Deep-Sea Research II 96 (2013) 5–12
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Deep-Sea Research II
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/dsr2
Anthropogenic biogeochemical impacts on coral reefs in the Pacific
Islands—An overview
R.J. Morrison a,n, G.R.W. Denton b, U. Bale Tamata c, J. Grignon d
a
GeoQuEST Research Centre, University of Wollongong, NSW2522, Australia
Water and Environment Research Institute, University of Guam, Guam
c
Institute of Applied Sciences, University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji
d
International Ecotourism Research Centre, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia
b
a r t i c l e i n f o
abstract
Available online 16 February 2013
Coral reefs dominate the coastal environment in many Pacific Islands, being present as atolls, coral
platforms, barrier and fringing reefs. With ever increasing populations and migration of people to the
coast, the anthropogenic impacts on these reefs have increased dramatically in the last 30 years. While
research on these impacts has been limited, some important progress has been made. This paper
reviews some of the completed studies, with outcomes from American Samoa, Fiji, French Polynesia,
Guam, Saipan, New Caledonia and Tonga presented. These studies indicate that the most significant
impacts have been found in locations close to major urban centres or industrial and mining activities.
The extent of impact varies from place to place with minimal impacts in the more isolated and less
industrialised communities. Common anthropogenic impacts are contamination caused by inadequate
sewage treatment, erosion from adjacent agricultural and urban expansion activities, poor waste
management, eutrophication, inefficient and/or inappropriate pesticide use and hydrocarbons use,
storage and management. The outcomes include contaminated sediments (trace metals, pesticides,
PCBs, hydrocarbons) with some impacts on resident biota. In some instances, the edible quality of local
fisheries resources has been significantly compromised.
Even in locations with small populations, increasing populations and poor economic conditions
have resulted in noticeable effects on the adjacent fringing reefs, including dramatic algal proliferation
and declines in fish numbers resulting from increasing nutrient discharges and increased herbivore fish
catches. Recovery measures including fishing bans and alternative fishing practices have been
implemented to address these issues in some areas.
& 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Biogeochemical impacts
Coral reefs
Pacific Islands
Human activities
1. Introduction
1.1. South pacific region/coral reefs
Coral reefs are a dominant feature of the Pacific Islands. They
are unique to tropical and certain subtropical oceans since the
reef-building organisms require water temperatures in excess of
22 1C. Coral structures include atolls [essentially reefs of variable
thickness built up by corals (and other organisms) resting on a
volcanic base] and reef platforms having an elevation generally
less than 5 m above mean sea level. In the central and south
Pacific, some countries consist entirely of low elevation coral
structures, e.g., Tuvalu, others contain atoll groups, e.g., the Cook
Islands, and some countries consist of mainly volcanic islands
n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (R.J. Morrison).
0967-0645/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr2.2013.02.014
with a few isolated atolls, e.g., Ontong Java in the Solomon
Islands. Fringing and barrier reefs are common around ‘high’
islands (those having a volcanic or other non-calcareous features
rising to elevations above 50 m (Cumberland, 1956).
Most major population centres in the Pacific Islands have
evolved in coastal locations that afforded some form of protection
against storms where shipping is the main mode of transport.
Many of these centres are located in bays protected by barrier
reefs, by islands or by riverine deltas. However, since these
geomorphological features also have the effect of limiting, to
some extent, mixing of near-shore and open ocean waters (Viles
and Spenser, 1995), they tend also to facilitate contaminant
accumulation in the near-shore waters with which most people
commonly interact.
This paper reviews various studies that have been carried out
on investigation of the impact of anthropogenic activities on coral
reefs and related water bodies in the Pacific Islands (Fig. 1). It is
not meant to be comprehensive, rather it uses case studies to
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R.J. Morrison et al. / Deep-Sea Research II 96 (2013) 5–12
Fig. 1. The South Pacific Region.
illustrate the main issues that are currently of greatest concern.
The sites referred to are, for the most part, major urban centres
(Saipan, Guam, Suva, Fanga’uta), although one site (Coral Coast,
Fiji) examines impacts of a growing population in a rural area,
while another (Tutuila) compares urban and isolated rural areas
around one island. Some important work completed in the French
territories in the Pacific is also discussed.
2. Case studies
2.1. Western Coast, Saipan, CNMI
Saipan (151120 N, 1451430 E)(Fig. 1) is the major population
centre of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
(CNMI). The resident population is nearing 60,000, and there is a
substantial influx of tourists, mainly from SE Asia and Japan.
Saipan has been a shipping centre in Micronesia for about 400
years, but major increases in shipping activity have taken place
since the 1940s during and following World War II. Tanapag
Lagoon is a typical high-island barrier reef lagoon bordering the
western shore of central Saipan, and adjacent to the main port
area on that island. It is about 9 km long and 3 km at its widest
point, and covers an area of about 13 km2. Large expanses of
patch reef, interspersed among sand and rubble, provide for a
diversity of shallow water habitats and harbour rich assemblages
of flora and fauna (Amesbury et al., 1979; Doty and Marsh, 1977).
In addition to its ecological significance, the Lagoon supports a
variety of recreational activities, and local people traditionally
harvest many fisheries resources for food.
Over the last quarter century, the southern, nearshore fringing
reef section of Tanapag Lagoon has become heavily impacted by
human activities. Primary sources of anthropogenic disturbances
between Muchot Point and Flores Point, a distance of approximately 3 km, include a commercial port (Saipan Harbour) and
bulk fuel facility, a sewer outfall, a municipal waste dump, and
two small-boat marinas. The area is also heavily inundated by
stormwater runoff during prolonged periods of wet weather.
Several studies have examined the impacts on these human
activities on the sediments and biota in the Lagoon (e.g., Denton
et al., 2006a, 2009).
Sediments have been sampled adjacent to the shoreline and
further offshore, up to 2250 m. Analysis for a range of trace metals
showed that offshore sediments were not significantly contaminated, but there was evidence of accumulation of anthropogenic
metals, especially Cu, Pb, Zn, and to a lesser degree Cd, Ni, Cr, Hg,
in nearshore waters around the old municipal dump and adjacent
to boat marinas. In general, metal concentrations decreased on
moving seaward and/or away from identified sources of metal
contamination. PCB analyses showed all offshore sites were
relatively free of contamination (concentrationso1 ng/g); relatively high values were found adjacent to the old dump (16.6 ng/g)
and in the area around the port (8–11 ng/g). Detailed studies of
individual congener profiles indicated that Aroclor 1260 and
possibly 1254 were the main PCB sources in Tanapag Lagoon,
probably leaked from electrical transformers. PAH concentrations
were also very low in offshore sites ( o0.5 mg/g), but nearshore
sites showed higher values (e.g., 2.4 mg/g near the port, 3.2 mg/g
near the old dump). The PAH profiles were dominated by higher
molar mass compounds, but the actual source (e.g., combustion or
aged petrochemical spills) could not be confirmed. Overall, the
sediments in Tanapag Lagoon were considered relatively clean
apart from problems around the main port, the old waste dump
site and the small boat marina (Denton et al., 2006a).
In two related studies, dominant biotic representatives were
sampled from various sites within the Lagoon (Denton et al.,
2009, 2010) and analysed for trace metals. Preference was given
to species traditionally harvested as food by local residents or
considered to have bioindicator potential. Many organisms (e.g.,
algae, seagrass, bivalves) were found to be enriched in some trace
R.J. Morrison et al. / Deep-Sea Research II 96 (2013) 5–12
metals (Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn) at one or more contaminated sites
identified at the southern end of the lagoon (dry dock, old dump,
boat marina). From a human health perspective only lead and
copper were identified as elements of concern and only in
bivalves from the old dump area (Denton et al., 2009). Mercury
levels in axial muscle of over 300 popular table fish (65 species)
from the Lagoon proper were all well below the current US Food
and Drug Administration guideline of 1.0 mg/g wet weight
(USFDA, 1998) with 84% of the overall catch yielding values
below 0.01 mg/g wet weight (Denton et al., 2010). While Hg
concentrations were somewhat elevated in representatives from
around the port area and municipal dump, the highest levels
encountered were generally found in specimens captured some
distance from obvious sources of pollution known at the time.
A follow-up investigation traced the mercury back to an old
incinerator site at the Commonwealth Health Center, Saipan’s
only public hospital (Denton et al., 2011). The incinerator was
used for the destruction of medical wastes from the hospital and
other medical clinics on island. It was eventually shut down for
multiple violations of the Clean Air Act in 2006 (US EPA, 2005),
just 18 months after the fish survey had been completed. Mercury
levels in certain species from the impacted area were measured
again in 2007 (Denton et al., 2011) and found to be substantially
lower than those recorded during the earlier survey
2.2. Pago Gay, Guam
Guam (131280 N, 1441450 E) has been dramatically impacted by
human activities since World War II and has undergone considerable economic growth and urban expansion over the last 30 years.
It also has a thriving tourist industry that currently attracts over
one million visitors annually. Today, the island is poised on the
brink of another economic boom associated with the relocation of
18,000 US marines and their dependants to Guam from Okinawa,
Japan, in 2014. The population, which presently stands at around
185,000, is expected to approach 250,000 by 2020 as a direct
result of this military build-up. Environmental problems currently
experienced on the island are largely associated with solid and
hazardous waste disposal, storm water runoff, and the treatment
and disposal of domestic and industrial wastewaters.
Guam has been the major shipping centre in Micronesia for
about 400 years. Trace metals, PCBs and PAHs in sediments and
biota have been investigated in the island’s major port and
smaller boat harbours (Denton et al., 2005, 2006b,c,d,e). Relatively few studies, however, have examined the impacts of
Guam’s growth and development on the coastal environment.
This is particularly so on the western side of central Guam where
the greatest intensity of commercial and industrial activities
exists. Pago Bay on the eastern side of the island has been
subjected to far less direct human intervention, although the
possible impact on its fisheries of a poorly managed landfill, in the
nearby village of Ordot, has been of long-standing concern. The
landfill is located in the catchment of the Lonfit/Pago River system
that drains into the southern half of Pago Bay, and has been
releasing heavy metal enriched leachate into the watershed for
over 60 years
Recent studies have identified mild to moderate heavy metal
contamination in Lonfit River surface waters and sediments
immediately adjacent to the landfill but no measurable contamination in either water or bottom sediment matrices further
downstream (Denton et al., 2007, 2008). Likewise, there were
no abnormal metal levels in aquatic organisms anywhere within
the watershed itself (Denton et al., 2007), or in the Bay (Denton
and Morrison, 2009). It was concluded that soluble metals released
from the landfill during dry weather (low flow conditions) are
rapidly sequestered by aluminium and iron oxyhydroxides present
7
in streams and subsequently deposited in the beds of tributaries
and at the confluence of the Longfit River. In subsequent heavy
rains, the contaminant laden sediments are scoured and carried
away from the river to offshore deepwater beyond the reef front,
via the Pago Bay channel, a flooded river valley. This natural
cleansing process prevents metals discharged from the landfill
from accumulating in the watershed and in the Bay. Any residual
contamination from the landfill that accumulates in and around
the river mouth is periodically flushed from the system by major
storms (typhoons) that frequently impact the eastern side of the
island. While these studies clearly demonstrated that the Lonfit/
Pago River system and Pago Bay are not permanent sinks for metal
contaminants leached from the landfill, they did reveal some mild
Pb enrichment in sediments and bivalves near an old military firing
range at the southern end of the Bay. Marginally elevated levels of
Zn and Hg were also identified in both media near sources of
ground water intrusion, septic-tank leachate and urban runoff at
the northern end of the fringing reef (Denton and Morrison, 2009).
Nevertheless, the impacts of these metal sources on the edible
quality of aquatic resources in these areas were considered
inconsequential.
2.3. Suva Lagoon, Fiji
Suva, the capital of the Fiji Islands, located on the southeast
corner of Viti Levu at 181060 S, 1781300 E (Fig. 1), is the major
commercial, shipping and industrial centre in the South Pacific
islands. The city has rapidly expanded in the last 50 years with
significant population growth (50,000–4200,000) in the catchment of the adjacent lagoon over the last 30 years. Suva Lagoon is
located within a well-developed barrier reef system and is made
up of two parts—Laucala Bay on the east and Suva Harbour on the
west. Significant small industry development around the shoreline has occurred in recent years including ship-building and
repair, metal manufacturing, food processing and packaging, oil
storage and handling, in addition to activities associated with the
operations of Suva port. Studies on pollution in Suva lagoon have
been undertaken by various researchers over the past 30 years,
and the major findings are summarised in Morrison et al. (2006).
Nutrient data for Suva Lagoon span a period of about 25 years.
The data sets are not consistent in terms of methods used and the
parameters measured (total element versus reactive components). In some instances quality control procedures have also
been questioned. Nevertheless, some valid conclusions can be
drawn from the available data. For example, dissolved inorganic
nitrogen (DIN) and dissolved inorganic phosphorus (DIP) concentrations are often high compared to open ocean values, with
reported values ranging from 50 to 450 mmol/L for DIN and
8–12 mmol/L for DIP. Values for both parameters vary with tide,
season, amount of runoff (wet weather) and source. Singh et al.
(2009) considered sewage discharges to be a major source of
nutrients in dry periods, while rivers were considered to be the
dominant source during wet weather when high flows carry
sewage material from small treatment plants and septic overflows as well as diffuse land-based source materials. At sites near
the barrier reef, nutrient concentrations are about DINo1 mmol/L,
DIP 0.1 mmol/L, values close to those in the open ocean. There is
evidence, however, that despite these low average concentrations
near the barrier reef, algal growth has been increasing in recent
years (including Sargassum that was not found in the 1970s and
1980s) (L.F. Zann, personal communication).
Sediment trace metal studies in Suva Lagoon have identified
two major sources—riverine non-carbonate materials and reef
derived carbonate materials (Fernandez et al., 2006; Morrison
et al., 2001) with the carbonate influence increasing on moving
towards the barrier reef. On top of these variations,
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concentrations of metals of concern for health are generally
higher in nearshore waters (Morrison et al., 2001), especially
around ‘hot spot areas’, such as, the Lami dump, closed in 2006
(Naidu and Morrison, 1994), Lami industrial area (Gangaiya et al.,
2001), and the Walu Bay industrial area (Pb, Sb and Zn: Naidu and
Morrison, 1994). Suva Lagoon sediments have been reported to
have significant TBT contamination, including the highest
reported TBT values in the world (92–360 mg/g, Maata and
Koshy, 2001; Stewart and de Mora, 1992). However, monobutyl
tin (MBT)/dibutyl tin (DBT) ratios are generally below 0.1,
indicating that little or no additions of TBT in recent years
(Maata and Koshy, 2001).
Some data exist for organic contaminant in Suva lagoon, with
emphasis organochlorines and PCBs. The highest concentrations
found in Suva lagoon sediments (up to 14 ng/g DDT and metabolites, 8 ng/g dieldrin and 30 ng/g total PCBs) are relatively low
compared with other parts of the world (Morrison et al., 1996).
Organochlorine pesticides were used until 1980, for mosquito
control in the city and for agricultural purposes in adjacent
farming areas. PCBs were components of transformers used in
the old electricity generating facility adjacent to Nabukalou Creek
in the centre of Suva city. There is no data for any organochlorinated compounds in shellfish or other biota from Suva lagoon.
The disposal and untreated sewage into Suva Lagoon presents
a constant challenge to environmental managers from a human
health perspective. Typically, the hygienic quality of recreational
waters is monitored using faecal indicator bacteria. In Fiji, it is
recommended that faecal coliform (FC) counts should be less that
400 colony forming units (CFUs) per 100 mL water and less that
2 FC/g flesh wet weight for shellfish comsumption. Data for Suva
lagoon show faecal coliform (FC) densities ranging from 0 to
410,000 CFUs/100 mL with sites around Kinoya, Nubukalou
Creek and Lami showing the highest values and minimal change
over the period 1978–2005 (Morrison et al., 2006). FC contents in
mangrove oysters (Crassostrea mordax) taken from Suva Lagoon
range from 0.7 to 24,000 FC/g (Morrison et al., 2006). The
potential health risks associated with eating raw shellfish from
Suva lagoon can be high, although less so if shellfish are
depurated, marinated or cooked appropriately.
Overall, the contaminant data from Suva lagoon is indicative of
relatively low levels of contamination by trace metals, persistent
organic pollutants, apart from a few localised hotspots. Identifying problem areas is unfortunately hampered by the absence of
any management plan for the Lagoon or its catchment, due to the
fact that while legislative/administrative powers for pollution
control are distributed among several agencies, interagency
interactions are often limited.
2.4. Coral Coast, Fiji
The Coral Coast region is located on the south coast of Viti Levu
(Fig. 1), the main island of the Fiji group. It has a stretch of about
60 km of coastline where fringing reefs lie adjacent to a high
island. Traditionally, its population consisted of a number of
coastal villages with small populations and subsistence lifestyles.
Since the 1960s, this has been one of the fastest developing
regions in Fiji, mainly as a result of tourism activities. This has led
to increases in village populations with more intensive fishing
and reef gleaning and more intensive root crop farming, chicken
and pig production. These changes have contributed to increased
nutrient concentrations (up to 410 mmol/L average DIN,
41 mmol/L average DIP) in coastal waters (Tamata, 2007) sourced
from sewage and animal sources particularly during wet weather
(confirmed by stable isotope studies). For example, at a Valase
site undergoing development, dry weather concentrations averaged relatively low values (nitrate 0.07 mmol/L, phosphate
0.10 mmol/L), while average wet weather concentrations were
much higher (nitrate 6.06 mmol/L and phosphate 0.37 mmol/L).
The herbivore fish population was decreased due to overfishing
and this resulted in extensive growth of Sargassum and some
filamentous algal species that led to corals in some parts of the
reef system being overwhelmed (Tamata, 2007).
Alarmed by these changes in their reef systems in terms of
food supply and tourism, local communities solicited assistance
from local scientists. The scientists carried out investigations,
including grazing exclusion trials that clearly revealed the impact
of herbivory in Sargassum control. This finding led to the establishment of locally managed marine protected areas under local
community control with tabu (bans) on fishing, in certain areas,
especially for herbivorous species. The local community has also
developed strategies for improved management of nutrient
sources, including improved solid waste management practices,
replanting of buffer strips of vegetation along river banks,
relocating piggeries away from river banks, and the construction
of wetlands for treatment of wastewater (Tamata, 2007)
Another important outcome is the active participation of local
community members in monitoring fisheries stocks through the
catch per unit effort (CPUE) information recording, which is then
passed on to the scientists for analysis. Community-coordinated
re-afforestation of catchment areas and mangrove replanting
along the coastline have emerged along the Coral Coast. In these
initiatives scientists play a facilitation and advisory role to the
communities.
2.5. Fanga’uta Lagoon, Tonga
Fanga’uta Lagoon is the major coastal water body of Tongatapu
(Fig. 1), the main island of the Tonga group located at 211120 S,
1751120 W. The island of Tongatapu is a raised coral platform
covered with soils derived from volcanic ash and corals. Fanga’uta
Lagoon’s catchment has a resident population of about 40,000
people, including a significant portion of the capital, Nuku’alofa.
The lagoon has suffered many anthropogenic impacts including
substantial coastal modification, vegetation and mangrove
removal, surface runoff from roads and farmland, sedimentation,
polluted groundwater inputs, overfishing, waste dumping, and a
general lack of appreciation of ecological benefits of the system
(Kaly and Morrison, 2005).
Anthropogenic impact investigations were carried out in
1983–1984, 1988–1989, 1992, and 1998–2001. Bottom sediments
were mixtures of coralline and volcanic-soil derived materials
(Morrison and Brown, 2003). There was no evidence of any trace
metal contamination of sediments or shellfish (Morrison and
Brown, 2003). Low levels of organochlorine pesticides and PCBs
were found in 1992 in lagoon sediments (Harrison et al., 1996)
close to a known illegal dumping site. In a complementary study
in 2000, low concentrations of chlorfluazuron and flusilazole
found in sediments, probably originating from use in nearby
agricultural fields (Chen et al., 2000).
In the late 1990s, a significant decline in seagrass cover, with
increased epiphyte growth relative to the 1980s, was observed
(e.g., see Kaly, 1998). In 1992, the lagoon water was transparent
with coral and seagrass communities visible to depths of at least
2 m. In 1993, after a period of occasional algal blooms, the lagoon
suddenly and permanently turned green, and has stayed that way
until the present time. Caulerpa and Halimeda algal species
increased in abundance and increased turbidity was measured.
Fish and shellfish catches, in terms of both total mass and sizes of
individuals declined, with the continuing (often illegal) removal
of mangroves for housing believed to be contributing to major
habitat loss for juvenile fish. Increasing urbanisation, some of
which occurred in cleared mangrove areas, along with poor
R.J. Morrison et al. / Deep-Sea Research II 96 (2013) 5–12
building standards control were considered contributing problems, e.g., inappropriate septic tank location was contributing
to nutrient runoff and eutrophication in the lagoon.
Based on the outcomes of scientific studies and community
consultations, a full management plan for the lagoon was prepared
(Prescott et al., 2001), but this has not yet been implemented to
any extent due to financial constraints.
2.6. Tutuila, American Samoa
Tutuila, located at 141170 S, 1701410 W (Fig. 1), is the main
island of the American Samoa group and is the site of Pago Pago,
the capital and main port. Tutuila is globally a remote location,
distanced from any major global sources of pollution, unless
pollutants have been transported atmospherically over long
distances (Peshut, 2009). At this remote location, trace elements
in sediments would be expected to reflect naturally occurring
background conditions for volcanic high island sites not influenced by anthropogenic impacts. Tutuila is a rugged volcanic
island dominated by olivine basalts (Stearns, 1944; Staudigel
et al., 2006). The coastline (200 km long) is extremely irregular
with numerous small open bays, which lack bars or barrier reefs,
and are subject to the sea conditions of exposed coasts. Pago Pago
Harbour is one of the few protected areas and maintains most of
its natural shoreline, except for some filled areas near the main
port, which have been developed for commercial shipping activities and two fish canneries. Tutuila has no estuaries and most of
the coastline is rocky with abrupt elevation changes immediately
above breaking waves. Surface waters are limited to a few dozen
perennial streams, most of which have short, steep reaches, and
typically low base flows. Coral reefs are the dominant marine
habitat for Tutuila near-shore waters, with 60% of the coastline
occupied by narrow fringing reefs.
As part of a larger ecological investigation (Peshut, 2009),
levels of sedimentary trace metals (As, Cd, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, P, Sr,
Zn) were examined at six study sites on Tutuila. Five of these sites
were located in near pristine coastal areas while one (Loa) was
located in Pago Pago Harbour, the most human-impacted zone in
Tutuila. Sediment samples from all sites were dominated with
carbonates (aragonite and calcite) with minor contributions of
quartz, kaolinite, illite and chlorite). There was no evidence of
trace element contamination at any sites (Morrison et al., 2010).
Indeed, the observed variations could all be explained by assuming the sediments were predominantly of coralline origin, mixed
with varying amounts of basalt-derived material. Strong correlations (coefficients 40.8) were found between the main basaltic
elements (Al, Fe, Mn, K, Ti, Si, P) all of which showed strong
negative correlations with Ca. Two notable features among the
basalt derived elements were: (1) Cu showed effectively no strong
correlations with any other element examined (not even Zn, as
has been found at other similar Pacific locations—Denton et al.,
2005; Morrison et al., 1997); (2) As showed strong correlations
with nine other elements (positive with Al, Fe, K, Mn, Ti, Zn, P, Si
and negative with Ca) which again is different from some other
Pacific sites, where As usually shows few correlations.
Surprisingly, the elemental data for the Loa samples taken in
Pago Pago Harbour showed no clear differences from the other
sites, with the exception of Hg (total) which were 3–9 times
higher than elsewhere in the study area. Inter-site differences for
MeHg were smaller, however, with variation factors of 1–3
(Peshut, 2009). While there are limited sources of pollution in
Tutuila, some activities in the harbour are potential sources of
contamination (ship repair and maintenance, cargo and fuel
spillage, fish cannery effluents, illegal dumping). The absence of
any metal pollution indication (at Loa) is inconsistent with results
from Suva, Fiji (Naidu and Morrison, 1994), Apra Harbour, Guam
9
(Denton et al., 2005) and Tanapag Lagoon, Saipan, CNMI (Denton
et al., 2009), where significant metal pollution of harbour sediments has been observed. The lack of metal contamination at Loa
may simply relate to the lack of industrial activity, as compared to
other small Pacific Island harbour sites where economic development is significantly greater relative to Tutuila.
2.7. French Territories in the South Pacific
The French Pacific territories exhibit a wide diversity of island
types including continental islands (New Caledonia), archipelagos
(French Polynesia) and isolated atolls (Gardes and Salvat, 2008).
The majority of reefs in these territories are considered healthy
(Salvat et al., 2008), but increasing anthropogenic activity, e.g.,
mining, fisheries, tourism, is leading to significant impacts in
some areas, especially near urban centres. Nuclear experiments
carried out in French Polynesia from 1966 to 1996 are also of
interest in terms of environmental impacts.
2.7.1. New Caledonia
Nickel mining and the related metal-processing industry constitute both a threat to coastal and marine biodiversity in New
Caledonia (221150 S, 1661260 E), and the driving force supporting
the economy of the country (David et al., 2010; Pascal et al.,
2007). Economic development and environmental preservation
remain two contradictory processes and significant efforts have
been made to identify the unique diversity present in New
Caledonia for the addition of a large part of its reefs to the
UNESCO World Heritage List (Andrefouet and Wantiez, 2010).
This is particularly important on the eve of major anthropogenic
perturbation linked to the development of a new nickel mine on
the island’s north-western coast (Chabanet et al., 2010).
In New Caledonia, the major studies on anthropogenic biogeochemical impacts have recently emerged from a large interdisciplinary group funded by the ‘Programme National Environment
Cotier’ (PNEC) from 2000 to 2008. This program aimed to
continue the study of the impact of anthropogenic activities on
the functioning of the southwest lagoon of New Caledonia
initiated by the ‘ECOTROPE’ program in 1996. Recent studies have
extended the preliminary research on the indicators of humaninduced physical disturbance (Chabanet et al., 2005) and particle
inputs on coral reefs (Fishez et al., 2005) by developing a framework and the tools for anthropogenic biogeochemical impact
studies. Physical processes studied include coastal erosion
(Dumas et al., 2010), the circulation and transport of suspended
sediment (Ouillon et al., 2010), and the biogeochemical typology
and temporal variability of the lagoon waters of New Caledonia
(Fishez et al., 2010).
Trace metal contamination and bioaccumulation mechanisms
have been studied for the brown alga Lobophora variegata (Metian
et al., 2008a), the tropical scallop Comptopallium radula (Metian
et al., 2008b), the tropical oysters Isognomon isognomon and
Malleus regula (Hedoin et al., 2010a, 2010b), the clam Gafrarium
tumidum (Hedoin et al., 2010b), and the butterfly fish Chaetodon
speculum (Labonne et al., 2008). With the exception of the
butterfly fish, all species were useful bioindicator species for
surveying metal contamination. Transplantation studies revealed,
however, that due to the very efficient metal retention capacity of
the shellfish, particular attention to the origin of bioindicators
was required if used in low contamination areas (Hedoin et al.,
2011).
A study of coral assemblages from fringing reefs to oceanic
barrier reefs in the southwestern lagoon of New Caledonia
addressed the specific relationships between the spatial patterns
and recruitment processes of coral and water and sediment
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R.J. Morrison et al. / Deep-Sea Research II 96 (2013) 5–12
quality, in particular, the presence of nutrients and trace metals
(Adjeroud et al., 2010). Surprisingly, results revealed no clear
cross-shelf gradient in richness, abundance, and percent cover for
all coral genera from most to least disturbed areas. Instead, the
composition and abundance of coral assemblages appeared correlated to the substrate type rather than water quality or the
metal concentrations in sediments. The relationship between the
distribution of juveniles and adults predicted relatively limited
replenishment capacities in these reefs. Consequently, the results
of this study illustrated the importance of management and
conservation efforts along fringing reefs within bays, where
anthropogenic activities and subsequent pollution are important.
The southwest lagoon of New Caledonia was also the site of a
study of the spatial and temporal distribution of zooplanktonic
prey of fish larvae, i.e., small crustaceans and small copepods, in
relation to environmental conditions. Results indicated that the
volume and total density of zooplankton were correlated to
increasing chlorophyll a and particulate organic matter (POM)
concentration along a gradient from the lagoon to the bays
(Carassou et al., 2010). Differences in assemblage composition
between the lagoon and the bays were influenced by wind speed,
surface temperature, chlorophyll a and POM. The high abundance
of zooplanktonic prey in bays suggested that sheltered bays, most
influenced by terrigenous inputs, were likely to provide the best
feeding conditions and therefore should receive more attention in
management and conservation efforts.
2.7.2. French Polynesia
Studies on pesticide impacts on the coral reefs of Tahiti (see
Fig. 1) and Moorea have been summarised by Roche et al. (2011).
As pesticide contamination has been identified as one of the main
stressors of coral reefs and is a potential major threat to coral reef
ecosystems (Fabricius et al., 2005; Ramade and Roche, 2006), the
French section of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI), the
IFRECOR, launched a survey on pesticide residues in key organisms
from the coral reef trophic webs in several French Territories,
including Tahiti and Moorea.
On each island, surveys were carried out on two inshore coral
reef sites using control (traditional agriculture) versus impacted
(intensive agriculture) sites in the wet and dry seasons. Key
species included the green coralline alga Halimeda crassata, the
clam Tridacna maxima, scleractinian coral species Fungia spp., the
holothurian Halodeima atra, and fishes Chlorurus sordidus and
Epinephelus merra. Organochlorine pesticides including chlordecone and herbicides from chloracetic acid, triazine and substituted urea families were studied.
The results first demonstrated the presence of chlordecone in
all key organisms at all sites, despite this material never having
been officially used in French Polynesia (Roche et al., 2011).
Additionally, chlordecone average concentrations were higher in
organisms from reef sites located off the rural traditional agriculture
areas than the ones from intensive agriculture areas, suggesting
unregulated widespread use of pesticides in traditional subsistence
agriculture (Roche et al., 2011). Second, herbicides such as
atrazine, simazine, alachlor, metoalchlore, and terbutylazine were
also detected in reef organisms from most sites. In some
instances, recorded concentrations were sufficient to induce
significant photosynthesis inhibition in Symbodinium (Jones and
Kerswell, 2003). Finally, while average organochlorine insecticide
P
levels were generally low, a few samples showed DDT concentrations as high as 1080 ng/g in the liver of grouper and parrotP
fish from Tahiti and DDT 393 ng/g in holothuria from Moorea
(Roche et al., 2011).
Overall, the contamination of coral reef communities by
organochlorine pesticides, insecticides and some herbicides,
although widespread, did not correlate with the agriculture
intensity in the cultivated coastal areas of Tahiti and Moorea.
Some insecticide concentrations observed were among the highest recorded in coral reef communities to date (Deichmann et al.,
1972; Glynn et al., 1995; Von Westerhagen and Klumpp, 1995).
One of the major results of this study was the unexpected
ubiquitous detection of chlordecone in all sites and all organisms
sampled. Due to the extreme persistence of this pesticide, the
contamination of coral reef communities raises concern for public
health as some of the organisms sampled are currently used for
consumption by local populations and the risks of long-term
exposures are unknown.
2.7.3. Mururoa atoll
Between 1966 and 1996, France conducted 193 nuclear
experiments on Mururoa (211530 S, 1381520 W) and Fangataufa
(221160 S, 1381470 W) atolls in French Polynesia, including 41 in
the atmosphere, 137 underground and 15 security tests without
nuclear detonation. Since 1966, comprehensive monitoring of
radiological conditions has been carried out in order to assess
environmental impacts and radiation exposure rates of local
populations in the five archipelagos of French Polynesia. This
was completed in 1996 by an independent study by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) following the end of the
nuclear experiments. The radiation levels detected in 1996 are
now used as a benchmark for the radioactive contamination of
the local environment.
Large landslides occurred in Mururoa atoll as a result of
nuclear tests in 1979 (Flouzat, 2011). While limited to the
south-west of Mururoa atoll, these events were responsible for
generating large swells that submerged part of the neighbouring
island of Tureia, located 105 km northeast of Mururoa at 201500 S,
1381320 W. As a result of concerns raised by Tureia residents, a
numeric model was used in 2011 to determine the hydrologic
effects of collapses of portions of the coral structure (volume
o50–670 million m3) of the northern part of Mururoa atoll
(Flouzat, 2011). Simulation results indicated that the predicted
hydrologic effects from the collapse of small portions of the coral
structure would remain localised to Mururoa atoll without any
consequences for neighbouring islands. The collapse of a large
portion of the northern part of Mururoa atoll, however, was
predicted to generate a wave 20 m high within a 500 m radius,
travelling at 600 km/h and with a swell length of several kilometers. At Mururoa, the sea water level would reach 2–5 m in
populated areas of the island. Furthermore, the wave induced by
the collapse of Mururoa atoll would be expected to reach the
south of Tureia atoll in approximately 10 min and the north of
that island in 13 min (Flouzat, 2011). The south and western parts
of Tureia atoll would be expected to be submerged and face
destruction equivalent to cyclonic waves. In the northern part of
the Tureia, areas less than 3 m above sea level would be partially
to totally submerged. The majority of the population lives more
than 3 m above sea level in the northern part of the atoll, but for
people living less than 3 m above sea level, this potential event
would pose a severe threat.
To put the risks from atoll collapse into perspective, coral reefs
in French Polynesia, as in most places in Pacific, are subjected to
major natural disturbances responsible for damaging the physical
and biological structure of coral reefs and their communities.
Between 1980 and 2005, French Polynesia has been affected by
15 cyclones, seven bleaching events, several Acanthaster planci
outbreaks and dystrophic crises (Salvat et al., 2008). Out of the
13 islands monitored between 1992 and 2002, only two were
unaffected by these natural disturbances and the impact of coral
bleaching and cyclones varied greatly at local and regional scales
R.J. Morrison et al. / Deep-Sea Research II 96 (2013) 5–12
(Adjeroud et al., 2005). Cyclones are usually the most destructive
and were directly responsible for the destruction of 80% and 40%
of coral reefs on the outer-slope of Tikehau and Takapoto islands,
respectively (Harmelin-Vivien and Laboute, 1983; Laboute, 1985;
Salvat and Wilkinson, 2011). Similarly, historical records and
seismic monitoring activities show that French Polynesia is also
frequently affected by tsunamis of various amplitudes, the Marquesas Islands and Rurutu Island being the most at risk (Schindele
et al., 2006; Sladen et al., 2007). The 1946 Aleutian and 1960
Chilean events were the last two ocean-wide tsunamis that
generated significant damage in most archipelagos and no earthquake of magnitude higher than 8.4 occurred since 1965. Only
one tsunami was generated by a local source, in 1999, due to a
cliff landslide on Fatu Hiva Island and caused serious damage in
adjacent Omoa Bay (Hebert et al., 2002).
3. Conclusions
The studies described above illustrate that anthropogenic
biogeochemical impacts in the Pacific Islands are significant, but
most of the problems occur near major population centres or
industrial zones. Other issues have been identified but not
discussed here—microbial contamination, sedimentation, dynamite fishing and reef blasting for boat passages, cyanide and other
toxic chemical fishing. While a large proportion of the early
investigations were completed by outsiders/visitors, there is
now a body of well-trained local scientists to carry on this work.
Unfortunately, many of these professionals remain limited by
inadequacies of funding and facilities. The development of sound
coastal management and resource protection policies lags behind
the more developed countries of the world despite improved
interactions between scientists and community leaders, regulators and environmental managers.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of
Dominique Ponton, Bernard Salvat and Rene Galzin with the
provision of recent materials on the French Territories in the
Pacific.
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