Tall Buildings
(history, design & case study)
University of Cambridge
Year 2 Architecture
by Simon Smith
References
www.ctbuh.org
Council for Tall Buildings & Urban Habitat
Tall buildings
•
Over 50% of office accommodation in HK,NY and Tokyo is high rise. In
London this figure is less than 10%.
•
Over 50% of world’s population now live in cities.
•
In 1852 Elisha Otis displayed the elevator at Crystal Palace Exhibition.
•
Some tall buildings incorporate damping systems to reduce effects of wind
and earthquake loading.
•
Tall buildings tend to be less efficient in terms of materials and can be high
energy consumers.
•
Useable space is also reduced with a net to gross at 70% instead of 80%+
for lower rise buildings (but plot density is increased).
•
Relaxation of planning laws have allowed historic cities to develop their high
rise profile (ie Canary Wharf, Potsdamer Platz, La Defense).
History
1850’s Otis lifts first
installed
1920’s Welding of steel, first use
of wind tunnel testing of buildings
Start of great depression
1880’s Brooklyn Bridge, Statue
of Liberty, Eiffel Tower, first use
of wind bracing
1900 First design
codes introduced
• Major build cycles
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1920’s to 1930’s
1970’s
1990’s to present
• Major technology events
US
US
Asia,
Europe
& ME
–
–
–
–
–
1850’s
1910’s
1960’s
1970’s
1970’s
first lifts (Otis)
first curtain walling
NY planning laws on density
first sky lobby
first tuned mass dampers
History
Tall buildings = recession?
www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/architecture/shadows-on-the-horizon-the-rise-and-rise-of-skyscrapers-6288162.html
What makes a tall building?
• Commerce
–
–
Cost/demand for land
Identity
• Materials
• Technology
–
–
–
Lift strategy
Evacuation strategy
Damping
• Ground conditions
• Foundation
engineering
Regulation
• 1916 New York
–
–
Tower reduced to 25% of site area to
allow natural light to infiltrate to street
then no height restriction.
Sparked by 1915 development of 37
storey Equitable Building with covered
entire footprint and overshadowed a
neighbourhood.
• 1961 New York
–
–
Floor area ratio (FAR) of 15 proposed for
dense commercial areas.
20% bonus created for buildings that
created a plaza (ie Seagram Building).
• Other
–
–
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La Defense in Paris (1950’s)
Canary Wharf in London (1990’s)
Potsdamer Platz in Berlin (1990’s)
Identity
• Corporation
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–
–
–
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NatWest Tower (Tower 42),
London
Woolworth Building, New York
Chrysler Building, New York
Sears Tower, Chicago
CCTV, Beijing
• Country
–
–
–
–
–
Moscow State University,
Moscow
Bank of China, Hong Kong
Petronas Towers, Kuala
Lumpur
Tapei 101, Taiwan
Burj Dubai, Dubai
Location
• 1880’s
–
Eiffel Tower, Paris – 300m
• 1910’s
–
Asia
Bank of China, Hong Kong – 367m (offices)
• 1990’s
–
Europe
Messeturm, Frankfurt – 257m (offices)
• 1990’s
–
Russia
Moscow State University, 240m (education)
• 1990’s
–
US
Woolworth Building, NY – 241m (offices)
• 1950’s
–
Europe
Middle East
Burj Al Arab, Dubai – 321m (hotel)
Use
• Office
–
Woolworth Building, New York – 1913 (240m)
• Residential
–
Ritz Tower, New York – 1926 (165m)
• Hotel
–
Burj Al Arab, Dubai – 1995 (321m)
• Education
–
Moscow State University, Moscow – 1953 (240m)
• Mixed Use
–
John Hancock Centre – 1970 (344m)
History - foundations
• Coal and Iron Exchange,
New York – 1873
–
–
–
Richard M. Hunt Architect
Unusually tall for a building in
New York at the time.
Inverted arches used in
foundations to spread load
evenly to the ground and over
a larger area.
History - facades
• Leiter Building
1879 – Chicago
–
–
–
William LeBaron Jenney,
Engineer and Architect
Façade carried own weight
only.
First building with almost an
entire wall of glass windows.
History – curtain walling
• Home Insurance
Building, 1885 – Chicago
–
–
–
William LeBaron Jenney
Each storey of masonry façade
supported by beams at floor
level.
Iron and steel frame structure
weighed one third of traditional
all masonry structure.
History - regulations
• 1892 New York
Building Code
–
–
Significant floor area
increases could be
obtained by adopting
a curtain wall
approach.
First known curtain
wall building is Home
Insurance Building in
Chicago in 1885.
Ronan Point
•
•
•
Partial collapse in 1968 of London apartment block after a gas explosion.
23 storey building constructed in precast concrete panels.
Paved the way for introduction of disproportionate collapse regulations.
Eco Tower
•
Commerzbank HQ, Frankfurt – 1997.
•
250m, 56 storey.
•
Recognised as world’s first eco tower.
•
Every office is day lit and has openable windows.
•
Energy consumption half of typical tower.
•
4 storey gardens incorporated throughout the
height of the tower.
•
Central full height atrium.
Eco Tower
Design
• Geometry
• Structural stability systems
• Loading
–
–
–
–
–
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Self weight and dead load
Live loading
Wind
Seismic
Temperature
Accidental
• Comfort criteria
• Damping systems
• Lifts
Geometry



h
4
6
12
w
Chicago Spire
•
•
•
Calatrava tower claiming to be worlds most slender free standing tower at 1:10.
150 floors of residential reaching 609m (will be tallest building in USA).
But……economic crisis halted work despite starting on site in 2007.
Eladio Dieste
Stability - external
Stability - internal
Stability
• Façade and internal walls
–
Home Insurance Building, Chicago - 1885
• Moment frame
–
Monadnock Building, Chicago – 1889
• Braced
–
Tower Building, New York – 1889
• Outrigger
–
Jin Mao Tower, Shanghai – 1998
• Tube
–
De Witt Chestnut Building, Chicago – 1964
• Tube in Tube
–
World Trade Centres, New York – 1973
• Mega frame
–
Bank of China, Hong Kong – 1989
• Bundled Tube
–
Sears Towers, Chicago – 1974
Materials use
Wind loading
Along-wind
response
Rotation due to offset stability
system
+
+
Across-wind response due to vortex shedding
WIND
Resultant circular movement experienced at the
top of the building!
Wind loading
Wind loading
•
Modifying the shape of a tower, both
in elevation and on plan, can help
reduce the effect of wind loading on
a tower. Introducing the following
aspects will help:
–
–
–
–
–
•
Taper
Twist
Chamfered corners
Set backs
Holes through
Examples are:
–
–
–
–
Taipei 101
Jin Mao Tower
Shanghai World Financial Centre
Burj Dubai
Comfort
Damping
Tapei 101
Lifts
•
1857 Elisha Otis installed first lifts in a
5 storey store in New York.
•
1968 first double deck lifts installed
with success in Time Life building in
Chicago.
•
Since 2003 new double deck elevators
can now cope with differing floor
levels.
•
WTC buildings in 1972 were the first
towers to incorporate sky lobbies.
•
Taipei 101 incorporates a mix of
double deck lifts and sky lobbies.
•
Recent lifts travel at speed of up to
38mph and include pressure control
systems to reduce ‘ear popping’.
Double deck lifts at First
Canada Place, Toronto
Sky lobbies at WTC,
New York
Lifts - office
•
Chrysler Buildings,
New York – 1930
–
–
•
319m, 77 storey
4 banks of elevators
contain 30 elevators
Wells Fargo Plaza,
Houston – 1983
–
–
–
–
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302m, 71 storey
Trussed steel tube
Double deck express
elevators
Sky lobbies on 34-35
and 58-59
27 elevator shafts
running 56 cabs
Lifts - residential
•
•
•
•
•
Park Tower, Chicago
Completed 2000
70 storey, 250m
Hotel and Residential
300 ton tuned mass
damper
Capital Gate Tower
•
18deg lean (cf
Pisa 4deg)
•
Twisting building
•
60m atrium to
reduce overhang
load
•
Complex steel
diagrid
•
Predominant wind
direction
inspiration?
828m tall
280,000m2 of hotel, residential and offices.
330,000m3 of concrete
39,0000t of reinforcement
Burj Dubai
To support 1m2 of floor requires 2.75t of material
(or 1,15m thickness of concrete)
…..approx 3x more material required than for low
to medium rise construction
Torres de Hercules
•
•
•
•
•
•
100m office tower
Natural ventilation
scheme
400mm thk façade
400mm thk floors
3500mm floor to ceiling
Cold bridge?
Aqua Tower
•
•
262m & 86 storey mixed
use tower in Chicago
186,000m2
26,5m
Case Study
Gazprom Tower, St Petersberg - Russia
Competition
ATELIERS JEAN NOUVEL
1
3
6
OFFICE FOR METROPOLITAN ARCHITECTURE (O.M.A.)
27
RMJM LONDON LIMITED
2
1
7
STUDIO DANIEL LIBESKIND LLC
85
FUKSAS ASSOCIATI S.R.L.
1
1
4
HERZOG & DE MEURON ARCHITEKTEN AG
75
St Petersberg
St Petersberg
Design Concept
Site History
River Setting
Gazprom Flame
Fur Coat (façade)
Gazprom City
Geometry and scale
Structural system
Wind tunnel testing
Wind tunnel testing
•
West is dominant wind
direction
Peak instantaneous
dynamic wind load of
30MN (1.9kn/m2)
10-yr return period w ind speeds, Normal Natural Frequency - Level 75
5-yr return period w ind speeds, Normal Natural Frequency - Level 75
1-yr return period w ind speeds, Normal Natural Frequency - Level 75
50
Peak Acceleration (mg)
•
40
30
20
10
0
0
50
100
150
200
Wind Direction (deg)
250
300
350
Dynamic analysis
Gazprom, Proposed, 0.7%, Mass Option 1, Level 75, Normal Natural Frequency
NBCC Office
NBCC Residential
SNIP 2.01.07-85
ISO 6879
Melbourne & Cheung
Davenport Perception
Davenport Objection
35
Peak Acceleration [milli-g]
30
25
2% Objection
20
10% Objection
15
10
10% Perception
5
0
0.01
2% Perception
0.1
1
Return Period [years]
10
100
Initial design ideas
Competition engineering
Competition engineering
Competition engineering
Competition engineering
Competition engineering
Competition engineering
Competition engineering
Competition engineering
Lessons learnt
•
Foundations
–
–
•
Investigate local supply chain
–
•
Don’t just assume that international codes will be accepted.
Outrigger trusses
–
•
High strength concrete availability.
Investigate local/national regulations
–
•
Make tower pile cap as small as possible.
Most load will be concentrated under the core.
Think about how outrigger truss forces get in to core.
Belt trusses
–
Helps with differential shortening of columns, especially for outrigger structures.
Tall building calculator
height (m)
floor to floor (m)
Buckling problem?
200
25
b (m)
25
t (m)
0.75
Masonry
Steel
Concrete
Youngs modulus (N/mm2)
3
d (m)
Timber
short term
10,000
15,000
205,000
30,000
long term
5,000
15,000
205,000
20,000
32.6
9.0
20
87
24
Wall loading (kN/m2)
1.5
0.45
0.04
7.5
0.50
Material density (kN/m3)
% windows
50%
4
floor width supported by façade (m)
4.5
area (m2)
36
22
2
25
light
medium
heavy
z (m3)
221
136
12
150
2.5
5.5
9.0
I (m4)
3,569
2,220
207
2,452
floor loading (kN/m2)
2.50
5.50
5.50
9.00
wind (kN/m2)
1.50
Timber
Masonry
Steel
Concrete
Wind load (kN)
7,500
7,500
7,500
7,500
Façade load (kN)
29,100
88,380
34,744
117,600
Floor load (kN)
61,500
135,300
135,300
221,400
BM (kNm)
750,000
750,000
750,000
750,000
BM stress (N/mm2)
3.4
5.5
60.2
5.0
Compressive stress (N/mm2)
2.5
10.1
85.2
13.8
Total stress (N/mm2)
5.9
15.7
145.4
18.8
Sway (mm)
210
225
176
102
Axial shortening (mm)
50
67
42
69
Floor loading (kN/m2)
Allowable stress (N/mm2)
10
10
200
25
Allowable sway (mm)
200
200
200
200
International Commerce
Centre – 484m 2010
KPF Architects
International Finance
Centre 2 – 420m 2003
Cesar Pelli
Bank of China – 367m
1990
I M Pei