t r a c t o r s c h a l l e n g e d the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i t y o f U.S.
Department o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n (DOT) r e g u l a t i o n s r e q u i r i n g t h a t a minimum per­
centage o f c o n t r a c t s f o r highway work p a i d f o r w i t h F e d e r a l funds be awarded to
f i r m s owned by r a c i a l m i n o r i t i e s and women. While the Supreme Court i n F u l l i l o v e
upheld the 10 p e r c e n t s e t - a s i d e as a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l e x e r c i s e o f the b r o a d r e m e d i a l
powers o f Congress, the D i s t r i c t Court i n C e n t r a l Alabama s t r u c k down the c o n s t i ­
t u t i o n a l i t y o f the DOT r e g u l a t i o n s and h e l d t h a t b e f o r e an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e agency
can e s t a b l i s h a p r e f e r e n t i a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , i t must f i r s t make a s p e c i f i c f i n d i n g
o f p a s t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and determine t h a t the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i t proposes would
h e l p remedy t h a t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .
In D e t r o i t P o l i c e O f f i c e r s A s s o c i a t i o n v. Young, the U.S. Court o f Appeals f o r the
S i x t h C i r c u i t , c i t i n g Weber, r e j e c t e d a c o n t e n t i o n by white policemen who had been
passed o v e r f o r promotion i n f a v o r o f Blacks w i t h lower t e s t s c o r e s , t h a t the
P o l i c e Department's program to r a i s e B l a c k r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a t a l l l e v e l s o f the
f o r c e to 50 p e r c e n t c o n s t i t u t e d r e v e r s e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . The C o u r t r u l e d t h a t
because there was c l e a r evidence o f p a s t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n the Department, the
Department's r e m e d i a l a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n p l a n d i d not v i o l a t e T i t l e V I I .
In P r i c e v. C i v i l S e r v i c e Commission o f Sacramento County, the U.S. Supreme Court
d e c l i n e d to review, and thus l e t stand, a C a l i f o r n i a Supreme Court d e c i s i o n which
c i t e d Weber i n u p h o l d i n g an a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n p l a n i n s t i t u t e d by the county's
C i v i l S e r v i c e Commission a f t e r i t had documented e a r l i e r h i r i n g d i s c r i m i n a t i o n
and g r o s s u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f m i n o r i t i e s . The p l a n r e q u i r e d the D i s t r i c t
A t t o r n e y ' s O f f i c e to h i r e one m i n o r i t y group lawyer f o r every two whites h i r e d
u n t i l m i n o r i t y group a t t o r n e y s made up e i g h t p e r c e n t o f the DA's s t a f f .
The
D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y c h a l l e n g e d the Commission's o r d e r , a r g u i n g t h a t T i t l e VTI
p r o h i b i t s a l l r a c e - c o n s c i o u s employment p r o c e d u r e s . The Court r u l e d , however, t h a t
s i n c e the p l a n was a temporary measure t h a t d i d not t o t a l l y b a r white a p p l i c a n t s ,
and s i n c e i t s o v e r a l l purpose was c o n s i s t e n t w i t h o b j e c t i v e s o f T i t l e V I I , i t
met the c o n d i t i o n s s t i p u l a t e d by the Weber r u l i n g .
AFFIRMATIVE ACTION IN THE
NEW
POLITICAL CLIMATE
In the p a s t few y e a r s the c o n t r o v e r s y s u r r o u n d i n g a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n has been focused
almost e x c l u s i v e l y on the quota i s s u e , and a number o f a n t i - q u o t a groups have c r i t i ­
c i z e d the F e d e r a l EEOC and t h e OFCCP f o r t h e i r quota-based implementation o f c i v i l
r i g h t s s t a t u t e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e i s a wide consensus t h a t a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n i s
needed to a s s u r e p r e v i o u s l y excluded groups f a i r a c c e s s t o employment and h i g h e r
education.
With the Reagan A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s emphasis on r e d u c i n g the F e d e r a l Govern­
ment's r e g u l a t o r y r o l e , t h e r e i s l i k e l y to be renewed s t r e s s on v o l u n t a r y a f f i r m a t i v e
a c t i o n measures by the b u s i n e s s community. Such measures take on a s p e c i a l urgency
i n the c u r r e n t economic c l i m a t e , when d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e numbers o f m i n o r i t y group
and women workers, most o f t e n the l a s t h i r e d , are b e i n g l a i d o f f .
B u s i n e s s and l a b o r can work t o g e t h e r t o guarantee t h a t equal employment g a i n s
a c h i e v e d i n r e c e n t years are n o t l o s t .
V o l u n t a r y a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n programs t h a t
p r o v i d e employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r m i n o r i t y group and women workers and, a t the
same time, judge i n d i v i d u a l s on the b a s i s o f m e r i t , are most l i k e l y to succeed i f
they make use o f g o a l s and t i m e t a b l e s to measure t h e i r p r o g r e s s w h i l e r e t a i n i n g
the f l e x i b i l i t y needed by b u s i n e s s .
-7-
S u c c e s s f u l a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n p l a n s have depended on a few p r i n c i p l e s s c r u p u l o u s l y
respected:
1)
A f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n i s as important f o r p e r s o n n e l p l a n n i n g a s any o t h e r
k i n d o f b u s i n e s s d e c i s i o n . Goals and t i m e t a b l e s t o i n c r e a s e workforce
p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f women and m i n o r i t i e s i n a l l j o b c a t e g o r i e s must be
e x p r e s s l y e s t a b l i s h e d by r e s p o n s i b l e management, and must be based on
reasonable c r i t e r i a .
Unless management f o r f e i t s t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , such
g o a l - s e t t i n g should n o t be taken over by any government agency.
2)
v i g o r o u s r e c r u i t m e n t f o r h i r i n g on a l l l e v e l s can h e l p a t t r a c t more m i n o r i t i e s
and women. I f , i n t h e p a s t , t h e r e c r u i t m e n t n e t was n o t wide enough t o
c a t c h these workers, s p e c i a l e f f o r t i s needed. T h i s means going beyond t h e
r e f e r r a l sources t r a d i t i o n a l l y used, and employing community r e s o u r c e s t h a t
reach o u t t o members o f p r e v i o u s l y excluded groups.
3)
A f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n programs must i n c l u d e c a r e e r advancement as w e l l as i n i t i a l
h i r i n g , t o assure t h a t a l l q u a l i f i e d employees r e c e i v e f a i r c o n s i d e r a t i o n
f o r promotions.
I n d i v i d u a l i z e d t r a i n i n g programs f o r r a p i d c a r e e r advance­
ment have proved p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t i v e i n i n c r e a s i n g t h e numbers o f m i n o r i t y
group and female employees i n management p o s i t i o n s .
T r a i n i n g programs t o
change s t e r e o t y p e d a t t i t u d e s on t h e p a r t o f s u p e r v i s o r s towards m i n o r i t i e s
and women may be n e c e s s a r y .
The essence o f a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n i s t o open a l l jobs t o a l l q u a l i f i e d
i n d i v i d u a l s , r e g a r d l e s s o f r a c e , creed o r gender.
P u b l i s h e d by the Domestic A f f a i r s Department
o f t h e American Jewish Committee
Seymour Samet, D i r e c t o r
R i c h a r d L. Weiss, C h a i r p e r s o n
Domestic A f f a i r s Commission
Maureen S c h i l d
C a r l G. Koch, C h a i r p e r s o n
N a t i o n a l L e g a l Committee
i s L e g a l A s s o c i a t e f o r t h e American Jewish
E d i t e d by Rose F e i t e l s o n
February 1982
Committee.
S i n g l e copy, 50 c e n t s
Q u a n t i t y p r i c e s on r e q u e s t
Other P e r t i n e n t Papers
Oat
ofa Wo/ife, March 1978
Beyond
Bakkc,
October 1978
Jew* I n t h e A m e r i c a n E c o n o m y , A p r i l
A m & U c a ' A Aged,
May 1979
Jcw<Uh
HoA.QkboK.hood¿
October 1980
1979
TmxnhiXlon,
Tax CticditA i o n Elementary and
S e c o n d a r y School
T a t t i o n , J u l y 1981
The
82-630-6
I n
Abortion
Debate,
January 1982