When the literal meaning just won’t do cultural adaptation issues resolved during
the linguistic validation of a behavioural scale
Lindsay Scharf, Harriet Williams, Lauren Oke, Helen Anderson
1. BACKGROUND:
3. METHOD:
Behavioural Scale: This scale is an assessment tool designed to diagnose and evaluate various behaviours appropriate for
a range of ages from infants to adults. The scale focuses on the ability to adapt behaviour, such as learning new skills and
acclimatising to new environments.
The linguistic validation process: The linguistic validation process was recommended for the translation of the behavioural
scale in order to ensure conceptual equivalence across countries. This facilitates the assessment of behavioural issues when
using the scale by recognising cultural differences and ensuring clarity and comprehension are achieved by the end of the
translation process.
2. OBJECTIVE:
The back translation and psychologist reviews of the behavioural scale were examined for 28 languages in which translation
issues had been discussed at length between lead translators, project managers and experts in the field. Information was
gathered on the translation difficulties that arose within each language and the results were compared in order to identify
patterns. From this research we were then able to form conclusions and recommendations to aid future linguistic validation
projects and further research.
4. RESULTS:
Three main categories of discussion were identified:
1.Transferral of word length and complexity
Three main objectives were identified:
This occurred where the length and complexity of terms took precedence over the precise meaning of the terms.
The reviewed behavioural scale contained many examples where this was an issue:
(1) To ascertain the translation issues during linguistic validation of a behavioural scale;
(2) To determine whether the same issues appeared in more than one language;
(3) To see what solutions were found in order to ensure conceptual accuracy, with a view to collecting consistently valid data
across the study.
•
“Repeats or tries to repeat common words immediately upon hearing them (for example, ball, car, go, etc.).”
•
“Uses simple words to describe things (for example, dirty, pretty, big, loud, etc.).”
•
“Prints at least three simple words from example (for example, cat, see, bee, etc.).”
Where a term is simple in one language, in another it may be too long or complex. The following grid shows that updates were
needed to 19 of the 28 languages so that the length and complexity of the example terms were rendered similar in length and
complexity across countries:
The translation and back translation of the sentence: “Prints at least three simple words from example (for example, cat, see, bee, etc.).”
Country-Language
Translation
Literal back translation
Austria-German
Schreibt mindestens drei einfache Wörter von einer Vorlage in Druckschrift ab (zum Beispiel: Mut, tun, Rad usw.).
Copies at least three simple words in print from a model (for example: courage, do, bike, etc.)
Belgium-Dutch
Schrijft in drukletters ten minste drie eenvoudige woorden na van een voorbeeld (bijvoorbeeld: kat, bal, pop enz.).
Copies at least three simple words from an example in capital letters (for example, cat, ball, dad, etc.).
Belgium-French
Écrit en lettres détachées au moins trois mots simples à partir d’exemples (par exemple, chat, voir, bébé, etc.).
Writes in block letters at least three simple words from examples (for example, cat, see, baby, etc.).
Canada-French
Écrit en lettres moulées au moins trois mots simples à partir d’exemples (par exemple, fée, pie, moto, etc.).
Writes at least three simple words from examples (for example, fairy, magpie, motorbike, etc.).
China-Chinese
根据例子写出至少三个简单的字（例如，人、口、手等等）
Correctly write at least three simple words (eg, human, mouth, hands, etc.) based on examples.
France-French
Écrit en lettres détachées au moins trois mots simples à partir d’exemples (par exemple, chat, voir, bébé, etc.).
Legibly copies at least three simple words from examples (for example, cat, see, baby, etc.).
Italy-Italian
Scrive in stampatello almeno tre parole semplici da un esempio (ad es. gatto, mela, ape, ecc.)
Writes at least three simple words from a sample in capital letters (e.g. cat, apple, bee, etc.).
Netherlands-Dutch
Kan ten minste drie eenvoudige woordjes overschrijven (naschrijven) (bijvoorbeeld kat, oom, vis enz.).
Can copy (transcribe) at least three simple words (e.g. cat, dad, fish etc.).
Poland-Polish
Jest w stanie zapisać co najmniej trzy proste słowa korzystając z przykładu (np. kot, pies, krowa etc.)
Can write at least three simple words using an example (e.g. cat, dog, cow etc.)
Portugal-Portuguese
Escreve pelo menos três palavras simples a partir de um exemplo (por exemplo, gato, ver, cão, etc.).
Writes at least three simple words following an example (for example, cat, see, dog, etc.).
Russia-Russian
Может печатными буквами скопировать с образца как минимум 3 простых слова (например, “кот”, “дом”, “мяч”).
Using printed letters can copy from example at least 3 simple words (for example, “cat”, “house”, “ball”).
Singapore-Chinese
用正楷清楚地抄写至少3个简单的字或单词（例如：“人”、“口”、“手”等等）。
Copies at least three simple characters or words clearly in printed form (e.g. “man”, “mouth”, “hand”, etc.).
South Africa-Afrikaans
Skryf minstens drie eenvoudige woorde in drukskrif met behulp van ’n voorbeeld (byvoorbeeld “kat”, “see”, “bok”).
Writes at least three simple words in print hand with the aid of an example (for example “cat”, “sea”, “dog”).
South Korea-Korean
간단한 단어 3단어 정도는 보고 베껴 쓸 수 있다(예, 개, 밥, 눈 등).
Can copy roughly 3 simple words (e.g., dog, meal, eye, etc.).
Spain-Spanish
Escribe en letra de imprenta por lo menos tres palabras simples copiando de un ejemplo (por ejemplo, gato, ver, vaca,
Prints at least three simple words copying from an example (for example, cat, see, cow, etc.)
etc.)
Taiwan-Chinese
看著範本寫出至少三個簡單的單字（例如，人、水、大等）。
Write at least three simple words (e.g., people, water, big) by referring to examples.
Thailand-Thai
เขียนคำ�ง่าย ๆ ตามตัวอย่างด้วยตัวบรรจงหรือตัวพิมพ์ได้อย่างน้อยที่สุด 3 คำ� (เช่น แมว เห็น ผึ้ง เป็นต้น)
Able to write at least 3 simple words following an example in print or handwriting (e.g. cat, see, bee, etc.)
Ukraine-Russian
Пишет печатными буквами как минимум три простых слова, представленных в примере (например, кот, дом, мяч
Writes with block letters at least three simple words given an example (for example, cat, house, ball, etc).
и т.д.).
Ukraine-Ukrainian
Переписує друкованими літерами принаймні три простих слова зі взірця (наприклад, кіт, сон, лан тощо).
Rewrites at least three simple words in block letters on sight (e.g., cat, dream, field, etc.).
2. Idioms and common phrases
The behavioural scale used idiomatic expressions, which tended to be problematic as these cannot be directly translated. An equivalent had to be found for each colloquial expression in order for the overall concept to render the same meaning.
The following expression caused the most issues across the 28 languages:
•
“Understands sayings that are not meant to be taken word for word (for example, “Button your lip”; “Hit the road”; etc.).”
After discussions between the project manager and lead translators, similar localised expressions were found to replace ‘button your lip’ and ‘hit the road’ and we verified their meaning before finalising our discussion. Equivalent expressions had to be found in
86% of languages, as shown below.
Country-Language
Translation
Literal back translation
Similar localised expressions found in English
Argentina-Spanish
(por ejemplo, “Cosete la boca”, “volá”, etc.).
(for example, ‘close your mouth’, and ‘fly’, etc.).
Equivalent to ‘zip it’ and ‘buzz off’.
Austria-German
(zum Beispiel: „Halt den Mund“; „Hast du schon die Nase voll?“
usw.).
(for example: ‘hold your mouth’, ‘ is your nose already full?’, etc.).
Equivalent to ‘shut up’ and ‘are you bored already?’.
Belgium-Dutch
(bijvoorbeeld: “Knoop het in je oren”, “Loop naar de maan” enz.).
(for example, ‘button up your ears’, ‘go to hell’, etc.).
Equivalent to ‘get it into your head’ and ‘get lost’.
Belgium-French
(par exemple, « Bouche cousue », « Comme un poisson dans
l’eau », etc.).
(for example, ‘stitched-up mouth’, ‘like a fish in water’, etc.).
Equivalent to ‘tight-lipped’ and ‘takes to it like a duck to water’.
Brazil-Portuguese
(por exemplo, “fazer boca de siri”, “botar o pé na estrada”).
(for example ‘to make the mouth of a crab’, ‘to hit your foot on the road’).
Equivalent to ‘button your lip’ and ‘hit the road’.
Canada-French
(par exemple, « Boucle-toi la bouche », « Prends la route », etc.).
(for example. ‘fasten your mouth’, ‘take the road’, etc).
Equivalent to ‘button it’ and ‘hit the road’.
China-Chinese
（例如“种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆”；“猫有九条命”；等等）。
(eg, ‘if you plant melons, you grow melons’, ‘cats have nine lives’ etc.).
Equivalent to ‘you reap what you sow’ and ‘cats have nine lives’.
France-French
(par exemple, « Bouche cousue », « Comme un poisson dans
l’eau », etc.).
(for example, ‘stitched-up mouth’, ‘like a fish in water’, etc.).
Equivalent to ‘tight-lipped’ and ‘takes to it like a duck to water’.
Germany-German
(z. B. „Halt den Mund“; „Abhauen“; etc.).
(e.g. ‘hold your mouth’, ‘get lost’, etc.)
Equivalent to ‘shut up’ and ‘clear off’.
Hungary-Hungarian
(például „Tegyél lakatot a szádra”; „Húzd el a csíkot”; stb.).
(for example, ‘put a lock on your mouth’, ‘pull on the strip’.; etc.).
Equivalent to ‘button your lips’ and ‘sling your hook’.
Italy-Italian
(ad es. “Acqua in bocca”; “Brucia la strada”; ecc.).
(e.g. ‘water in the mouth’, ‘burn the street’; etc.).
Equivalent to ‘pipe down’ and ‘step on it’.
Mexico-Spanish
(por ejemplo: “cierra el pico”, “ahueca el ala”, etc.)
(for example: ‘shut your beak’, ‘hollow your wings’, etc.).
Equivalent to ‘shut up’ and ‘beat it’.
Netherlands-Dutch
(bijvoorbeeld “Knoop dat in je oren”; “Over zijn woorden
struikelen” enz.).
(for instance “tie it to your ears”; “stumble over your words”, etc.).
Equivalent to ‘don’t let it slip your mind’ and ‘stumble over your words’.
Poland-Polish
(np. “bierz nogi za pas”; “odpalić komputer” etc.)
(e.g. ‘take your legs behind your waist/belt’, ‘fire up the computer’ etc.).
Equivalent to ‘take to your heels’ and ‘fire up the computer’.
Portugal-Portuguese
(por exemplo, “Dá corda aos sapatos”, “Não dês graxa”, etc.).
(for example, ‘lace up your shoes’, ‘don’t put grease on it’, etc).
Equivalent to ‘get your skates on’ and ‘don’t suck up’.
Russia-Russian
(например, “Не води меня за нос”; “Делать из мухи слона” ).
(for example, ‘do not lead me around by the nose’, ‘making elephants from
flies’).
Equivalent to ‘led by the nose’ and ‘making mountains out of molehills’.
Singapore-Chinese
（例如：“宰相肚里能撑船”、“杀鸡给猴看”、“猫有九条命”等等）。
(e.g. ‘one can row a boat in the heart of a prime minister’, ‘kill a chicken for
the monkey to see’, ‘cats have nine lives’).
Equivalent to ‘having a big heart’, ‘making an example of someone’ and ‘cats have nine lives’.
South Africa-Afrikaans
(byvoorbeeld “Het jy rooimiere?”, “Val in die pad”).
(e.g. ‘have you got red ants?’, ‘falling in the road’).
Equivalent to ‘having ants in your pants’ and ‘hit the road’.
South Korea-Korean
(예, “입을 닫아라, 우는 아이 젖준다” 등)
(e.g., ‘close your mouth’, ‘a breastfeeding mother feeds a crying baby
first’).
Equivalent to ‘be quiet’ and ‘a squeaky wheel gets the oil’.
Spain-Spanish
(por ejemplo, “No te hagas el sueco”, “No me tomes el pelo”, etc.)
(for example, ‘don’t act Swedish’, ‘don’t pull my hair’, etc.).
Equivalent to ‘don’t play dumb’ and ‘you’re pulling my leg’.
Taiwan-Chinese
（例如「不管三七二十一」、「開門見山」、「七嘴八舌」等）。
(i.e. ‘does not care if three times seven equals twenty-one’, ‘ open the door
to see the mountain’, ‘seven mouths and eight tongues’, etc).
Equivalent to ‘doesn’t pull any punches’, ‘don’t beat about the bush’ and ‘talking nineteen to
the dozen’.
Ukraine-Russian
(например, “Прикуси язык”; “ Цыплят по осени считают ” и
т.д.).
(eg “bite your tongue”, “ don’t count your chickens before they’ve
hatched”).
Equivalent to ‘hold your tongue’ and ‘don’t count your chickens before they’re hatched’.
Ukraine-Ukrainian
(наприклад, «тримати рот на замку», «як кіт наплакав» тощо).
(for example: ‘keep your mouth locked’, ‘like a cat crying’ etc.).
Equivalent to ‘keep mum’ and ‘next to nothing’.
US-Spanish
(por ejemplo, “Cierra el pico”; “Ponte las pilas”; etc.).
(for example, ‘shut your beak’; ‘put in your batteries’; etc.).
Equivalent to ‘pipe down’ and ‘use your noggin’.
The phrases needed to be culturally adapted so that the end-user of the questionnaire could clearly understand the concept.
3. Grammar and tense
One of the objectives of the behavioural scale was to evaluate a child’s use of grammar and tense. Issues arose where
languages didn’t face the same grammar and tense issues and similar issues needed to be substituted that would provide
similar information. Two examples from the source text have been picked out to illustrate the types of issues faced:
•
“Uses present tense verbs ending in ing (for example, “Is singing”; “Is playing”; etc.).”
Where the present progressive form of a verb ending was not possible, 90% of languages used the normal verb ending of
the present tense for their country.
•
“Uses regular past tense verbs (for example, walked, baked, etc.); may use irregular past tense verbs
ungrammatically (for example, “I runned away”; etc.).”
CONCLUSION:
This behavioural scale posed some interesting cultural and linguistic issues. In many cases, wording could not be translated
literally; idiomatic expressions, transferral of word length/complexity and examples of grammar and tense issues all required
localisation. Solutions found through back translation and psychologist reviews included using conceptually equivalent
expressions, using similar examples and removing items that were not relevant to the country in question. This has
provided an array of examples where the literal meaning of a source text cannot or should not be used in the translation,
and has proved that sometimes moving away from the source is a much better option for cultural relevance and linguistic
clarity. This gives some pause for thought going forward in translation.
In a number of languages, the ungrammatical verb ‘runned’ had to be changed as the same verb in another language was
not irregular.
It was discovered that the Chinese phrasing in this sentence was so simple that there would be no room for grammatical
incorrectness and the term ‘ungrammatically’ was removed.
No separate category was found to exist for irregular past tense verbs in Chinese, Hungarian, Korean, Polish, Russian or
Ukrainian. The mention of ‘irregular past tense verbs’ was either omitted from the translation or alternatively an equivalent
example was used, such as verb stems needing a letter/sound substitution before the past tense ending is added, that
young children might easily get wrong. For instance, in Russian the wrong gender of the verb in the past tense was used
as a substitute example.
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