CITY UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG
香港城市大學
An Analysis of Urban Residents’ Engagement
in Underground “Mark Six” in China
對中國城鎮居民參與地下“六合彩”的分析
Submitted to
Department of Applied Social Studies
應用社會科學系
in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
哲學博士學位
by
He Heng
何珩
September 2013
二零一三年九月
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ABSTRACT
Against the backdrop of “to get rich is glorious” in the wake of the rapid economic
reform in mainland China over the past three decades, the traditional cultural values and
informal social control mechanisms have undergone tremendous changes. On the one
hand, a cultural ethos glorifying individual economic success is prevailing across layers
of the urban society, coupled with the structural limitations in accessing economic
opportunities. On the other hand, the function of social institutions in preventing
individuals from deviating from norms is weakening as a result of the radical
transformation of the social structure with the introduction of market liberalization.
With an increasing exposure to a capitalist lifestyle, underground “Mark Six”
(UMS), an illegal lottery in mainland China, has spread swiftly across the country since
its emergence in Guangdong in the late 1990s. Touted as a metamorphosed form of
Hong Kong “Mark Six”, UMS has aroused a betting fever among the residents and
generated a series of social problems in China. Regardless of numerous police
crackdowns, UMS activities have proliferated rapidly and become a chronic ailment for
the Chinese society. Given the social costs and detrimental effects engendered by urban
residents’ betting in UMS and the ineffectiveness of officially prohibitive measures, this
study aimed to investigate the factors for urban residents’ engagement in UMS, as a
deviant behaviour.
This study drew upon Institutional Anomie Theory (IAT), which argued that the
pressures to use illegal means to acquire monetary rewards and the weak controls by
non-economic social institutions were conducive to the genesis of high levels of crime.
It first examined whether the key elements embedded in the dominant cultural values in
urban China (i.e., commitment to monetary success, commitment to illegitimate means
and their interaction) could contribute to the engagement in UMS. Second, it assessed
whether Chinese informal social control mechanisms (i.e., family, education, polity,
neighbourhood committees, and homeowners’ associations) could prevent the
engagement in UMS, and alleviate the effects of the prevalent criminogenic cultural
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values on the engagement in UMS. Meanwhile, this study was also informed by Social
Disorganization Theory (SDT), which argued that the geographical distribution of crime
was largely related to the structural characteristics of neighbourhoods. It thus probed the
contextual effects of a range of theoretically relevant neighbourhood characteristics
(heterogeneity of residents, residential stability, poverty, support from neighbourhood
committees, neighbourhood cohesion, disorder, and fear of crime) on the variation of
the engagement in UMS across urban residential communities.
To achieve the above research goals, this study adopted an integrated analytical
model based on IAT and SDT and conducted hierarchical linear analyses by
incorporating both community-level data (23 communities) and individual-level data
(915 respondents) collected through a survey in the city of Liuzhou in southern China.
The survey was supplemented by in-depth interviews with 18 local informants and a
3-year field observation in a local residential community ridden with UMS activities.
The main findings were five-fold based on both quantitative and qualitative data.
First, the pursuit for monetary success was pervasive among the urban residents, but
could not fully predict the engagement in UMS, given additional motives (e.g., seeking
entertainment, escaping from boredom, etc.) involved in the betting process. Second,
the inclination to adopt illegitimate means could statistically contribute to the
engagement in UMS. This finding was further supported by the qualitative data which
showed that the structural reality of the limited access to legitimate economic
opportunities might precipitate the engagement in UMS. Third, the familial and
educational institutions, functioning as the orthodox informal control mechanisms in
China, maintained a relatively prominent role in countering the engagement in UMS;
while the political institutions could not do so, given that the current political
mechanisms in China were ineffective in satisfying citizens’ needs. The anti-UMS
functions of neighbourhood committees and homeowners’ associations were not fully
developed. It might be due to the great challenges the two grassroots institutions faced,
when the collectivistic norms in neighbourhoods became less relevant to individuals in
urban China. Fourth, inconsistent with some previous studies, the posited reinforcing
role of the economic goals and the weak commitment to legitimate means in the cultural
v
values and the postulated moderating roles of all the social institutions in the
engagement in UMS were not substantiated in this study. Fifth, the hypothesized
contextual effects of poverty, disorder and support from neighbourhood committees
were corroborated in the study. In particular, the control function of neighbourhood
committees was realized through their contextual impacts on residential communities
rather than their direct influences on individuals. Besides, the unexpected results
regarding heterogeneity of residents, residential stability, and fear of crime were
explainable when considering the functions of social trust and local networks on which
the spread of UMS relied.
As an original empirical endeavour focusing on urban residents’ engagement in
UMS, this study delineates an indigenous picture of the cultural values and informal
control mechanisms in urban China, and extends the explicability of IAT and SDT in
the Chinese context. The results in the study could shed light on the future direction on
the research on the factors for the engagement in UMS and have important policy
implications for designing effective countermeasures against UMS. The present study
concludes that, in order to curb the expansion of UMS activities, not only should the
supply chain of sophisticated UMS activities be severed by law-enforcement
departments, but also its demand chain should be cut via improving the social control
mechanisms in transforming urban China.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 1
1.1.
Background .......................................................................................... 1
1.2.
Research Issues .................................................................................... 3
1.2.1.
Criminogenic Force of Cultural Values ................................................ 3
1.2.2.
Subordinated Status of Social Institutions ........................................... 5
1.2.3.
Structural Characteristics of Urban Neighbourhoods .......................... 7
1.3.
Research Objectives and Questions ..................................................... 9
1.4.
Significance of the Study ................................................................... 10
1.5.
Organisation of the Thesis...................................................................11
CHAPTER 2.
UNDERGROUND “MARK SIX” IN URBAN CHINA ............... 13
2.1.
Origin of Underground “Mark Six” ................................................... 13
2.2.
Operation of Underground “Mark Six” .............................................. 14
2.3.
Social Impacts of Underground “Mark Six” ...................................... 17
2.4.
Illegitimacy of Underground “Mark Six” .......................................... 19
2.5.
Resilience and Intractability of Underground “Mark Six”................. 22
2.6.
Studies on the Proliferation of Underground “Mark Six” .................. 23
2.7.
Limitations of the Previous Studies and Endeavours of this Study ... 26
CHAPTER 3.
SOCIAL ANOMIE AND INFORMAL SOCIAL CONTROL IN
URBAN CHINA ............................................................................... 28
3.1.
Emergence of Social Anomie in Urban China ................................... 28
3.1.1.
Transformation of Sanctioned Values ................................................ 28
3.1.2.
Widening of Economic Inequality ..................................................... 30
3.1.3.
Soaring Crime .................................................................................... 32
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3.1.4.
3.2.
Social Anomie during Chinese Economic Transition ........................ 34
Informal Social Control in Urban China ............................................ 37
3.2.1.
Chinese Informal Social Control ........................................................ 37
3.2.2.
Informal Social Control of Traditional Institutions ............................ 38
3.2.3.
Informal Social Control of Grassroots Institutions ............................ 39
3.2.4.
Weakening of Informal Social Control .............................................. 45
3.3.
Changes in Urban Neighbourhood Characteristics ............................ 47
3.3.1.
Decline of Residential Stability.......................................................... 47
3.3.2.
Increase in Residents’ Heterogeneity ................................................. 51
3.3.3.
Rises in Fear of Crime and Social Disorders ..................................... 53
3.3.4.
Realignment of Collectivist Tradition ................................................ 57
CHAPTER 4.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................. 59
4.1.
Perspective of Social Strain Theory ................................................... 59
4.2.
Perspective of Strain Theory .............................................................. 61
4.3.
Perspective of Differential Opportunity Theory ................................ 61
4.4.
Perspective of Institutional Anomie Theory....................................... 62
4.5.
Perspective of Social Disorganization Theory ................................... 66
4.6.
Theoretical Underpinnings in the Study............................................. 70
4.6.1.
Theoretical Nexus in the Study .......................................................... 70
4.6.2.
Theoretical Scaffoldings in the Study ................................................ 74
4.7.
Theoretical Implications for the Study ............................................... 76
CHAPTER 5.
5.1.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ................................................... 81
Concepts Relating to Cultural Values................................................. 81
5.1.1.
Concept Relating to Commitment to Monetary Success ................... 81
5.1.2.
Concept Relating to Commitment to Illegitimate Means .................. 82
5.2.
Concepts Relating to Traditional Social Institutions .......................... 83
5.2.1.
Commitment to Familial Institution ................................................... 84
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5.2.2.
Commitment to Educational Institution ............................................. 85
5.2.3.
Commitment to Political Institution ................................................... 86
5.3.
Concepts Relating to Social Institutions in China.............................. 87
5.3.1.
Commitment to Neighbourhood Committees .................................... 87
5.3.2.
Commitment to Homeowners’ Associations ...................................... 88
5.4.
Concepts Relating to Neighbourhood Characteristics ....................... 89
5.5.
Concepts Relating to Engagement in Underground “Mark Six” ....... 94
5.6.
Construction of the Conceptual Framework ...................................... 94
5.7.
Research Hypotheses ......................................................................... 99
CHAPTER 6.
6.1.
METHODOLOGY ......................................................................... 102
Overall Research Design .................................................................. 102
6.1.1.
Triangulation in Research Methods ................................................. 102
6.1.2.
Research Site and Schedule ............................................................. 102
6.2.
Community Survey .......................................................................... 104
6.2.1.
Sample .............................................................................................. 104
6.2.2.
Instrument and Pilot Test.................................................................. 108
6.2.3.
Measurement .....................................................................................117
6.2.4.
Data Collection................................................................................. 128
6.2.5.
Data Analysis ................................................................................... 129
6.3.
In-depth Interviews .......................................................................... 130
6.3.1.
Interview Guidelines ........................................................................ 130
6.3.2.
Sample .............................................................................................. 131
6.3.3.
Procedure.......................................................................................... 131
6.3.4.
Data Analysis ................................................................................... 132
6.4.
Field Observations ........................................................................... 133
6.4.1.
Observational Destination ................................................................ 133
6.4.2.
Guidelines and Arrangement ............................................................ 133
6.4.3.
Data Analysis ................................................................................... 134
xi
6.5.
Ethical Issues in Fieldwork .............................................................. 134
6.5.1.
Community Survey .......................................................................... 135
6.5.2.
In-depth Individual Interviews ......................................................... 135
6.5.3.
Three-year Field Observations ......................................................... 137
CHAPTER 7.
FINDINGS FROM QUANTITATIVE DATA.............................. 138
7.1.
Descriptive Findings ........................................................................ 138
7.1.1.
Sample Characteristics ..................................................................... 138
7.1.2.
Scale Reliability ............................................................................... 139
7.1.3.
A Preview of the Engagement in UMS ............................................ 140
7.1.4.
Engagements in UMS across Different Social Groups .................... 143
7.1.5.
Correlations between Demographic Variables and Engagements in
UMS ................................................................................................. 147
7.1.6.
Commitment to Monetary Success and Illegitimate Means across
Different Social Groups ................................................................... 150
7.1.7.
Correlations between Demographic Variables and Commitment to
Monetary Success and Illegitimate Means ....................................... 151
7.2.
Variables in HLM Analysis .............................................................. 153
7.2.1.
Correlations among the Main Variables ........................................... 153
7.2.2.
Individual-level and Community-level Control Variables ............... 157
7.3.
Summary of Descriptive Findings ................................................... 158
7.4.
An Analysis of Hierarchical Linear Model ...................................... 160
7.4.1.
Null Models ...................................................................................... 160
7.4.2.
Hierarchical Linear Regression Models without Interactional Term 161
7.4.3.
Hierarchical Linear Regression Models with Two-way Interactional
Terms ................................................................................................ 162
7.5.
Hypotheses Testing of Community Survey ...................................... 167
7.5.1.
The Role of Commitment to Family on UMS ................................. 167
7.5.2.
The Role of Commitment to Education on UMS............................. 175
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7.5.3.
The Role of Commitment to Polity on UMS ................................... 176
7.5.4.
The Role of Commitment to Neighbourhood Committees on UMS 178
7.5.5.
The Role of Commitment to Homeowners’ Associations on UMS . 181
7.6.
Summary of Hypotheses Testing...................................................... 182
CHAPTER 8.
8.1.
FINDINGS FROM QUALITATIVE DATA ................................ 188
Findings from In-depth Individual Interviews ................................. 188
8.1.1.
Findings Relating to Commitment to Monetary Success ................. 188
8.1.2.
Findings Relating to Commitment to Illegitimate Means ................ 194
8.1.3.
Findings Relating to Commitment to Social Institutions ................. 196
8.1.4.
Findings Relating to Moderating Role of Social Institutions........... 200
8.1.5.
Findings Relating to Individual-level Control Variables.................. 202
8.1.6.
Summary of Interview Findings....................................................... 203
8.2.
Field Observational Findings ........................................................... 204
8.2.1.
The Profile of Community Y ........................................................... 205
8.2.2.
The Rampancy of UMS in Community Y........................................ 205
8.2.3.
Findings Relating to Commitment to Monetary Success ................. 207
8.2.4.
Findings Relating to Commitment to Illegitimate Means ................ 210
8.2.5.
Findings Relating to Commitment to Social Institutions ..................211
8.2.6.
Findings Relating to Contextual Effects .......................................... 214
8.2.7.
Summary of Observational Findings ............................................... 218
CHAPTER 9.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ............................................ 220
9.1.
Extent of Residents’ Engagement in UMS ....................................... 220
9.2.
Cultural Values on Engagement in UMS ......................................... 221
9.2.1.
Commitment to Monetary Success .................................................. 222
9.2.2.
Commitment to Illegitimate Means ................................................. 223
9.3.
Social Institutions on Engagement in UMS ..................................... 225
9.3.1.
Family and Education ...................................................................... 225
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9.3.2.
Polity ................................................................................................ 228
9.3.3.
Neighbourhood Committees and Homeowners’ Associations ......... 229
9.4.
Contextual Effects of Neighbourhood Characteristics ..................... 231
9.5.
Policy Implications........................................................................... 233
9.6.
Limitations and Direction of Further Research ................................ 237
9.7.
Conclusion........................................................................................ 240
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 244
Appendix 1. Questionnaire for Pilot Study .................................................................. 270
Appendix 2. Questionnaire for Formal Survey ............................................................ 276
Appendix 3. Interview Guideline ................................................................................. 283
Appendix 4. Observation Guideline ............................................................................. 287
Appendix 5. Consent Form for Survey......................................................................... 288
Appendix 6. Consent Form for Individual Interviews .................................................. 289
Appendix 7. List of the Selected Communities & the Numbers of Respondents ........ 290
Appendix 8. Profile of Pilot Sample............................................................................. 291
Appendix 9. Profile of Survey Sample ......................................................................... 293
Appendix 10. Profile of Interviewees ........................................................................... 296
Appendix 11. A List of All Sub-hypotheses as Described in Chapter 5. ...................... 297
Appendix 12. The Original Version of the Scales Used in the Study. .......................... 306
Appendix 13. Selected Photos Taken in the Field Observations .................................. 308
Appendix 14. Glossary ..................................................................................................311