1
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
UNIVERSITY OF DANANG
PHAN THỊ THU THỦY
AN INVESTIGATION
INTO ENGLISH - VIETNAMESE
TRANSLATION OF EUPHEMISM
Subject Area : The English Language
Code
:
60.22.15
M.A. THESIS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Supervisor: TRẦN ĐÌNH NGUYÊN, M.A.
DANANG - 2011
i
DECLARATION
Except where reference is made in the text of the thesis, this thesis
contains no material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from
a thesis by which I have qualified for or been awarded another degree or
diploma.
No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in
the thesis.
This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or
diploma in any other tertiary institution.
Danang - 2011
Phan Thị Thu Thủy
ii
ABSTRACT
This thesis has been done in an effort to investigate how euphemism is
translated from English into Vietnamese in translated works as well as to
find out what are the main approaches taken by translators in translating
euphemism from English into Vietnamese. A collection of samples taken
from literary works written in English and their Vietnamese versions have
been analyzed to explore ways in which euphemisms are transferred.
Besides, quantitative analyses have also been carried out to show
distribution of ways of translating, on the basis of which to identify
preferences. The findings, it is hoped, will help to put forward some
suggestions for the translation as a profession and for the teaching and
learning of English to overcome the misunderstandings and barriers during
the cross-cultural communication.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
DECLARATION .............................................................................................. i
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................iii
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................... vi
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION ................................................................ 1
1.1. Rationale .................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Signification of the Study........................................................................... 2
1.3. Scope of the Study ..................................................................................... 2
1.4. Research Questions .................................................................................... 2
1.5. Definition of Terms .................................................................................... 2
1.6. Organisation of the Study........................................................................... 3
CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL
BACKGROUND ............................................................... 4
2.1. A Review of Previous Studies.................................................................... 4
2.2. Theoretical Background ............................................................................. 5
2.2.1. Theory of Translation.......................................................................... 5
2.2.1.1. Definitions of Translation............................................................ 5
2.2.1.2. Language and Culture.................................................................. 7
2.2.1.3. Translation Equivalence .............................................................. 9
2.2.1.4. Translation Methods ................................................................. 11
2.2.1.5. Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation ............ 14
2.2.2. Euphemisms ...................................................................................... 16
2.2.2.1. Concepts and Definitions of Euphemisms................................. 16
2.2.2.2. Characteristic Features of Euphemisms..................................... 19
2.2.2.3. Euphemisms and Other Linguistic Units ................................... 21
iv
2.2.3. Semantic Characteristics of English Words...................................... 25
2.2.3.1. Word Meaning ........................................................................... 25
2.2.3.2. Sense Relations .......................................................................... 27
2.2.3.3. Componential Analysis in Translation....................................... 28
2.2.4. Classification of Euphemisms and Theorists’ Ways for
Translation of Euphemisms ............................................................ 29
2.2.4.1. Classification of Euphemisms........................................................ 29
2.2.4.2. Theorists’ Ways for Translations of Euphemisms......................... 31
CHAPTER 3 - METHOD AND PROCEDURE......................................... 34
3.1. Aims and Objectives................................................................................. 34
3.1.1. Aims .................................................................................................. 34
3.1.2. Objectives.......................................................................................... 34
3.2. Research Design ....................................................................................... 34
3.3. Method of Research.................................................................................. 35
3.4. Data Collection and Description .............................................................. 35
3.5. Research Procedures................................................................................. 36
CHAPTER 4 - DISCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS ......................................... 37
4.1. The Ways of English-Vietnamese Translation of Euphemisms as
Manifested in Translated Works ............................................................. 37
4.1.1. Translation of Euphemisms expressing Death.................................. 37
4.1.2. Translation of Euphemisms expressing Sex .................................... 49
4.1.3. Translation of Euphemisms expressing Pregnancy .......................... 63
4.1.4. Translation of Euphemisms expressing Childbirth........................... 71
4.2. Three main Approaches to Translation of Euphemism............................ 79
4.2.1. Translation of Euphemism into an Equivalent Euphemism by
Finding the Exact Counterpart in the TL text ................................. 79
v
4.2.2. Translation of Euphemism into a Non-equivalent Euphemism by
Translating the Euphemistic Meaning of the SL text or by
Adding Footnotes and Explanatory Words in the TL text .............. 81
4.2.3. Translation of Euphemism into a direct form in the TL text ............ 82
CHAPTER 5 – CONCLUSIONS ................................................................. 83
5.1. Summary of the Findings ........................................................................ 83
5.2. Implications for Translation .................................................................... 85
5.3. Implications for Language Teaching and Learning ................................ 85
5.4. Some Limitations of the Study................................................................ 86
5.5. Some Suggestions for Further Research ................................................. 87
REFERENCES .............................................................................................. 88
QUYẾT ĐỊNH GIAO ĐỀ TÀI
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Title
Page
Figure 4.1. Proportion of Distribution of Euphemism expressing
Death in the SL Text Transferred into the TL Text
49
Figure 4.2. Proportion of Distribution of Euphemism expressing
Sex in the SL Text Transferred into the TL Text
62
Figure 4.3. Proportion of Distribution of Euphemism expressing
Pregnancy in the SL Text Transferred into the TL Text
70
Figure 4.4. Proportion of Distribution of Euphemism expressing
Childbirth in the SL Text Transferred into the TL Text
78
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. RATIONALE
It is well known that human culture, social behavior and thinking
cannot exist without languages. Being a social and national identity and a
means of human communication, languages cannot help bearing imprints of
ethnic and cultural values as well as the norms of behavior of a given
language community. Obviously, ideas, notions and feelings are actually
universal but the way we describe them in different languages is very unique.
Therefore, translation plays a crucial role in enhancing better understanding
each other, transmitting information, exchanging experiences and getting
knowledge. However, translating from one language into another is no easy
task. Translation must take into account a number of constraints, including the
context, the rules of grammar of the two languages, their writing conventions,
and their idioms. The most important idea is that translators have to be honest
in relaying the meaning, especially from one culture to another. It can be said
that one of the greatest difficulties that challenges translators are translating
figures of speech in general and euphemism in particular. Euphemism, a very
important
culture-loaded
figure
of
speech,
is
often
employed
in
communication and reflects the historical, political, economic and ideological
situations of a nation with its own characteristics. The translation of
euphemism has become more and more important with the development of
the inter-cultural communication.
This thesis attempts to study the figures of speech on the aspect of
translation to give some considerations and propose methods in translating
these figures of speech in general and euphemism in particular.
2
1.2. SIGNIFICATION OF THE STUDY
We hope this study will offer some help to the translators when doing
the translation of euphemism and assist them to overcome the
misunderstandings and barriers during the cross-cultural communication.
1.3. SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This study investigates the ways used in translating euphemism from
English into Vietnamese. The investigation will focus on works of English
literature and their Vietnamese versions.
1.4. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The research has attempted to answer the following questions:
1. How euphemism is translated from English into Vietnamese as seen
in examples taken from works of literature?
2. What are the main approaches taken by translators in translating
euphemism from English into Vietnamese?
1.5. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
- “Source language” is the language in which a text was originally
written.
- “Target language” is the language in which a text is translated.
- “Euphemism” is a figure of speech. It is used as an alternative to an
expression, in order to avoid possible loss of face: either one’s own face or
through giving offense, that of the audience, or of some third party.
- “Semantic approach” is an approach to translation which has these
features:
SL bias
Keeping semantic and syntactic structures as closely as possible
Author- centered
- “Communicative approach” is an approach which has these features:
TL bias
3
Keeping effect as closely as possible
Second reader-centered.
1.6. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
This research paper consists of five chapters:
Chapter one: Introduction
In this chapter we would present the statements of the problem, the
justification for the study, the scope of the study, the organization, as well as
definitions of terms.
Chapter two: Literature Review
The chapter covers a review of literature on translation of euphemism.
Prior studies on the problems are reviewed for the groundwork of the
research. This chapter also introduces some theoretical preliminaries on the
translation theory, the definitions and classification of euphemism and the
area of semantics.
Chapter three: Method and Procedures
This chapter provides the aims and objectives of the study, the research
methods used in order to achieve these aims. Next comes the research
procedures which include the research questions, the hypothesis, data
collection and analysis.
Chapter four: Finding and Discussions
This chapter presents the findings and discussion of ways used in
translating euphemism from English into Vietnamese. The discussion also
covers the main approaches taken by translators in translating euphemism
from English into Vietnamese.
Chapter five: Conclusions
This chapter consists of the conclusion of the whole study, the
implications for the translation and for the teaching and learning. Limitations
in doing the research and suggestions for further studies are also mentioned in
this chapter.
4
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL
BACKGROUND
2.1. A REVIEW OF PREVIOUS STUDIES
Translation is a complex process where fragile balance is achieved
between the equivalence of the text translated and the linguistic means
chosen. In reality, translation of euphemism from one language into another
language is a complex work which poses great difficulties to the translator so
there are many researchers dealing with euphemism translation in different
aspects. They can be seen in the following studies:
In “Introduction to Semantics and Translation” (1990), Barnwell [23,
p. 62-64] introduces some features of euphemism and also presents some
notes on translating euphemisms.
In “Euphemism and Dysphemism - Language Used as Shield and
Weapon” (1990), Allan and Burridge [21] mentions about the development,
the classification of English euphemisms and the differences among
euphemism, slang, dysphemism and taboo.
D.J. Enright [30] in “Fair of Speech” (1986), introduces euphemisms
and sex, death, politics, the media, the law and many others as well as
mentioned about the uses of euphemism.
In “Stylistics” (1977), Galperin [31] gives a definition of euphemism
and also divides them into several groups according to their spheres of
application: 1) religious, 2) moral, 3) medical, 4) parliamentary.
In Vietnamese, euphemisms have been discussed by some linguists:
Bằng Giang [1] in “Tiếng Việt phong phú” (1997), investigates over
1,000 variants of the word death with illustrations.
5
In “Phong cách học Tiếng Việt” (2001), Đinh Trọng Lạc [4, p.126]
puts forward the basic theoretical background of euphemisms in the
Vietnamese language. He assumes that euphemism is the delicate expression
in communicative situation in which the addresser feels uncomfortable to talk
about taboo topics because he is afraid that it will hurt or offend the addressee
“Uyển ngữ là phương thức diễn ñạt tế nhị trong hoàn cảnh giao tiếp mà
người nói không tiện nói ra vì sợ quá phũ phàng hoặc sợ xúc phạm ñến người
nghe”.
Trương Viên [19] (2003; Ph.D. Thesis) focuses on the linguistic
features of euphemisms by analyzing their formation by syntactic, phonetic,
lexical and stylistic means. With the contrastive analysis, the author also
pointes out some features related to the method of translation.
Nguyễn Thị Lê [15] (2006; M.A thesis) focuses on the study on
commonly-used euphemisms in English and Vietnamese newspapers in three
aspects: syntax, semantics and pragmatics.
On doing this research, we have followed the viewpoint of linguistics
in doing an investigation into common ways for translating euphemism from
English into Vietnamese and found out the main approaches taken by
translators in translating euphemism from English into Vietnamese.
2.2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.2.1 Theory of Translation
2.2.1.1 Definitions of Translation
Translation, by dictionary definition, consists of changing from one
form to another, to turn into one 'own or another' language (The Merriam Webster Dictionary, 1974). Some authors have given the following different
definitions of translation:
6
In the book “A Linguistic Theory of Translation”, Catford [25] defines
that translation is not a dangerous technique in itself provided its nature is
understood, and its use is carefully controlled and translation is in itself a
valuable skill to be imparted to students. Furthermore, translation is an
operation performed in languages and also a process of substituting a text in
one language for a text in another. More specifically, translation is the
replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual
material in another language (TL).
Benjamin [61] states that translation goes beyond enriching the
language and culture of a country which it contributes to, beyond renewing
and maturing the life of the original text, beyond expressing and analyzing the
most intimate relationships of languages with each other and becomes a way
of entry into a universal language.
Other researchers, Meetham and Hudsan [45, p.53] mention that
translation is the replacement of a presentation of a text in one language by a
presentation of equivalent text in a second language.
According to B. Hatim & I. Mason [32, p.3], translation is a process,
involving the negotiation of meaning between producers and receivers of
texts. In other words, the resulting translated text is to be seen as the evidence
of a transaction, a means of retracting the pathways of the translator’s
decision-makings.
Another author, Nguyễn Hồng Cổn [11] mentions that the activity of
translation is still a language activity and language plays core and basic roles.
However, he says that together with the attention to linguistic problem,
translators also need to pay attention to the problems relating to the SL and
TL such as social environment, culture and religion.
7
Furthermore, Vũ Văn Đại [20] claims that there is an unequivalence in
culture of translators and original texts, so in order to become good
translators, it is very necessary to enrich the cultural and national knowledge
of the TL.
Peter Newmark’s theory [48] is different from the point of view of
above mentioned authors. He defines that translation is rendering the meaning
of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text.
Briefly, the starting point of translation is a message. This message is
expressed in a specific language, which is called the SL. When doing
translation, we aim to re-express that message in another language (TL). We
have already known that the form of each language is unique. Thus,
translation will involve some changes of form. This does not matter provided
that that the meaning of the message is retained unchanged. Moreover,
translation not only involves understanding the general meaning of the
communication but also calls upon the ability to understand the culture of the
communication. Before we can translate a message, we must understand the
total meaning of the message within its own cultural context.
2.2.1.2. Language and Culture
Dealing with language and culture, Whorf
who endorsed Sapir’s
theory declares firmly that “No language can exist unless it is steeped in the
context of culture; and no culture of natural language.” [24, p.14]. Language,
then, is the heart within the body of culture, and it is the interaction between
the two that results in the continuation of life energy. In the same way that the
surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so
the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril.
According to Claire Kramsch [41, p.37], language is the principle
means whereby we conduct our social lives. When it is used in contexts of
8
communication, it is bound up with culture in multiple and complex ways.
“Language expresses cultural reality” as the words people utter refer to
common experience. They express facts, ideas or events that are
communicable because they refer to a stock of knowledge about the world
that other people share. “Language embodies cultural reality through all its
verbal and nonverbal aspects”. People also create experience through
language. They give meaning to it through the medium they choose to
communicate with one other, for example, speaking on the telephone or faceto-face, writing a letter or sending an email message. The way they use
spoken, written, or visual medium itself creates meanings that are
understandable to the group they belong. Language is a system of signs that is
seen that having itself a cultural value. “Language symbolizes cultural
reality” as speakers identify themselves and other through their use of
language; they use their language as a symbol of their social identity.
Edward Sapir claims that “language is a guide to social reality” and
that human beings are at the mercy of the language that has become the
medium of expression for their society. Experience, he asserts, is largely
determined by the language habits of the community, and each separate
structure represents a separate reality. He also affirms that “no two languages
are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social
reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not
merely the same world, with different labels attached.” [24, p.13]
Peter Newmark [49, p.94] indicates that culture is the way of life and
its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular
language as its means of expression. Frequently, where there is cultural focus,
there is a translation problem due to the cultural “gap” or “distance” between
the SL and TL.
9
2.2.1.3. Translation Equivalence
Equivalence can be said to be the central issue in translation although
its definition, relevance, and applicability within the field of translation theory
have caused heated controversy, and many different theories of the concept of
equivalence have been elaborated within this problem. Translation
equivalence occurs when a SL and a TL text or item are relatable to (at least
some of) the same features of substance. The greater the number of situational
features common to the contextual meanings of both SL and TL texts, the
“better” the translation.
According to Peter Newmark, translation equivalence is an unwritten
rule about translation which people know and which influences the form of
translating exchange. “Translation equivalence will not be achieved word for
word, collocation for collocation, clause for clause, sentence for sentence, but
possibly only paragraph for paragraph, or, rarely, text for text. For this
reason, translation equivalence, like the term ‘unit of translation’, is
sometimes a useful operational concept, but it can be only roughly and
approximately indicated for a stretch of language.” [49, p.123]
Mentioning
translation
equivalence, Eugene
Nida
[51,
p.26]
distinguishes two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and dynamic
equivalence. Formal equivalence focuses attention on the message itself, in
both form (poetry to poetry, sentence to sentence, concept and concept) and
content (gloss translation, aim to allow the reader to understand as much of
the SL context as possible). However, dynamic equivalence is based on the
principle of equivalent effect, i.e. that the relationship between receiver and
message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers
and the SL message.
10
J.C. Catford [25, p. 47] claims that SL and TL texts or items are
translation equivalents when they are interchangeable in a given situation.
Catford's approach to translation equivalence clearly differs from that adopted
by Nida since Catford had a preference for a more linguistic-based approach
to translation and this approach is based on the linguistic work of Firth and
Halliday. Catford proposed very broad types of translation in terms of three
criteria: the extent of translation (full translation vs. partial translation); the
grammatical rank at which the translation equivalence is established (rankbound translation vs. unbounded translation); the levels of language involved
in translation (total translation vs. restricted translation).
Moreover, Popovic [23, p.25] distinguishes translation equivalence
into four types:
(1) Linguistic equivalence, where there is homogeneity on the linguistic
level of both SL and TL texts, i.e. word for word translation.
(2) Paradigmatic equivalence, where there is equivalence of the
elements of a paradigmatic expressive axis, i.e. elements of grammar, which
Popovic sees as being a higher category than lexical equivalence.
(3) Stylistic (translational) equivalence, where there is “functional
equivalence of elements in both original and translation aiming at an
expressive identity with an invariant of identical meaning”.
(4) Textual (syntagmatic) equivalence, where there is equivalence of
the syntagmatic structuring of a text, i.e. equivalence of form and shape.
In trying to solve the problem of translation equivalence, Newbert [47]
postulates that translation equivalence must be considered a semiotic category
consisting of the components (syntactic, semantic and pragmatic). These
components are arranged in a hierarchical relationship, where semantic
equivalence takes priority over syntactic equivalence and pragmatic
11
equivalence conditions and modifies both the other elements. Equivalence
overall results from the relation between signs themselves, the relationship
between signs what they stand for and those who use them.
In general, to achieve translation equivalence requires translators to
produce the same effect (or one as close as possible) on the readership of the
translation as was obtained on the readership of the original. The translation
equivalence is showed in some rules and principles which are very useful for
the translators. The focus is to assure the equivalence in translation of
participants for translating to take place smoothly and effectively. These
principles help people best achieve their goals not only in communication but
also in translating: exchanging information and establishing and maintaining
social relations.
2.2.1.4. Translation Methods
In order to have a good translated version, the translator should have
knowledge about translation theory. When we mention translation, we also
refer to a process which involves the negotiation of meaning between
producers and receivers of texts. Translation plays such an important role in
life that there have been many researchers who mention it with many different
methods.
Peter Newmark [49, p.24] mentions the difference between translation
methods and translations. He indicates that, "While translation methods relate
to whole texts, translations are used for sentences and the smaller units of
language". He goes on to refer to the following methods of translation:
(1) Word-for-word translation: is the process the SL word order is
preserved and the words translated singly by their most common meanings,
out of context.
12
(2) Literal translation: is the process the SL grammatical constructions
are converted to their nearest TL equivalents, but the lexical words are again
translated singly, out of context.
(3) Faithful translation: it attempts to produce the precise contextual
meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical
structures.
(4) Semantic translation: differs from “faithful translation” only in as
far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value of the SL texts.
(5) Adaptation: is the freest form of translation, and is used mainly for
plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually
preserved, the SL culture is converted to the TL culture and the text is
rewritten.
(6) Free translation: it produces the TL texts without the style, form, or
content of the original.
(7) Idiomatic translation: it reproduces the “message” of the original
but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and
idioms where these do not exist in the original.
(8) Communicative translation: it attempts to render the exact
contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and
language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership.
Mentioning linguistic aspects of translation, Roman Jakobson [38, p.
232-239] distinguishes three types of translation:
(1) Intralingual translation, or rewording (an interpretation of verbal
signs by means of other signs in the same language)
(2) Interlingual translation or translation proper (an interpretation of
verbal signs by means of some other language)
13
(3) Intersemiotic translation or transmutation (an interpretation of
verbal signs by means of nonverbal sign systems.)
The translation in these three types properly describes the process of
transferring from the SL to the TL. He goes on immediately to point to the
central problem in all types: while messages may serve as adequate
interpretations of code units or messages, there is ordinarily no full
equivalence through translation.
Engene Nida [51] provides the model of the translation process
consisting of the following stages:
SL
TL
TEXT
TRANSLATION
Analysis
Restructuring
Transfer
For example:
SL
TL
HELLO
ÇA VA?
Friendly greeting on arrival
Decision to distinguish between forms
of greeting available
Transfer
Firth [24, p. 22] defines meaning as “a complex of relations of various
kinds between the component terms of a context of situation”. He points out
that, in determining what to use in English, the translators must:
14
(1) Accept the untranslatability of the SL phrase in the TL phrase on
the linguistic level.
(2) Accept the lack of a similar cultural convention in the TL.
(3) Consider the range of the TL phrases available, having regard to the
presentation of class, status, age, sex of the speaker, his relation to the
listeners and the context of their meaning in the SL.
(4) Consider the significance of the phrase in its particular context- i.e.
as a moment of high tension in the dramatic text.
(5) Replace in the TL the invariant core of the SL phrase in its two
referential systems (the particular system of the text and the system of culture
out of which the text has sprung).
Moreover, dealing with translation methods, Levy [24, p. 22], the great
Czech translation scholar, insists that any contracting or omitting of difficult
expressions in translating was immoral. The translator, he believes, had the
responsibility of finding a solution to the most daunting of problems, and he
declares that the functional view must be adopted with regard not only to
meaning but also to style and form. The translator cannot be the author of the
SL texts, but as the author of the TL texts has a clear moral responsibility to
the TL readers.
In brief, there are different methods of translation and each method has
its own strong and weak points. A good translator, then, is a person who
flexibly applies the suitable method or effectively combines these methods in
his or her texts.
2.2.1.5. Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation
Differently from other authors, basing on the points of view of reader,
Peter Newmark [48, p. 39] makes a distinction between two kinds of
translation; semantic and communicative.
15
Source Language (Bias)
Target Language (Bias)
Literal
Free
Faithful
Idiomatic
Semantic
Communicative
He admires that all of the translation versions in some degree contain
the both semantic and communicative, social and individual. According to
Peter Newmark [48], in communicative translation approach, the only part of
the meaning of the SL which is translated is the part which fits the TL
reader’s understanding of the identical message. In this translation, the
translator has the right to modify, correct and improve the translation version,
but the translator has to consider what extents of the SL should be suitable to
the knowledge, intelligence of the TL readers. Communicative translation
addresses itself solely to the second reader, who does not anticipate
difficulties or obscurities, and would expect a generous transfer of foreign
elements into his own culture as well as his language where necessary.
Communicative translation is likely to be smoother, simpler, clearer, more
direct and more conventional, conforming to a particular register of language.
Communicative translation emphasizes “the force” rather than the content of
the message.
Semantic translation, in contrast, is a translation in which the translator
is loyal to the author of the SL. It means that he has to translate the meaning
of the SL material into the TL text. However, if the text is not updated, the
translation version has to be put into modern language. Semantic translation
attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the
16
second language, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic
translation remains within the original culture and assists the readers only in
its connotations if they constitute the essential human (non-ethnic) message of
the text. Semantic translation would be more informative but less effective.
Semantic translation tends to be more complex, more awkward, more
detailed, more concrete and pursues the thought-processes rather than the
intention of the transmitter. It tends to overtranslate, to be more specific than
the original and to include more meanings in its search for one nuance of
meaning.
In summary, a translator who wants to be successful in his translation
needs to know how to combine these two methods fluently because there are
often sections in one text that require both semantic and communicative
translation. Moreover, if we use only one method, the translation might be
rigid and less flexible. So, accuracy, clarity and flexibility are highly needed
in the language transfer. For this reason, the translators tend to combine
communicative and semantic methods appropriately, sensibly in their
translation process.
2.2.2. Euphemisms
2.2.2.1. Concepts and Definitions of Euphemisms
It is obviously that euphemism is one language performance form
which people seek in the social communication. It is created for ideal
communication effect because of its powerful abilities. Together with
increasingly enhancement of social civilization, speech skill and good
interpersonal relationship also profoundly affect our life, thus, more and more
euphemisms will be produced in the language. Euphemism has been always
played an important part in English and especially it is chiefly the core point
17
in our daily communication. Therefore, there have been a lot of researches
about English euphemism because of its importance and prominence.
In “Introduction to Semantics and Translation”, Katherine Barnwell
gives a definition that “A euphemism is the use of an expression which has a
meaning quite different from its apparent surface meaning. It is an indirect
way of saying something, usually used in order to avoid being offensive”. [23,
p. 98]
Allan and Burridge [21, p. 57] define euphemism as “an alternative to
a dispreferred expression, in order to avoid possible loss of face: either one’s
own face or, through giving offense, that of the audience, or of some third
party”. The dispreferred expression may be taboo, fearsome, distasteful, or
some expressions with negative connotations.
According to Galperin [31, p. 76], "Euphemism is a word or phrase
used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally
acceptable one". The origin of the term “euphemism” discloses the aim of the
device very clearly, i.e. speaking well (from Greek - eu = well + pheme =
speaking). He also shows that euphemism is sometimes figuratively called "a
whitewashing device". According to him, euphemisms may be divided into
several groups according to their spheres of application. The most recognized
spheres are the following: 1) religious, 2) moral, 3) medical, 4) parliamentary.
In “Style Guide”, Pam [55, p. 620] defines euphemisms as “the finesounding words and phrases we used for things which are not so fine or
beautiful. The word itself goes back to the Greeks and Greek civilization,
suggesting that they had found the need for inoffensive expressions to refer to
what was unpalatable, unacceptable and unmentionable in their culture".
Moreover, Geoffrey Leech [43, p. 102] insists that “euphemism is the
practice of referring to something offensive or delicate in terms that make it
18
sound more pleasant or becoming than it really is”. Therefore, people use
euphemisms to get rid of the negative meaning or connotation the word or
topic.
Euphemistic expressions occur at all levels of society, but throughout
the history people have found certain areas to be more uncomfortable and
unpleasant to discuss than others. These include sex, death, killing, crime,
diseases and different functions of the human body.
Mentioning euphemism, Crystal [26, p. 61] claims that “euphemisms
are the use of a vague or indirect expression in place of one which is thought
to be unpleasant, embarrassing or offensive. Euphemisms are typically used
to replace expressions to do with death, sexual activities and other bodily
functions”.
In Vietnamese, Trương Viên proposes a definition of euphemism in his
doctoral dissertation “uyển ngữ (euphemism) là một từ hay một ngữ cố ñịnh
ñược cấu tạo lại, diễn ñạt lại một nội dung ñã có ñể thể hiện một cách thích
hợp, tế nhị, thẩm mỹ; là lời nói ñược sử dụng trong những tình huống hay văn
bản giao tiếp lịch sự, sang trọng, ñầy tri thức văn hóa, liên quan ñến cái ñẹp
trong việc dùng từ ngữ.”. [19]
Đinh Trọng Lạc [3, p. 18] mentions that “uyển ngữ (euphemism) là
hình ảnh tu từ trong ñó người ta thay tên gọi một ñối tượng (hoặc một hiện
tượng) bằng sự miêu tả những dấu hiệu cơ bản của nó, hoặc bằng việc nêu
lên những nét ñặc biệt của nó, tạo hình cho lời nói vì nó không chỉ tạo nên ñối
tượng mà còn miêu tả ñối tượng nhã ngữ”.
He also distinguishes between “uyển ngữ” and “nhã ngữ”. However, he
finally concludes that “nhã ngữ” is a variant of “uyển ngữ”, in which pleasant
and decent words are used to replace for impolite, harsh or unacceptable ones
19
“nhã ngữ là một biến thể của uyển ngữ, trong ñó những từ ngữ nhã nhặn, lịch
sự ñược dùng ñể thay thế những từ ngữ thô lỗ, khó nghe, không ñúng mực”.
2.2.2.2. Characteristic Features of Euphemisms
a. Universality
Universality is something that is well-known and accepted by all of the
people. Though euphemism is indirect and it doesn’t come straight to the
point, people can easily infer its deeper implication. Some taboos connecting
with sex, death, or body functions are replaced by euphemisms. And the
public has accepted this kind of use. For when we refer to death, we seldom
say “die”. For example, in the sentence “David … fell asleep and was laid
with his fathers”, the phrase “fell asleep” is an indirect way of saying “died”.
b. National feature
There is no doubt that each language has its own euphemism, the
meanings of which are quite clear to a native speaker of the language. This is
the national feature of euphemism. For example, in Vietnam, it is natural for
people to experience adult, middle age, old age and death. However, to
westerners, old age means worthless and the old will be looked down upon or
even deserted. Therefore, no one would like to admit that he is old. People
dread about old age so much that they see the word “old” as a taboo. Instead,
various indirect ways of referring to “old” was used: “the advanced in age”,
“the mature”, “the longer living”, “seasoned man”, “senior citizens”,etc.
c. Indirectness
One of the essential aspects of euphemism is to avoid mentioning some
unpleasant phenomenon or arrangements directly. In other words, people used
an indirect way to mention these unpleasant topics. Therefore, indirectness is
obviously one of the main features of euphemism. For example, in western
countries, compared with mental work, physical labor is regarded as humble
20
and inferior. People always use euphemistic ways to describe such jobs. This
indirect feature is common in a lot of professions such as: beautician = hair
dresser, elevator = member of the vertical transportation corps, under-take =
funeral service practitioner, mechanic = automobile engineer, dustman =
sanitary engineer.
d. Localization
Different regions have different customs, history, culture and these
differences embody the localization of language. Many euphemisms are
related to the folklore and its localization is clear. People comprehend the
notion of so-called euphemism in different ways. For example, in the sentence
“He is in the bathroom”, American may think he is in the toilet but English
may consider that he is taking a bath because the word “bathroom” in British
English has the meaning of “bathing” but in American English, it becomes to
be a substitution of toilet.
e. Obscure feature
A lot of euphemisms make use of obscurity in language. This
euphemistic way can enlarge the meanings of some words. We often say “He
is unwise” or “He is mentally challenged” instead of using “He is stupid”. The
use of such words or phases as “unwise” or “mentally challenged” could be
more politely.
f. Humorous feature
The use of euphemism can increase the sense of humor. This makes
interactions between people more interesting. For example, once a man was
bathing without locking his door, one of his friends rushed into his room for
emergency and found he was naked. They both felt embarrassed. Then the
man with nothing on said, “You are the one besides my mother who has seen I
21
am in my birthday suit”. Both of them immediately burst into laughter. “In
one’s birthday suit” is one of euphemistic words about nakedness.
g. Figurative feature
As a stylistic device, euphemisms are figurative. Euphemisms can be
achieved by many stylistic devices such as circumlocution, metonymy,
hyperbole and understatement, and so on. We can find figurative expressions
like “the cavalry’s come” for “I’ve got my period” and “go to the happy
hunting grounds” for “die”. Or a metaphor for “vagina” is “the miraculous
pitcher that holds water with the mouth downfalls”.
In fact, we use euphemisms to soften the reality of what we are
communicating to a given listener or reader; to avoid stimulating, comfort for
the human. When replacing the taboo language, it can eliminate vulgarly and
give people elegant impression. Simultaneously, euphemisms sometimes may
be showy and also have the sense of humor. Being good at euphemizing is a
manifestation of high accomplishment, but using it excessively will give
people affected feeling. Therefore, we must pay attention to the usage of
euphemisms in our daily communication to make our life more colorful.
2.2.2.3. Euphemisms and other linguistic units
a. Euphemisms and Dysphemisms
According to Allan and Burridge [21, p.26], “a dysphemism is an
expression with connotations that are offensive and it is substituted for
neutral or euphemistic expression for just that reason”. In referring to a
particular communicative intention in a given context, speaker must choose
either to use or not to use a euphemism in order to create a certain effect on a
given occasion. For example, when referring to one’s death, we can say “He
passed away” or “He kicked the bucket”. Obviously, the second is
intentionally dysphemistic by comparison with the first.
22
Like euphemisms, dysphemisms are motivated by fear and distaste, but
also by hatred and contempt; and in contrast to euphemisms, they are
motivated by the desire to offensively demonstrate such feelings and to
downgrade the denotatum or addressee when deliberately used.
Euphemisms and dysphemisms may seem self-contradiction, but in fact
they are not. Euphemistic dysphemism and dysphemistic euphemisms have
locutions which are at odds with their illocutionary point. The expletive
“Shit!”, which typically expresses anger, frustration, or anguish, is ordinarily
a dysphemism. However, it is remodeled as euphemism “Sugar, Shoot, or
Shilvers”. It is clear that the locution is recognized as euphemism even
though the illocutionary act might be dysphemistic. So these expressions are
considered as euphemistic dysphemisms. Similarly, there exist some
dysphemistic euphemisms. For example, terms referring to menstruation such
as have the curse, woman’s complaint, be feeling that way, off the roof, and so
on are dysphemistic euphemisms for some occasions. With dysphemistic
euphemisms, the locution is dysphemistic, but the illocution is not.
b. Euphemisms and Taboo
According to Peter Pam [55, p.741], “taboo words are words that many
people avoid because of the offensive they may give”. Taboos can include
restrictions on sexual activities, gender roles and relationships with other
people (e.g. fornication, adultery, interreligious marriage, homosexuality,
incest, bestiality and so on.); restrictions of bodily functions (burping,
flatulence, urination, masturbation, nose picking and spitting) in public;
restrictions on state genitalia; restrictions on showing body parts
(pornography and nudity); restrictions on gestures; restrictions on the use of
offensive language known as obscenity and vulgarity. In order to avoid
referring to these restrictions, a pleasant kind of words is resorted. In other
23
words, the safest way to talk about these taboos is to use euphemisms.
Therefore, it can be said that taboo is one of the motives for the formation of
euphemisms.
“Taboo is a cultural or religious custom that forbids people to do,
touch, use or talk about a certain thing” (Oxford Dictionary) [54, 1213]. A
taboo is a strong social prohibition relating to any areas of human activity or
social custom declared as sacred and forbidden. The term was originally
borrowed from Tongan “tapu” or the Fijian “tabu”. These words usually
mean “not allowed” or “forbidden”. The use of the word “taboo” in English
was dated back in 1777 by an English explorer, Captain James Cook.
Euphemisms can eventually taboo words themselves through a process
called the euphemisms treadmill by Pinker. In this process over the course of
time, a word that was originally adopted as a euphemism acquires the
negative connotations of the original word. The process can happen many
times, and may still continue to be happening. An example of this is
euphemisms for the word “toilet”, it can be referred to as “WC, bathroom,
loo, the smallest room”, and “I am just going to powder my nose”, all of
which avoid using the word “toilet”.
Taboo words and expressions are perhaps less obvious in our society
than euphemisms, which are used to “dress up” certain areas in life. Hence
the use of euphemisms becomes more presentable. Euphemistic words and
expressions allow us to talk about unpleasant things and neutralize the
unpleasantness. They also allow us to give labels to unpleasant matters in an
attempt to make them sound better.
c. Euphemisms and Slang
“Slang is the use of highly informal words and expressions that are not
considered standard in the speaker’s dialect or language. It is often used as a
24
way to say words that are not appropriate. It is often not found in the
standard dictionary for the language” (Wiki.)
Slang refers to informal lexical items used by a special group such as
musicians, soldiers, prisoners, teenagers, thieves and so forth. The peculiar
property of slang is to be esoteric; hence slang is often understood by a certain
social group itself. For example, slang terms are only used by Londoners in
Cockney such as “needle and pin” for “gin”; “bees and honey” for “money”;
“storm and strife” for “wife”.
There is a relationship between slang and euphemism when referring to
some decent topics, especially taboo ones. Some slang terms are considered
conventional euphemisms such as the use of “over-shoulder boulder-holders”
for “bra”; or the use of “doodle, diddle, dink, dong” for “penis”.
d. Euphemisms and Jargons
Newmark [50, p.131] defines jargon as “an idiom peculiar to a trade or
profession, an occupational register of language, or an esoteric slang
unintelligible to the layman”. Actually, jargons are technical words or
expressions used by a particular profession or group of people and hard for
others to understand. The jargons are well known in the English language: the
jargon of thieves and vagabonds, the jargon of surgeons, the jargon of the
army, the jargon of sportsmen, the jargon of procurers or procuresses, and
many others. For example, the word “grease” means “money”; “loaf” means
“head”; “a trick or a john” means “a prostitute’s client”.
The subject matter plays an important role in recognizing the jargons as
euphemisms or dysphemisms. Some euphemistic jargons are common in
funerals’ language such as remains (=corpse), long home (=graveyard),
sanitary treatment (=embalmment), dismal trade (= the arrangement of
funerals for payment). In the field of education, people tend to use
25
euphemisms instead of using some simple value-laden jargons. We can say
“These students are educationally and socially disadvantaged” (not These
student are lazy), or “They are underachievers” (not stupid). Not all jargons
are euphemistic or dysphemistic. There is a portion of jargon remaining the
outsiders of any particular social group.
2.2.3. Semantic Characteristics of English Words
2.2.3.1. Word Meaning
As we all know, communication becomes more and more a crucial
factor in social organization and meaning plays such an important role in
communication. Meaningless utterances have no value in communication;
they can only make their language users a laughing stock, which is why
understanding the meaning is very important for the language users. The
meaning of a word is not merely the result you get from your search in a good
dictionary because it depends on many factors concerned.
In “Meaning in English”, Lesley Jeffries [39, p.124] states that
“meaning is a kind of invisible unclothed being waiting for the clothes of
language to allow it to be seen, which is why it is very necessary to take off
the clothes of language to understand the real meaning of words, phrases, and
sentences”. For example, “the red flag at the seaside of a resort” means
“danger”.
In the book “Semantics”, Geoffrey Leech [43, p.121] shows seven types
of meaning:
a. Conceptual meaning (sometimes called “denotative” or “cognitive”
meaning)
Denotative meaning refers to the literal meaning of a word. For
example, the meaning of the word woman can be specified as +human, -male,
26
+adult. Three properties “human”, “adult”, and “female” provide a criterion
of the correct use of the word woman.
b. Connotative meaning
Connotative meaning is the communicative value an expression has by
virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual meaning.
In other words, according to him, it refers to the associations that are
connected to a certain word or the emotional suggestions related to that word.
The connotative meanings of a word exist together with the denotative
meanings. The connotations for the word woman can include not only its
denotative meaning but concomitants of womanhood (“capable of speech”,
“experienced in cookery”, “skirt-or-dress wearing”) as well as some
traditional attitudes such as frail, prone to tears, emotional or other qualities
such as beautiful, gentle, compassionate, sensitive, and hard-working.
c. Stylistic meaning
Stylistic meaning is that which a piece of language conveys about the
social circumstances of its use. In this style of meaning, a word can be
recognized by the typical dimensions: Individuality (the language of Mr X, of
Mrs Y, and so on); Dialect (the language of a geographical region or of a
social class); Time (the language of the eighteen century, ect); Style (the
language of poetry, the language of journalism, and so forth); Singularity (the
style of Dickens, of Hemingway, ect...).
d. Affective meaning
According to Leech [43, p.125], affective meaning is often explicitly
conveyed through the denotative or connotative content of the words used. He
also claims that affective meaning is largely a parasitic category in the sense
that to express our emotions we rely upon the mediation of other categories of
meaning – denotative, connotative, or stylistic.
27
e. Reflected meaning
Reflected meaning is the meaning which arises in case of multiple
conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to
another sense.
f. Collocative meaning
Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on
account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment. For
example: “pretty” and “handsome” share common ground in the meaning
‘good-looking’, but may be distinguished by the range of nouns with which
they are likely to co-occur or collocate: pretty girl, boy, flower, garden, etc.
and handsome boy, man, car, vessel, etc.
g. Thematic meaning
Thematic meaning is what communicated by the way in which the
message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.
Moreover, mentioning word meaning, in “Semantics and Translation”,
Katherine Barnwell [23, p. 60-64] analyses meaning with five different kinds
of associative meaning, in which includes: connotative meaning, stylistic
(social) meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, collocative meaning.
2.2.3.2. Sense Relations
In order to understand euphemisms comprehensively, we must rely
upon the uses of themselves through various types of meaning as well as in
the relations of senses.
- Polysemy: James Hurford (1997) defines “A case of polysemy is one
where a word has several very closely related senses.” [35, p.123]
Ex: Mouth (of a river vs. of an animal) is a case of polysemy. The two
senses are clearly related by the concepts of an opening from the interior of
28
some solid mass to the outside, and of a place of issue at the end of some long
narrow channel.
- Synonymy: Lyons [40, p.165] defines two expressions as full
synonymous if the following conditions are met:
• All their meanings are identical
• They are synonyms in all contexts
• They are semantic equivalent in all aspects of their meaning
- Homonymy: According to James Hurford [35], a case of homonymy
is one of an ambiguous word whose different senses are far apart from each
other and not obviously related to each other in any way. For example,
“Bank” (the edge of a river vs. a financial institution) makes a good example
of homonymy. So does the word “Ba” in Vietnamese, which suggests both
“father” and “three”.
- Antonymy: Antonymy is the relation of opposite meanings.
For example: Good/Bad; Fast/Slow are some examples of antonymy.
2.2.3.3.Componential Analysis in Translation
The basic process in translation is to compare a SL word with a TL
word which has a similar meaning, but it not an obvious one-to-one
equivalent, by demonstrating first their common and then their differing sense
components. The SL word normally has a more specific meaning than the TL
word, and the translator has to add one or two TL sense components to the
corresponding TL word in order to produce a closer approximation of
meaning. The sense components of a lexical unit may be referential and/ or
pragmatic. Comprehensively, a SL word may be distinguished from a TL
word on the one hand in the composition, shape, size and function of its
referent; on the other hand, in its cultural context and connotations, as well as
in its currency, period, social class usage and its degree of formality,
29
emotional tone, generality or technicality and, finally, in the pragmatic effect
of its sound composition.
2.2.4. Classification of Euphemisms and Theorists’ Ways for
Translation of Euphemisms
2.2.4.1. Classification of Euphemisms
Euphemism can be classified into many categories according to
different criteria, rules or principles. For instance, euphemism can be divided
into euphemism in the Middle Ages, euphemism in the Victorian Age,
euphemism in the twentieth century, and contemporary euphemism. In terms
of the prevailing time, whether it is long or short, euphemism can be divided
into temporary euphemism and persistent euphemism.
There is no uniform standard, but the motives of the different
classifications are to discover and understand the characteristics of
euphemism from different angles. The following is a brief introduction to
some representative classifications of euphemism.
a. Positive Euphemism and Negative Euphemism
Hugh Rawson [57, p. 211] divides euphemisms into two general
types—positive and negative. Positive euphemisms can also be called stylistic
euphemisms or exaggerating euphemisms. “The positive ones inflate and
magnify, making the euphemized items seem altogether grander and more
important than they really are.”. In order to avoid thrill, to be polite or to
achieve cooperation, British and American people, especially contemporary
Americans, prefer using the technique of exaggeration to euphemize
something unpleasant and embarrassing.
The positive euphemisms include the many fancy occupational titles,
which save the egos of workers by elevating their job status. For example,
“exterminating engineers” for “ratcatchers”, “beautician” for “hairdressers”.
30
“The negative euphemisms deflate and diminish. They are defensive in nature,
offsetting the power of tabooed terms and otherwise eradicating from the
language everything that people prefer not to deal with directly.” [57, p.214]
The negative euphemisms can be called traditional euphemisms or
narrowing euphemism. They are extremely ancient, and closely connected
with the taboos. A euphemism and its corresponding taboo are in fact two
faces of the same coin. They refer to the same thing though they have
different looks, the euphemism having a much more pleasant face than the
taboo. In many cultures, it is forbidden to pronounce the name of God. So
there are euphemisms such as “Jeeze”, “Jeepers Creepers” , or “Gee” for
“Jesus”, “Jesus Christ” or “Christ”, “Goodness” for “God” or “My Gum” for
“My God”. The names of the tabooed subjects as the dead, and the animals
that are hunted or feared, may also be euphemized this way.
b. Conscious Euphemism and Unconscious Euphemism
Euphemisms, whether positive or negative, can be divided into
unconscious euphemisms and conscious euphemisms. The criterion is the
euphemistic meaning whether correlative with the original meaning or not.
Unconscious euphemisms, as its name implies, were developed long
ago, and are used unconsciously, without any intent to deceive or evade. For
example, “Indisposition” has been a substitute for “disease” for a long period;
people seldom realize that its original meaning is incapable of dealing with
something. Or “Dieter”, the original meaning “taking food by a rule or
regulation” has been substituted by the euphemistic meaning “the one
moderate in eating and dining for loosing weight”. From the above we can
conclude that unconscious euphemisms were developed so long ago that few
can remember their original motivations.
31
Conscious euphemisms are widely employed, which involve more
complex categories. When people communicate with each other, speakers are
conscious to say tactfully, and the listeners understand their implied
meanings. For example, when a lady stands up and says that she wants to
“powder her nose” or “make a phone call” at a dinner party, the people
present realize the euphemism means “something else”, that is, “going to the
ladies’ room”.
c. Semantic Classifications of Euphemism
Beside the divisions mentioned above, according to their contents
concerned, euphemisms can be semantically divided into:
• Euphemisms expressing death
• Euphemisms expressing sex
• Euphemisms expressing pregnancy
• Euphemisms expressing childbirth
• Euphemisms expressing prostitutes
• Euphemisms expressing genitals
• Euphemisms expressing occupation
• Euphemisms expressing unemployment
• Euphemisms expressing disease…
2.2.4.2. Theorists’ Ways for Translation of Euphemisms
Mentioning translation of euphemisms, in “Semantics and Translation”,
Katharine Barnwell [23, p.68] states that:
• Sometimes a euphemism in the SL can be translated by a direct
form in the TL.
• Sometimes a euphemism in the SL has to be translated by a
euphemism in the TL, often quite different in form but having equivalent
meaning in the TL.
32
• Sometimes something which is referred to directly in the SL may
have to be translated by a euphemism in the TL in order to avoid an
expression which would be offensive in the target culture.
According to M. L. Larson [42, p. 87], a euphemism in the SL needs to
be translated by an equivalent euphemism in the TL. It is important that the
translator must recognize the euphemistic nature of euphemism in SL and
translate it into TL with euphemistic equivalence.
As stated by Alan Duff
in “Translation” [21, p. 144 ], idiomatic
expressions are notoriously untranslatable. These include similes, euphemism,
proverbs and saying, jargon, slang and colloquialisms and phrasal verbs. He
also shows that if the expressions can not be directly translated, try any of the
following:
- Retain the original word, in inverted commas: “phở” , “chèo”
- Retain the original expression with a literal explanation in brackets:
“áo dài”(a long close-fitting blouse)
The golden rule is: if the idiom does not work in the TL, do not force it
into translation.
As we know, in reality, there are a lot of euphemisms with high
idiomatic and sometimes we must use metaphor to reach to euphemistic
nature of euphemisms. As a result, this principle of Alan Duff can be
employed in translating euphemisms.
In short, due to some limitations of time and materials, in this thesis, the
author has just only carried out an investigation on the translation of
euphemisms expressing death, sex, pregnancy and childbirth basing on ways
of translation of euphemism, namely:
• a euphemism in the SL is translated by a direct form in the TL.
33
• a euphemism in the SL is translated by an equivalent euphemism in
the TL.
• a euphemism in the SL is translated by a non-equivalent one in the
TL.
In summary, this chapter has presented the theories on translation,
semantics, concepts, general features of euphemisms, classification of
euphemisms and theorists’ ways of translation of euphemisms to support the
investigation to count the percentage of each way used in translating
euphemisms from English into Vietnamese and then give some remarks on
the popularity of each way.
34
CHAPTER 3
METHOD AND PROCEDURE
3.1. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
3.1.1. Aims
This study aims:
- To identify how euphemism is translated from English into
Vietnamese.
- To come to main approaches taken by translators in translating
euphemism from English into Vietnamese.
3.1.2. Objectives
To achieve the above-stated aims, the following objectives are
identified:
- Examine ways of translating figures of speech in general and of
euphemism in particular as discussed by translation theorists.
- Examine how these ways are manifested in literary works translated
from English into Vietnamese.
- Decide if any generalizations can be made of ways adopted by
translators when translating euphemism from English into Vietnamese.
- And finally put forward some considerations and recommendations
for translation of euphemisms and for teaching and learning this figure of
speech.
3.2. RESEARCH DESIGN
This research is a combination of qualitative and quantitative
approaches to carry out an investigation into translating euphemisms as seen
in contemporary translated works from English into Vietnamese. The research
design is planned to carry out such important things as:
- Providing some basic theoretical concepts related to translation,
semantics as well as theories of euphemisms.
35
- Collecting and classifying euphemisms due to theorists’ ways of
translating euphemisms and drawing some conclusion on the frequency of
each way used in translating euphemisms.
- Simultaneously, describing and analyzing the collected data to find
out main approaches taken by translators in translating euphemism from
English into Vietnamese.
3.3. METHOD OF RESEARCH
To fulfill the aim of the study, the main methods to be used are
quantitative method and qualitative method.
The quantitative method in the study is conducted by calculating the
percentage of each way used in translating euphemism from English into
Vietnamese and arranges these ways in the preference.
The qualitative method in this study is mainly based on pairs in which
the SL is English and the TL is Vietnamese.
Library research is used for literature review, in which different
approaches to translation of euphemism are presented and contrasted to find
out the ways which are used more popularly than the others. Simultaneously,
main approaches taken by translators in translating euphemism from English
into Vietnamese are also analyzed and presented.
3.4. DATA COLLECTION AND DESCRIPTION
Data collection has been carried out on translated works of literature
from English into Vietnamese. Data are collected from printed sources or
from the Internet. An estimated corpus of about 500 euphemisms translated
from English into Vietnamese is taken from short stories, novels, etc. written
in British English or American English and translated into Vietnamese by
different authors.
36
3.5. RESEARCH PROCEDURES
The steps involved in the study are as follows:
- Collecting euphemisms from some various bilingual sources
translated from English into Vietnamese.
- Doing literature work.
- Sorting out euphemisms translated according to different categories.
- Sorting out euphemisms translated according to different ways.
- Examining the frequency of occurrence of each way that translators
choose when translating euphemisms from English into Vietnamese and
putting them in order of frequency.
- Calculating the exact percentage for each way used in translating
euphemism.
- Putting forward some considerations and recommendations for
translation of euphemisms and for teaching and learning this figure of speech.
37
CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. THE WAYS OF ENGLISH-VIETNAMESE TRANSLATION OF
EUPHEMISMS AS MANIFESTED IN TRANSLATED WORKS
4.1.1. Translation of Euphemisms Expressing Death.
Nowadays, life is much better than it used to be, and for most people
death no longer comes as a welcome release. It is hard to view human
existence solely as preparation for death, and to be consoled by the thought of
a better future life. The inevitability of death as a natural event was also
something that never used to be questioned. In English, death is a Fear-based
Taboo. Death taboos are motivated by the following fears: a) Fear of the loss
of loved ones; b) Fear of the corruption and disintegration of the body with
which one has so long been familiar in life is suddenly to become abhorrent;
c) Death is the end of life, and there is fear of what follows – there can be no
first hand experience of death for the living; d) Fear of the malevolent spirits,
or the souls of the dead. People feel terrified of death and they extremely
reluct to name it directly, thus, it is not to be used when talking to people in
normal daily polite conversations. In an attempt to find more socially
acceptable terms and also to keep death at arm’s length by masking its reality,
people may use various euphemisms – mild, indirect or vague terms.
In the Vietnamese language, there is also a long list of euphemisms for
death or dying, which are in common with the ones in the English language.
The aim of those words is to lessen the pain and sorrow of the deceased’s
family, relatives and friends and to show sympathy for them.
The translation of euphemisms expressing death from English into
Vietnamese as manifested in translated works can be either direct, equivalent
or non-equivalent. Let us have a look at the following examples:
38
<1> “No, Meggie, Hal’s not better in the way you mean, but he’s at
peace. He’s gone to God, he’s out of his pain.”
[27, p.87]
- Không, Meggie ạ. Hal không ñỡ chút nào như con mong, em ñã yên
nghỉ rồi. Hal ñã trở về với Chúa, thế là không còn ñau khổ nữa.
[16, p.92]
In English speaking countries, Christianity is the most popular religion.
As for them, Christians would be free from the burden of original sins if they
followed Jesus’ teachings and examples and believed in him as the Son of
God. Hence, according to them, death is regarded as being reunited with the
Father God or simply going home. So, “die” means “Gone to God”. In <1>,
the death of Hal is so shocking that the very words to denote it are avoided
and more neutral words “been at peace”, “gone to God”, “out of pain” are
used instead to lessen the regret and misery for the losses of his relatives.
Interestingly, very similar words are used in the TL text: “yên nghỉ”,
“trở về với Chúa”, “không còn ñau khổ”.
Let us look at the diagrams, based on a model by Nida:
SL Text
TL Text
em ñã yên nghỉ rồi
he’s at peace.
Dying, being killed
Chết, bị giết
Euphemism: been at peace
Euphemism: yên nghỉ
Transfer
39
SL Text
TL Text
Hal ñã trở về với Chúa
He’s gone to God
Dying, being killed
Chết, bị giết
Euphemism: gone to God
Euphemism: trở về với Chúa
Transfer
SL Text
TL Text
thế là không còn ñau khổ
he’s out of his pain
Dying, being killed
Chết, bị giết
Euphemism: out of his pain
Euphemism: không còn ñau khổ
Transfer
<2> Only lately the day of my demise seems a lot closer than it used
to, and I feel . . . oh, I don’t know.
[ 27, p.44]
Tôi có cảm giác là cái ngày của số mệnh gần kề và tôi tin rằng... Ồ! Tôi
không biết.
[16, p. 53]
Death is the end of life and in this situation, Mrs. Carson is in fear of
her life, of what follows, thus, a very word to denote it is avoided and a
metaphorical expression “the day of my demise” is applied instead.
Equivalently, the expression “cái ngày của số mệnh” in the TL text is
also used:
40
SL Text
TL Text
the day of my demise seems a lot
cái ngày của số mệnh gần kề
closer than it used to
Dying, being killed
Chết, bị giết
Euphemism: the day of my demise
Euphemism: cái ngày của số mệnh
Transfer
<3>I wouldn’t have minded going, why did it have to be him? Why
couldn’t it have been me? I’m so old!
[27, p. 392]
Để cho tôi ra ñi có phải là ñơn giản hơn không. Tại sao lại là nó mà
không phải tôi?
[16, p.345]
Normally, we fear confrontation with death because of its strong
reminders of our own finiteness that we might dread to . And certainly, people
feel unworthy to be living when a person they love has died. In this case, the
death of Dane is so sudden that the word denoting it is avoided and a more
neutral word “go” is used instead and a very similar word is used in the TL
text: “ra ñi”.
SL Text
TL Text
Để cho tôi ra ñi có phải
I wouldn’t have minded going
là ñơn giản hơn không
Dying, being killed
Chết, bị giết
Euphemism: going
Euphemism: ra ñi
Transfer
41
People have regarded death as the start of the soul’s journey into the
afterlife and to begin a new life. Therefore, they have buried the dead with all
sorts of paraphernalia to help them on the way. Accordingly, death is
represented euphemistically as a journey and the notion of death as a state of
rest from the pains of life. Similarly, some euphemistic words such as
“lying”, “lost”, “rest”, “sleep on”, “is gone” are used to denote Dane’s
death and equivalent words are used in the TL text: “nằm xuống”, “ñã mất”,
“yên giấc”.
<4>He must come home! I’d hate to think of him lying somewhere far
from Drogheda.
[27, p. 391]
Dane phải trở về nhà! Mẹ không muốn em con nằm xuống ở một nơi
nào khác hơn là Drogheda.
[16, p.344]
SL Text
TL Text
I’d hate to think of him lying
Mẹ không muốn em con nằm
somewhere far from
xuống ở một nơi nào khác hơn
Drogheda
là Drogheda
Dying, being killed
Chết, bị giết
Euphemism: lying
Euphemism: nằm xuống
Transfer
<5> ”Dane’s lost,” she said. “No one can find him; he’s been buried
somewhere on Crete.
[27, p.392]
- Dane ñã mất rồi. Meggie nói. Không ai có thể tìm ra thi thể Dane
ñược. Nó ñược chôn cất ở một nơi nào ñó trên ñảo Crete xa xôi!
[16, p.345]
42
SL Text
TL Text
Dane’s lost
Dane ñã mất rồi
Dying, being killed
Chết, bị giết
Euphemism: lost
Euphemism: ñã mất
Transfer
<6> Sleep on, Dane, because only the good die young. Why do we
mourn?
[27, p.396]
Dane, con hãy yên giấc, chỉ có những người ñược Chúa chọn mới chết
trẻ như con. Tại sao chúng ta lại ñau xót?
SL Text
[16, p.352]
TL Text
Sleep on, Dane
Dane, con hãy yên giấc
Dying, being killed
Chết, bị giết
Euphemism: sleep on
Euphemism: yên giấc
Transfer
There is belief that after death, the soul of a dead man will, in some
shape or form, goes to the land of death, which is sometimes considered a
happy place, but sometimes a place of sadness. Often, the land of death seems
to be a continuation of the current life but in another type of existence. Thus,
people are less apt to “die” and more apt to “pass on” or “pass away” or
“depart this life” or “descend to the grave” or “go out this world” as in the
following examples:
43
<7> yet, as it sometimes happens that a person departs this life who is
really deserving of all the praises the stone cutter carves over his bones.
[60, p.6]
Song thỉnh thoảng cũng có những người từ giã cõi ñời này mà lại thực
sự xứng ñáng với những lời xưng tụng bác thợ ñá khắc vào bia dựng trên nắm
xương tàn của họ.
[17, p.15]
SL Text
TL Text
thỉnh thoảng cũng có
as it sometimes happens that
những người từ giã cõi
a person departs this life
ñời này
Dying, being killed
Chết, bị giết
Euphemism: departs this life
Euphemism: giã cõi ñời
Transfer
<8> and so descended to the grave, after two bailiffs had quarrelled
over his corpse.
[60, p.11]
Rồi ông ta nằm xuống mộ, sau khi ñã bị hai viên mõ tòa cãi lộn nhau
trên thi thể mình.
[17, p. 24]
SL Text
TL Text
and so descended to the grave
Rồi ông ta nằm xuống mộ
Dying, being killed
Chết, bị giết
Euphemism: descended to the grave
Euphemism: nằm xuống mộ
Transfer
44
<9> Mr. Crawley had tended that otherwise friendless bedside. She
went out of the world strengthened by such words and comfort as he could
give her.
[60, p. 111]
Crawley cũng ñã săn sóc bên giường bệnh của con người trơ trọi kia.
Anh ta cũng ñã hết sức ngọt ngào an ủi, tiếp thêm sức mạnh cho bà khỏe
khoắn từ giã cõi trần.
[17, p. 139]
SL Text
TL Text
She went out of the world
Bà khỏe khoắn từ giã cõi trần
Dying, being killed
Chết, bị giết
Euphemism: went out of the world
Euphemism: từ giã cõi trần
Transfer
The death is often compared as a sleep with the purpose to lessen the
regret and misery for the losses of relatives and friends. We can see the
similarity between a sleeping body and a dead one, and sleep has often been
regarded as a temporary death, a period when the soul leaves the body to
return when it awakens. For this reason, “sleep” is a common euphemism for
“die” to pretend that as mentioned below:
<10> with the handles muffled up in paper, into the great front
bedroom, where Lady Crawley had slept her last.
[60, p.53]
Những tay nắm trên những cánh cửa trong gian phòng này cũng ñều
bọc giấy kín; cuối cùng hai người ñi ñến phòng ngủ, nơi Crawley phu nhân
trước kia ñã ngủ giấc ngủ cuối cùng của ñời bà.
[17, p.78]
45
SL Text
TL Text
where Lady Crawley had slept
nơi Crawley phu nhân trước kia ñã
her last
ngủ giấc ngủ cuối cùng của ñời bà
Dying, being killed
Chết, bị giết
Euphemism: slept her last
Euphemism: ngủ giấc ngủ cuối cùng
Transfer
<11> Wayne... sleeping peacefully and eternally, free from pain.
Uâynơ ... ñang ngủ giấc yên bình và vĩnh cữu, xa lìa những khổ ñau.
[19, p. 49]
SL Text
TL Text
Uâynơ ... ñang ngủ giấc
Wayne... sleeping peacefully
yên bình và vĩnh cữu, xa lìa
and eternally, free from pain
những khổ ñau
Dying, being killed
Chết, bị giết
Euphemism: sleeping
Euphemism: ñang ngủ giấc
peacefully and eternally
yên bình và vĩnh cữu
Transfer
In some cases, the euphemisms expressing death in the SL text can be
translated by non equivalent euphemisms or by a direct form in TL text as
follows:
46
<12> It’s so far away! How could he rest so far from Drogheda?
[27, p. 392]
Không thể ñể Dane nằm xuống ở một nơi xa Drogheda ñến thế?
[16, p.345]
SL Text
TL Text
Không thể ñể Dane nằm
How could he rest so far from
xuống ở một nơi xa
Drogheda?
Drogheda ñến thế?
Dying, being killed
Chết, bị giết
Euphemism: rest
Euphemism: nằm xuống
Transfer
<13> “ He is gone, and she must surely feel by now that you are gone,
too. After all, you haven’t even been home to visit her.”
[27, p. 409 ]
Dane ñã nằm xuống và bây giờ buộc bà phải nghĩ rằng em sẽ không ra
ñi. Thật ra thì em chẳng hề thăm viếng bà.
SL Text
[16, p. 363]
TL Text
He is gone
Dane ñã nằm xuống
Dying, being killed
Chết, bị giết
Euphemism: is gone
Euphemism: nằm xuống
Transfer
47
<14> who IS a good Christian, a good parent, child, wife, or husband;
who actually DOES leave a disconsolate family to mourn his loss.
[60, p. 6]
nghĩa là một con chiên ngoan ñạo, một người bố, người mẹ, người con,
người vợ hoặc người chồng xứng ñáng, và khi họ chết ñi, quả thực có khiến
cho thân nhân phải thương tiếc không sao nguôi ñược.
SL Text
[17, p.15]
TL Text
và khi họ chết ñi, quả thực có
who actually DOES leave a
khiến cho thân nhân thân
disconsolate family to mourn
nhân phải thương tiếc không
his loss
sao nguôi ñược
Dying, being killed
Chết ñi
Euphemism: loss
Transfer
<15> Many years after her ladyship's demise, Sir Pitt led to the altar
Rosa.
[60, p. 49]
Vợ chết ñược một thời gian khá lâu, tôn ông Pitt mới dẫn cô Rosa ñến
bàn thờ Chúa làm lễ cưới.
[17, p. 64]
SL Text
TL Text
Many years after her
Vợ chết ñược một thời gian
ladyship's demise
khá lâu
Dying, being killed
Chết
Euphemism:ladyship's demise
Transfer
48
In these cases, plain expressions “chết ñi”,”chết” are used to translate
the euphemisms in the SL text.
SUMMARY
It is widely known that the real beauty of a language is what lies under
the shade of the literal meanings of the words of the language components.
People should bear in mind that meaning translation not only stops at word by
word translating because such translation, in many cases, leads to clumsy
transferring. In English and Vietnamese there are a lot of words relating to
death and when transferring a word denoting death in English into
Vietnamese, translators do not often go directly to the meanings of the words.
It is clear that experiencing the death of a loved one, or witnessing the death
of others can be one of the most profound events in one’s life and one’s
sudden death can leave his or her relatives and friends with unfinished
business with the deceased. Therefore, in English or Vietnamese, euphemisms
are used to show the commemoration and respect to the dead and sympathy
for his or her relatives.
In terms of frequency, the translation of euphemism expressing death
from the English language into Vietnamese is shown in the chart below:
49
Figure 4.1: Proportion of Distribution of Euphemism Expressing Death
in the SL Texts Transferred into the TL Texts
It can be seen clearly from the chart that there is a significantly
statistical difference between English and Vietnamese point of view in
expressing death. Among 100% of euphemisms expressing death in English
language that are transferred into Vietnamese, the equivalent euphemisms
account for 73%, the non-equivalent euphemisms account for 13% and the
direct form account for 14%. However, the discrepancy is not remarkable.
4.1.2. Translation of Euphemisms Expressing Sex
There is no doubt that there are a lot of taboos relating to sex and it is
the power of taboos that keeps language users from avoiding the forbidden
concepts and compels them to preserve or violate it. This ambivalence
towards taboo seems to be especially noteworthy in the case of sex, an area of
interdiction particularly fruitful in lexical generation. In fact, sex is pervasive
in our everyday life and it has perhaps been on most people’s minds. But how
does one talk about this very sensitive realm? Many people think that the
50
subject of sex, of bodily love is best dealt with silence, the ultimate
euphemism. To many others, sex may be spoken tenderly, lyrically and
beautifully. Hence, they resort to euphemism as to elicit embarrassment for
others and to go so far as to say healthily, welcome. Therefore, in the sexual
realm, English language writers use many euphemistic words to denote the
sexual intercourse.
According to the traditional belief of the Vietnamese, issues related to
sexual intercourse often bring people about the feeling of vulgarity. As a
result, the speakers often avoid mentioning sexual intercourse. And
euphemisms expressing sex, thus, are generated instead.
As we know, the Anglo-Saxon peoples in general and the British in
particular are famous for being embarrassed by sex. Thus, the English
language contains more euphemisms for sexual activity than other topics. Let
us examine the following examples:
<16> "That's just another example of your sneakiness. You had a love
affair all summer and got this girl with child and now I suppose you'll sneak
off."
[33, p.227]
Chính ñó lại thêm một ví dụ khác về tâm ñịa nham hiểm của anh. Suốt
mùa hè anh chỉ lo chuyện ân ái khiến cho cô gái này có mang rồi bây giờ nếu
tôi ñoán không lầm thì anh tính sẽ quất ngựa truy phong.
SL Text
[8, p.252]
TL Text
You had a love affair
anh chỉ lo chuyện ân ái
Having a relationship which
involves extramarital copulation
Euphemism: had a love affair
Transfer
Quan hệ ngoài ngôn nhân
Euphemism: lo chuyện ân ái
51
In <16>, the euphemistic use of “had a love affair” with the meaning of
“had extramarital copulation” in SL text is easier to reach to the reader.
Similarly, the euphemism “lo chuyện ân ái” is used to translate equivalently in
the TL text.
In verbal disguising of copulation, euphemisms like “sleep” or “sleep
together” - one of the key verbal “sexual intercourse” euphemisms, “getting
into bed with” for “have sex with” or “had a night with”, an even more
circumlocution than “sleep” are widely used in the SL text. Interestingly,
similar euphemisms: “ngủ”, “việc ngủ”, “qua ñêm”, “những buổi ân ái” are
translated into TL text as in <17>, <18>, <19> and <20>.
<17> “I’ll have to go and see him, tell him. And, much as I loathe the
idea, sleep with him.” “I’m two weeks overdue, and I’m never a day overdue.
The only other time I was, Justine was starting. I’m pregnant, Anne, I know I
am!”.
[27, p. 250]
Em phải ñi tìm anh ấy và phải tìm cách ngủ với anh ấy. Em ñã bị trễ
hai tuần. Kinh nguyệt của em rất ñúng. Chắc chắn em ñang có thai, Anne à.
[16, p. 151]
SL Text
TL Text
And, much as I loathe the
phải tìm cách ngủ với anh ấy
idea, sleep with him
Copulating, having sexual
Quan hệ, Giao cấu
intercourse
Euphemism: ngủ với anh ấy
Euphemism: sleep with him
Transfer
52
<18> “Had it not been for the new life she was sure was growing in
her, getting into a bed with Luke ever again would have been the ultimate sin
against her-self”
[27, p. 252]
Nếu không có mầm sống mới mà nàng biết chắc ñang tượng hình thì
việc ngủ với Luke giữa lúc này là một tội lỗi không thể tha thứ với chính mình.
[16, p. 151]
SL Text
TL Text
getting into a bed with Luke
việc ngủ với Luke giữa lúc này
ever again would have been the
là một tội lỗi không thể tha thứ
ultimate sin against her-self
với chính mình
Copulating, having sexual
Quan hệ, Giao cấu
intercourse
Euphemism: việc ngủ
Euphemism: getting into a bed
Transfer
<19>"How are you, darling?" she said. "Isn't it a lovely day?"
"How do you feel?"
"I feel very well. We had a lovely night."
[33, p.230]
- Anh khỏe không anh yêu? - Nàng hỏi - Trời ñẹp tuyệt.
- Em cảm thấy thế nào?
- Tuyệt. Chúng ta ñã qua một ñêm thần tiên.
[8, p.255]
53
SL Text
TL Text
Chúng ta ñã qua một ñêm
We had a lovely night
thần tiên
Giao hợp
Had sexual intercourse
Euphemism: qua một ñêm
Euphemism: had a lovely night
thần tiên
Transfer
In dealing with sexual realm, different figures of speech are often
applied, in which circumlocutions and metaphors for sexual activity are
commonly used to denote copulation and stimulatory activities. These two
figures of speech help to create the beautiful euphemisms as well as to arouse
an aesthetic image for the readers or the listeners. Copulation is well
camouflaged in the texts behind evasive circumlocutions, which mostly seems
to involve general companionship rather than the act itself as in the examples
below:
<20> That girl was beautiful and she was the greatest piece of ass I’ve
ever had and I’ve had them all over the world. She could suck you out like a
water pump.
[56, p. 52]
Con bé rất ñẹp, ân ái tuyệt vời, tôi chưa bao giờ gặp một phụ nữ như
vậy…
[10, p. 83]
54
SL Text
TL Text
she was the greatest piece of
Con bé rất ñẹp,
ass
ân ái tuyệt vời
A person viewed sexually
Một người quyến rũ
Euphemism: ass
Euphemism: ân ái
Transfer
The euphemistic word “embrace” is also used to denote the sexual
caress in the SL text and equivalent words “âu yếm, vuốt ve” are used in the
TL text.
<21> Oh that his left hand were under my head,
and that his right hand embraced me.
[19, p. 164]
Ôi bàn tay trái của chàng ñỡ lấy ñầu tôi
Và bàn tay kia âu yếm, vuốt ve tôi.
SL Text
[19, p. 164]
TL Text
his right hand embraced me
bàn tay kia âu yếm, vuốt ve tôi
sexual caress
Mơn trớn gợi tình
Euphemism: embraced
Euphemism: âu yếm, vuốt ve
Transfer
The word “nature” generally indicates the quality or essence of
something and it is frequently used as euphemistic omnibus to denote the
sexual organs of a man. The term nicely avoids direct reference to the organs
themselves. The nature of men is considering debilitating to them. It is viewed
as their life force and sexual intercourse because it drains men of their nature.
55
Let us have a look at the following example:
<22> He could not get away from it, he could not get away from her,
from the thoughts at the back of his mind, from the hungers natural to his age
and manhood.
[27, p. 67]
Anh ta không thể xua ñuổi nỗi ám ảnh ấy, không thể tách rời mẹ với
những suy nghĩ ñen tối ñang vây hãm mình. Rồi những ñòi hỏi tự nhiên của
lứa tuổi và sự sung mãn của người ñàn ông ñã dậy lên ở anh ra.
SL Text
[16, p. 38 ]
TL Text
Rồi những ñòi hỏi tự nhiên
from the hungers natural to
của lứa tuổi và sự sung mãn
his age and man-hood
của người ñàn ông ñã dậy lên
ở anh ra
sexual hungers
Đòi hỏi, ham muốn quan hệ
Euphemism: hungers natural
Euphemism: ñòi hỏi tự nhiên
Transfer
Knowledge and understanding about human sexual intercourse is
euphemized by an interesting metaphor “the birds and the bees”, which shunts
the embarrassing connotation on non-human species and interestingly, the
equivalent euphemism “chim và bướm” is used in the TL text as manifested
in the following example:
<23> “Do you know anything about women, Dane?” she asked
suddenly, opening her eyes again.
He smiled. “The birds and the bees, you mean?”
[27, p. 333]
- Con có nghĩ ñến chút nào về phụ nữ không Dane? Meggie hỏi giọng
băn khoăn.
56
Dane mỉm cười. Chim và bướm, có phải mẹ muốn nói thế? [16, p. 186]
SL text
TL text
“The birds and the bees, you
- Chim và bướm, có phải mẹ
mean?”
muốn nói thế?
Human sexual intercourse
Chuyện quan hệ nam nữ
Euphemism: The birds and the bees
Euphemism: Chim và bướm
Transfer
In the area of sex intercourse, the vague euphemism “it” appears so
many times that it is considered as the king of the sex euphemisms. The
euphemism “it” depends on the particular interpretation upon context, either
of situation or of collocation. And “it” in SL text is sometimes in inverted
commas or otherwise typographically marked if the points need to be
hammered home. In the TL text, “it” is translated equivalently as “chuyện
ñó”, “chuyện ấy”, “cái chuyện ñó”, “chuyện...” as in the following
examples:
<24> A woman can live without it quite well for years at a stretch, but
it was nice, when it was the one man.
[27, p. 311]
Một người phụ nữ có thể không cần chuyện ñó trong nhiều năm nhưng
thật là hạnh phúc làm sao ñược sung sướng với anh ấy, người ñàn ông duy
nhất của nàng.
[16, p. 180]
57
SL Text
TL Text
Một người phụ nữ có thể
A woman can live without it
không cần chuyện ñó
Human sexual intercourse
Chuyện quan hệ nam nữ
Euphemism: it
Euphemism: chuyện ñó
Transfer
<25> ”I don’t know, Vittrio. I wish I did! At the time it just seemed the
only thing to do. I’m not gifted with Promethean foresight, and emotional
involvement makes one a poor judge. Besides, it simply . . . happened!
[27, p. 262]
Con không biết ñược, Vittorio. Con rất muốn biết sự thật ra sao! Nhưng
trong lúc này, con không thể hành ñộng khác hơn. Hơn nữa chuyện ấy xảy
ra... một cách tự nhiên.
[16, p. 158]
SL Text
TL Text
Besides, it simply . . .
Hơn nữa chuyện ấy xảy
hap-pened!
ra... một cách tự nhiên
Human sexual intercourse
Chuyện quan hệ nam nữ
Euphemism: chuyện ấy
Euphemism: it
Transfer
<26>“Oh, no, you didn’t offend me, truly! I suppose I’m not very used
to it …. I was frightened, not offended.”
[27, p. 183]
58
- Ồ không ñâu! Anh không hề xúc phạm em. Không ñâu, thật mà! Chỉ
có ñiều em không quen lắm cái chuyện ñó. Anh làm em hoảng sợ chứ không
phải xúc phạm.
[16, p. 119]
SL Text
TL Text
I suppose I’m not very used to
Chỉ có ñiều em không quen
it …
lắm cái chuyện ñó
Human sexual intercourse
Chuyện quan hệ nam nữ
Euphemism: it
Euphemism: cái chuyện ñó
Transfer
There are some cases in which the euphemisms expressing sex in the
SL text are transferred into non- equivalent euphemisms in the TL text as
follows:
<27> You said you’d been in love once, so I thought you knew the
ropes. I’m sorry, Meghann.
[27, p. 183]
Cô có nói với tôi cô ñã từng yêu, do ñó tôi suy ñoán là cô cũng hiểu ñôi
chút về chuyện... Tôi rất ân hận, Meghann.
SL Text
[16, p. 119]
TL Text
so I thought you knew the
do ñó tôi suy ñoán là cô cũng
ropes
hiểu ñôi chút về chuyện...
Human sexual intercourse
Chuyện quan hệ nam nữ
Euphemism: the ropes
Euphemism: chuyện …
Transfer
59
<28> It’s only in the most private part of our life together that she
ever displays any feeling, and even then she never speaks.
[27, p. 79]
Chỉ trong những lúc hết sức riêng tư, trong tình vợ chồng, cô ấy mới ñể
lộ ra những xúc ñộng của mình, nhưng ngay lúc ñó cô ấy cũng không nói lời
nào.
[16, p. 46]
SL Text
TL Text
It’s only in the most private
Chỉ trong những lúc hết sức
part of our life together
riêng tư, trong tình vợ chồng
sexual moments
Khoảnh khắc quan hệ
Euphemism: private part of
Euphemism: lúc riêng tư,
our life together
trong tình vợ chồng
Transfer
<29> Even more so was the fact that as nat-ural-ly as if she came into
a man’s arms every day of her life, her arms had gone up around his neck,
and linked tightly.
[27, p. 123]
Meggie ñã áp sát người vào Ralph một cách buông thả của người vợ
hằng ñêm âu yếm chồng. Rất tự nhiên, hai tay Meggie bấm vào cổ Ralph và
ôm Ralph siết mạnh.
[16, p. 77]
SL Text
TL Text
she came into a man’s arms every day
người vợ hằng ñêm âu
of her life
yếm chồng
sexual caress
Mơn trớn gợi tình
Euphemism: came into a man’s arms
Euphemism: âu yếm
Transfer
60
<31>"Poor, poor dear Cat. And this was the price you paid for
sleeping together”.
[33, p.297]
Tội nghiệp Catherine yêu quý, tội nghiệp! Đó là giá phải trả cho những
buổi ân ái.
[8, p.322]
SL Text
TL Text
the price you paid for
giá phải trả cho
sleeping together”
những buổi ân ái
Had sexual congress
Giao hợp
Euphemism: sleeping together
Euphemism: những buổi ân ái
Transfer
In the cases of <32>, <33>, <34>, euphemistic words such as
“limited”, “the flesh”, “the drives of the body” are used to denote the
extramarital copulation, sexual pleasure, sexual temptation in the SL texts.
But when translating into TL text, the writers tend to speak plainly or
profanely about sex, namely: “quan hệ”, “khoái lạc xác thịt”, “vòng cám dỗ
xác thịt”.
<32> One could get away with it for a while if one was discreet;
forever if one limited women to the yearly vacation away from the parish.
[27, p. 144]
Người ta có thể bảo vệ ñược uy tín trong sáng ở một thời gian nhất ñịnh
nào ñó, nếu giữ ñược sự kín ñáo; rất có thể uy tín ñó sẽ lâu hơn nếu chỉ quan
hệ với phụ nữ trong dịp nghỉ hè và dịp xa xứ ñạo của mình.
[16, p. 90]
61
SL Text
TL Text
if one limited women to the
nếu chỉ quan hệ với phụ
yearly vacation away from the
nữ trong dịp nghỉ hè và
parish
dịp xa xứ ñạo của mình
extramarital copulation
quan hệ
Euphemism: limited
Transfer
<33> So she had abjured the flesh, preferring to wield power.
[27, p. 42]
Chính vì thế mà bà từ bỏ các khoái lạc xác thịt, thích cầm lấy cây gậy
quyền hành hơn.
[16, p. 24]
SL Text
TL Text
Chính vì thế mà bà từ bỏ
So she had abjured the flesh
các khoái lạc xác thịt
sexual pleasure
khoái lạc xác thịt
Euphemism: the flesh
Transfer
<34> But now she was old enough to be officially beyond the drives of
the body.
[27, p. 42]
Nhưng bây giờ bà ñã khá lớn tuổi và người ta biết rằng bà ở ngoài
vòng cám dỗ xác thịt.
[16, p. 24]
62
SL Text
TL Text
to be officially beyond the drives of
người ta biết rằng bà ở
the body
ngoài vòng cám dỗ xác thịt
sexual temptation
vòng cám dỗ xác thịt
Euphemism: the drives of the body
Transfer
SUMMARY
Though sex exists around us and most of us have sex in our thoughts,
men and women could not talk about sex openly and uneuphemistically and
still hold it sacred due to cultural factors and social notions. Talking freely
about sex might go a long way towards shearing of its guilty excitement and
thrilling shame. As a result, euphemisms are used instead to denote the pillow
talk. The chart below shows us the proportion of distribution of euphemisms
expressing sex in the SL texts transferred into the TL texts.
Figure 4.2: Proportion of Distribution of Euphemism Expressing Sex in
the SL Texts Transferred into the TL Texts
63
The chart shows that there is mismatch in relations to the point of view
between the two languages when mentioning sex. Most of the sexual
euphemisms in the SL texts are transferred into the TL texts equivalently,
accounting for 58%. The ones in SL texts that transferred into the TL texts
non-equivalently account for 26%. The percentage of sexual euphemisms in
the SL text that are transferred directly in the TL texts is only 16%.
4.1.3. Translation of Euphemisms Expressing Pregnancy
Ayto [22, p.85] says that the taboos in Western society against referring
openly to a condition in which its later stages is fairly obvious to all is on the
wane, but it has left a rich legacy of double talk in the language. Our lexicon
of pregnancy can be roughly divided into two categories: the delicate
circumlocution and the colorful metaphor. The first treads gingerly round the
subject without ever getting to the point, and its classic weapon is the
impenetrably vague condition…The notion of looking forward to the time of
birth provides a key pregnancy euphemism “be expecting”.
In Vietnamese culture, there are taboos in pregnancy that manipulate
social behaviors. Pregnant Vietnamese couples tend to reserve about the good
news of their pregnancy. In particular, those who have experienced with
abortion are somewhat secretive about pregnancies. Thus, it is a common
practice to withhold the good news until after the first trimester. Vietnamese
elders may share superstition regarding pregnancy with expectant mothers,
often warning pregnant women to avoid attending funerals, redecorating or
moving into a new residence, as these activities are believed to result in birth
defects. Therefore, they often use euphemistic words and expressions to
denote the pregnancy.
However, from what we have found out from the data, the translation of
pregnancy euphemisms from English into Vietnamese can be either direct,
64
equivalent or non-equivalent as below:
The key pregnancy euphemism “be expecting” in the SL text is
translated equivalently into the TL text euphemism “mang thai” as in <35>.
<35> All healthy women do. But when they’re expecting a baby they
stop until after the baby is born.
[27, p. 98]
Tất cả phụ nữ khỏe mạnh ñều bị như thế. Nhưng khi mang thai, sẽ
ngưng lại cho ñến ngày sinh em bé.
[16, p. 56]
SL Text
TL Text
But when they’re expecting a baby
Nhưng khi mang thai
be pregnant
có bầu
Euphemism: are expecting
Euphemism: mang thai
Transfer
The use of euphemism “three months gone” to denote the period of
time elapsed during a pregnancy in the SL text is transferred equivalently into
the TL text as “ba tháng rồi”.
<36> "I'm going to have a baby, darling. It's almost three months gone.
You're not worried, are you? Please please don't. You mustn't worry."
[33, p. 127]
Em sắp có con anh ạ, gần ba tháng rồi. Anh không lo chứ? Nói cho
em biết ñi anh. Em van anh ñấy. Anh không nên lo lắng về chuyện ñó.
[8, p. 152]
65
SL Text
TL Text
It's almost three months gone
gần ba tháng rồi
be pregnant
có bầu
Euphemism: three months gone
Euphemism: ba tháng rồi
Transfer
When the pregnancy is unwanted or when the woman is unmarried but
pregnant, the time-honored euphemism is the vague “in trouble” in the SL
text. Interestingly, in the TL text, “in trouble” is translated equivalently as
“gặp rắc rối” as in the example <37>.
<37> "No, I'm not. But you mustn't mind, darling. I'll try and not make
trouble for you. I know I've got you into trouble now. But you have been a
good girl until now. You never knew it, did you?"
[33, p. 128]
- Không, không, em ñừng quan tâm ñược việc ñó nữa em yêu. Anh cố
làm cho em không buồn. Anh biết anh vừa khiến cho em gặp rắc rối. Nhưng từ
trước ñến giờ em vẫn là một thiếu nữ ñứng ñắn. Anh không bao giờ nghi ngờ
gì về ñiều ñó cả.
[8, p. 153]
SL Text
TL Text
I've got you into trouble
anh vừa khiến cho em gặp rắc rối
unwanted pregnancy
có bầu ngoài mong muốn
Euphemism: got you into
Euphemism: khiến cho em gặp
trouble
rắc rối
Transfer
66
The euphemism “over-due” which is used in case of failing to
menstruate at the expected time but not necessarily of an unwanted pregnancy
in the SL text was translated equivalently into the TL text as the euphemism
“bị trễ”.
<38>“I’m two weeks overdue, and I’m never a day overdue. The only
other time I was, Justine was starting. I’m pregnant, Anne, I know I am!”
[27, p. 250]
Em ñã bị trễ hai tuần. Kinh nguyệt của em rất ñúng. Chắc chắn em
ñang có thai, Anne à.
[16, p. 151]
SL Text
TL Text
Em ñã bị trễ hai tuần
I’m two weeks over-due
be pregnant
có bầu
Euphemism: over-due
Euphemism: bị trễ
Transfer
<39>“Had it not been for the new life she was sure was growing in
her, getting into a bed with Luke ever again would have been the ultimate sin
against herself”
[27, p. 252]
Nếu không có mầm sống mới mà nàng biết chắc ñang tượng hình thì
việc ngủ với Luke giữa lúc này là một tội lỗi không thể tha thứ với chính mình.
[16, p. 151]
SL Text
TL Text
Had it not been for the new life
Nếu không có mầm sống mới
be pregnant
có bầu
Euphemism: the new life
Euphemism: mầm sống mới
Transfer
67
Holder [34, p.232] mentions that the euphemism “to make a child” is
perhaps his least favorite euphemism. It is slightly cloying and means “to
become a parent”. In the examples <40> and <41>, the euphemisms “to make
you a fine boy” and “a little baby” in the SL text are transferred into the TL
text as the equivalent euphemisms “sanh cho anh một thằng bé con xinh xinh”
and “một cháu bé” .
<40> Does she understand that? She will make you a fine boy. A fine
blonde like she is. That's fine. That's all right. What a lovely girl.
[33, p. 90]
Nàng sẽ sanh cho anh một thằng bé con xinh xinh hoặc một con bé tóc
hung hung như nàng. Được rồi, tốt lắm, ñược lắm. Thật là một cô gái ñáng
yêu!
[8, p.115]
SL Text
TL Text
Nàng sẽ sanh cho anh một
She will make you a fine boy
thằng bé con xinh xinh
to become a parent
lên chức bố mẹ
Euphemism: make you a
Euphemism: sanh cho anh
fine boy
một thằng bé con xinh xinh
Transfer
<41> There is a ship upon the ocean... bringing to you and me... a little
baby.
[19, p.165]
Có một con thuyền nổi trên mặt biển…mang ñến cho anh và em…một
cháu bé.
[19, p.165]
68
SL Text
TL Text
... bringing to you and me... a
…mang ñến cho anh và
little baby.
em…một cháu bé
be pregnant
có bầu
Euphemism: a little baby
Euphemism: một cháu bé
Transfer
In the cases of examples <42> and <43>, the euphemistic expression
“expecting babies” in the SL text is transferred into the TL text by nonequivalent euphemisms such as “ñang mang trong người một mầm sống mới”
and “ chờ ñợi sinh con”.
<42> That’s how women tell they’re expecting babies.”
[27, p. 98]
Chính khi tắt kinh, người phụ nữ biết rằng mình ñang mang trong
người một mầm sống mới.
[16, p. 56]
SL Text
TL Text
mình ñang mang trong người
they’re expecting babies
một mầm sống mới
be pregnant
có bầu
Euphemism: expecting babies
Euphemism: mầm sống mới
Transfer
<43> Why do they stop when they’re expecting babies?” [27, p. 98]
Tại sao máu ngưng chảy ra khi người phụ nữ chờ ñợi sinh con?
[16, p. 56]
69
SL Text
TL Text
người phụ nữ
they’re expecting babies
chờ ñợi sinh con?
be pregnant
có bầu
Euphemism: expecting babies
Euphemism: chờ ñợi sinh con
Transfer
As seen clearly in <42>, the euphemism “with child” in the SL text is
used to mention the pregnancy, but when transferring into the TL text, the
writer seems to emphasize by speaking plainly “có mang”.
<43> "That's just another example of your sneakiness. You had a love
affair all summer and got this girl with child and now I suppose you'll sneak
off."
[33, p.227]
- Chính ñó lại thêm một ví dụ khác về tâm ñịa nham hiểm của anh. Suốt
mùa hè anh chỉ lo chuyện ân ái khiến cho cô gái này có mang rồi bây giờ nếu
tôi ñoán không lầm thì anh tính sẽ quất ngựa truy phong.
SL Text
[8, p.252]
TL Text
got this girl with child
cô gái này có mang
be pregnant
có mang
Euphemism: with child
Transfer
70
SUMMARY
It can be summed up that pregnancy in both English speaking countries
and Vietnam is something sacred, expecting and happy. Directly mentioning
pregnancy is considered blunt and harsh to some extent. Instead, it requires
politeness and tactfulness when mentioned. As a result, a lot of euphemisms
for “pregnancy” are used to show this happy event.
In relation to frequency, the translation of euphemisms expressing
pregnancy from the English language into Vietnamese is shown in the chart
below:
Figure 4.3: Proportion of Distribution of Euphemism Expressing
Pregnancy in the SL Texts Transferred into the TL Texts
As can be seen clearly from the chart, there is not much difference
between English and Vietnamese point of view in expressing pregnancy. The
results indicate that when mentioning pregnancy, the English writers and
Vietnamese writers employ a variety of equivalent euphemisms (70%), the
non-equivalent euphemisms account for 20%. Meanwhile, the percentage of
71
pregnant euphemisms in the SL texts that are transferred directly into the TL
texts accounts for only 10%.
4.1.4. Translation of Euphemisms Expressing Childbirth
Ayto [22, p.88] mentions that the taboos of childbirth have fallen away
rapidly in Western society over the past half century (one of its few residues
in Britain is the ban on male midwives). The sight of a woman giving birth on
television is relatively commonplace, and the husband or male partner who
does not wish to be present and assist at the birth of his child may be
considered distinctly preserve. With the taboos has gone the language used to
circumvent them. Most English euphemisms for “childbirth” now have very
dated air.
To Vietnamese people, giving birth to a baby is a very important job. In
the past time, a large family of children, a busy family is a source of pride and
a big dream. For each couple, having children is not only a wish to maintain
the race but also the result of love until flowering, fruiting. Vietnamese
women attach great importance to children, especially their first children.
Moreover, there is a belief that "youth trusts father, the elderly trusts youth”,
thus, having a child means that there is a place to rely on at the old age.
Therefore, Vietnamese people have a lot of taboo referring women during
childbirth and euphemisms for childbirth are therefore used instead.
However, the translation of euphemisms expressing childbirth from
English into Vietnamese is not in the same form as shown in the following
examples:
In the example <45>, the euphemistic expression “came into the world”
is used to indicate the action “give birth to a baby” in the SL text, and,
equivalently, the euphemism “chào ñời” is used when translated into the TL
text.
72
<45> “This is no different from the way you came into the world
yourself, and it deserves the same respect. It isn’t dirty. When you insult
Daddy, you insult me.”
[27, p. 67]
Chính con cũng chào ñời bằng kết quả như thế. Điều này không có gì
xấu xa; khi con chửi cha con, con ñã chửi cả mẹ rồi ñấy!
SL Text
[16, p. 38]
TL Text
the way you came into the
Chính con cũng chào ñời
world yourself
be born
ñược ñẻ ra
Euphemism: came into the
Euphemism: chào ñời
world
Transfer
According to Ayto [22, p. 88], the euphemism “happy event”, which
probably emerged in the late 19th century , reminds us that we are still not
always inclined to be terribly up-front and frank when talking about
childbirth. And in the case <46>, the euphemism “happy event” which denotes
the birth of a child in the SL text is transferred into a non-equivalent
euphemism “sắp có con”.
<46> We knew the happy event was very close now and it gave us both
a feeling as though something were hurrying us and we could not lose any
time together.
[33, p. 289]
Chúng tôi biết rằng mình sắp có con, và ñiều ñó khiến cả hai chúng tôi
có cảm giác vội vã và không ñể lỡ dịp ở bên cạnh nhau.
[8, p. 314]
73
SL Text
TL Text
Chúng tôi biết rằng mình
We knew the happy event
sắp có con
Sự ra ñời của một ñứa trẻ
The birth of a child
Euphemism: happy event
Euphemism: sắp có con
Transfer
The use of euphemism “with the help” to indicate the period of giving
birth in the SL text is transferred non-equivalently into the TL text as “ngày
khai hoa nở nhụy” as in <47>.
<47> So serene and beautiful, with the help that was to come to her so
near.
[19, p.165]
Trong an bình và diễm lệ, ngày khai hoa nở nhụy sắp ñến với nàng.
[19, p. 165]
SL Text
TL Text
with the help that was to
ngày khai hoa nở nhụy sắp ñến
come to her so near
với nàng
Childbirth
việc sinh con
Euphemism: with the help
Euphemism: ngày khai hoa nở nhụy
Transfer
In the example <48>, the euphemistic expression “young Catherine” in
the SL text is transferred into the TL text by the non-equivalent euphemism
“ra ñời”.
74
<48> "If the winter is over and the rain keeps up it won't be fun up
here. How long is it before young Catherine?"
"About a month. Perhaps a little more."
[33, p.284]
Nếu mùa ñông tàn và trời tiếp tục mưa thì ở ñây chẳng có gì vui cả.
Còn bao lâu nữa trước khi bé Catherine ra ñời?
Độ một tháng hoặc hơn một chút.
SL Text
[8, p.309]
TL Text
How long is it before young
Còn bao lâu nữa trước khi
Catherine?
bé Catherine ra ñời
Childbirth
việc sinh con
Euphemism: young Catherine
Euphemism: ra ñời
Transfer
As seen in <49>, in the SL text, the euphemism “time” means that the
woman is going to give birth, but when transferring into the TL text, the writer
seems to emphasize by speaking plainly “có mang tám tháng”.
<49> "Baby clothes. There aren't many people reach my time without
baby things."
[33, p. 285]
Quần áo cho con nhỏ. Ít có người ñàn bà nào có mang tám tháng như
em mà không có quần áo cho trẻ sơ sinh.
[8, p. 310]
75
SL Text
TL Text
There aren't many people
Ít có người ñàn bà nào có
reach my time
mang tám tháng như em
the happening of childbirth
có mang tám tháng
that subject to a taboo
Euphemism: my time
Transfer
In the examples <50> and <51>, the euphemistic use of “labour” with
the meaning of “effort involved in giving birth” in the SL text is easier to
reach to the readers. Surprisingly, the plain word “sanh” is used in the TL
text.
<50> "The first labor is usually protracted," the nurse said.[33, p. 291]
Sanh con so thì thường thường lâu lắm - Bà y tá nói.
SL Text
[8, p. 316]
TL Text
The first labor is usually
Sanh con so thì thường
protracted
thường lâu lắm
childbirth
Sanh con so
Euphemism: first labor
Transfer
<51> "What do you do at this hour?" the old man asked.
"My wife is in labor at the hospital."
[33, p.292]
Ông làm gì ở ñây giờ này sớm quá vậy?
Nhà tôi sanh ở bệnh viện.
[8, p. 317]
76
SL Text
TL Text
My wife is in labor
Nhà tôi sanh
childbirth
sanh
Euphemism: in labor
Transfer
In the area of childbirth, the vague euphemisms “delivery” is used for
childbirth popularly in the SL texts. However, when translated into
Vietnamese, the plain expressions “phòng sinh”, “phòng sanh” are used as in
the examples <52>, <53>.
<52> "Where is Madame Henry?"
[33, p. 293]
"A lady has just gone to the delivery room."
- Bà Henry ñâu, thưa cô?
- Người ta mới ñưa bà ñến phòng sinh.
[8, p. 318]
SL Text
TL Text
A lady has just gone to the
Người ta mới ñưa bà ñến
delivery room
phòng sinh
Childbirth room
phòng sinh
Euphemism: delivery room
Transfer
<53> We had gone to the hospital about three o'clock in the morning.
At noon Catherine was still in the delivery room.
[33, p. 294]
Chúng tôi ñến bệnh viện lúc ba giờ sáng mà ñến trưa Catherine vẫn
còn nằm trong phòng sanh.
[8, p. 319]
77
SL Text
TL Text
At noon Catherine was still in
ñến trưa Catherine vẫn còn
the delivery room
nằm trong phòng sanh
Childbirth room
Phòng sanh
Euphemism: delivery room
Transfer
The euphemism “maternity work” which refers to childbirth and the
succeeding period in the SL text is replaced by a plain word “ñỡ” as in the
case of example <54>.
<54> What a lovely girl. I could teach her. I will be a patient here
myself. No, but I will do all your maternity work free. Does she understand
that?
[33, p. 90]
Thật là một cô gái ñẹp. Tôi có thể dạy nàng học. Tôi cũng muốn thành
một bệnh nhân nằm ñây. Không, nhưng tôi sẽ ñỡ không công cho. [8, p. 115]
SL Text
TL Text
No, but I will do all your
Không, nhưng tôi sẽ ñỡ
maternity work free
không công cho
Childbirth
Đỡ
Euphemism: maternity work
Transfer
78
SUMMARY
In general, for English speaking countries or Vietnam, the childbirth is
really sacred and of great importance. Hence, taboos around childbirth arose
much and euphemisms for childbirth are used instead. The chart below shows
us the proportion of distribution of euphemisms expressing childbirth in the
SL texts transferred into the TL texts.
Figure 4.4: Proportion of Distribution of Euphemism Expressing
Childbirth in the SL Texts Transferred into the TL Texts
The chart shows us that when mentioning childbirth, there is much
difference in relations to the point of view between the two languages. Unlike
translating euphemisms for death, sex or pregnancy, here, most of the
euphemisms for childbirth in the SL texts are transferred into the TL texts
directly, accounting for 60%. The ones in SL texts that transferred into the TL
texts non-equivalently account for 30%. The percentage of childbirth
euphemisms in the SL texts that are transferred equivalently into the TL texts
makes up 10%.
79
4.2. THREE MAIN APPROACHES TO TRANSLATION OF EUPHEMISM
From the translation of euphemisms in relations to death, sex,
pregnancy and childbirth, as presented above, we can see that there are three
main approaches employed by translators. In the previous chapter, we have
mentioned the communicative functions of euphemism. We cannot fail to
realize that with the development of society, more and more euphemisms will
be widely shown up in movies, books, newspapers, etc.. Consequently, we
English learners will undoubtedly encounter the questions of translating
euphemisms, which involve both trans-linguistic and trans-cultural aspects.
When it comes to translation, there are three types of language: “non-literary,
literary and poetic” as Peter Newmark claims in “Textbook of Translation”
[49]. It can be seen from the preceding discussions that euphemism obviously
belongs to the second type because it is culture-bound. Therefore, translation
of euphemisms focuses on faithfully interpreting and conveying cultural
connotations underlying euphemisms for readers or listeners. There are sociocultural factors affecting the choice of a particular way in the translation of
euphemisms as manifested in literary works:
4.2.1. Translation of Euphemism into an Equivalent Euphemism by
Finding the Exact Counterpart in the TL Texts
Thanks to the common sphere of taboos and device of euphemizing,
there exists an abundance of equivalent euphemisms both in Vietnamese and
English. In other words, some euphemisms have not only the same
connotation and denotation contained both in Vietnamese and English but the
similar forms. Under these circumstances, literal translation is employed. For
example:
<55> yet, as it sometimes happens that a person departs this life who is
really deserving of all the praises the stone cutter carves over his bones.
[60, p.6]
80
Song thỉnh thoảng cũng có những người từ giã cõi ñời này mà lại thực
sự xứng ñáng với những lời xưng tụng bác thợ ñá khắc vào bia dựng trên nắm
xương tàn của họ.
[17, p.15]
It can be seen that “departs this life” is a euphemism for “die” in
English and every reader familiar with Vietnamese cannot fail to understand
that “từ giã cõi ñời” is a euphemism for “chết ”. In a similar way, we can find
the Vietnamese counterpart for the English euphemism “gone to sleep-but
forever” and use it in translating process. This rendering not only conveys the
content and structure but also succeeds in bringing out the originally
rhetorical flavor. Here are some more examples to illustrate the point:
English Language
Vietnamese Equivalents
At peace [27, p.87]
Yên nghỉ [16, p.92]
Gone to God [27, p.87]
Về với chúa [16, p.92]
Out of his pain [27, p.87]
Không còn ñau khổ [16, p.92]
The day of my demisse [27, p.44]
Cái ngày của số mệnh [16, p.53]
Going [27, p.392]
Ra ñi [16, p.345]
Lying [27, p.391]
Nằm xuống [16, p.344]
Sleep on [27, p.396]
Yên giấc [16, p.352]
Went out of the world [60, p.111]
Giã từ cõi trần [17, p.139]
Had slept her last [60, p.53]
Ngủ giấc ngủ cuối cùng [17, p.78]
Sleeping peacefully and eternally
Đang ngủ giấc yên bình và vĩnh cửu
[19, p.49]
Sleep with him [27, p.2502]
[19, p.49]
Ngủ với anh ấy [16, p.151]
The birds and the bees [27, p.333]… Chim và bướm [16, p.186]…
81
4.2.2. Translation of Euphemism into a Non-equivalent Euphemism
by Translating the Euphemistic Meaning of the SL Texts or by Adding
Footnotes and Explanatory Words in the TL Texts
Sometimes we do not succeed in finding a complete equivalent because
there are still many lexical and cultural gaps between the two languages.
Certain words and cultural phenomena in the source language text are unique
and have their exotic ways of expression peculiar to their own backgrounds
and can hardly be transferred. In many cases, English and Vietnamese
euphemisms are quite different in form and meaning, so to translate the
euphemistic meaning is the way to go flexible. Let us examine following
example:
<56> "Poor, poor dear Cat. And this was the price you paid for
sleeping together”.
[33, p.297]
Tội nghiệp Catherine yêu quý, tội nghiệp! Đó là giá phải trả cho những
buổi ân ái.
[8, p.322]
The original meaning of “sleeping toghether” which means “ngủ với
nhau” is a euphemism for “having sexual congress”. If the translators go
straight to the direct meaning it may reduce the effectiveness, emotiveness
and uniqueness of the message sent to TL readers. As a result, the
euphemistic meaning “những buổi ân ái” is applied instead.
The above is by no means a rare coincidence and similar cases are as
follows:
English Language
Vietnamese Equivalents
Came into a man’s arms [27, p.123]
Âu yếm [16, p.77]
Is Gone [27, p.409]
Nằm xuống [16, p. 363]
Rest [27, p.392]
Nằm xuống [16, p.345]
Expecting babies [27, p.98]
Đang mang trong người một mầm
sống mới [16, p.56]
82
Sometimes it is far enough to only reveal the euphemistic meaning or
original meaning, so further explanation is needed as in these examples:
<57> That’s how women tell they’re expecting babies.”
[27, p. 98]
Chính khi tắt kinh, người phụ nữ biết rằng mình ñang mang trong
người một mầm sống mới.
[16, p. 56]
<58> It’s only in the most private part of our life together that she ever
displays any feeling, and even then she never speaks
[27, p. 79]
Chỉ trong những lúc hết sức riêng tư, trong tình vợ chồng, cô ấy mới ñể
lộ ra những xúc ñộng của mình, nhưng ngay lúc ñó cô ấy cũng không nói lời
nào.
[16, p. 46]
<59> O that his left hand were under my head,
and that his right hand embraced me.
[19, p. 165]
Ôi bàn tay trái của chàng ñỡ lấy ñầu tôi
Và bàn tay kia âu yếm, vuốt ve tôi.
[19, p. 165]
4.2.3. Translation of Euphemism into a Direct Form in the TL
Texts
Interestingly, sometimes we can find out that in English language, the
authors use euphemistic expressions to denote something respectably or
euphemisticality. However, due to the different points of view and context,
plain expressions are used to translate the euphemisms. Let us consider the
following examples:
English Language
Vietnamese Equivalents
His loss [60, p.6]
Chết ñi [17, p.15]
Her ladyship’s demise [60, p.49]
Chết [17, p. 64]
Limited [27, p.144]
Quan hệ [16, p.90]
The Flesh [27, p.42]
Khoái lạc xác thịt [16, p.24]
With child [33, p.227]…
Có mang [8, p.252]…
83
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS
5.1. SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS
Euphemism, as a variation of language, is applied everywhere in all
human societies and used in all human interactions. The main function of
euphemism is to replace taboos, which are common social–cultural
phenomena actually extending people’s self–protection psychology. In speech
interaction, out of politeness or tact, one may use a pleasant, less direct word
instead of something unpleasant. Euphemism is one of the ways people use to
realize this purpose. Therefore, resorting to euphemism is speakers’ active
pragmatic strategy at a certain time and in a certain situations. More
importantly, euphemism embodies the civilization and morality of human
beings. As people live in different times and societies, and the language they
use belong to different categories, accordingly this kind of language variation
created by them are varied and reflect various social cultures and values.
Language is dynamic and in constant change. The most obvious change
shows itselfs in vocabulary. New words and expressions appear as a result of
social and economic development and old words acquire new meanings on
account of certain new social needs. Euphemism, as a language form, also
follows this trend. As a result, it can be said that English or Vietnamese
euphemisms share something in common in this respect, i.e. the metabolic
feature of euphemism. With the constant cultural exchange between east and
west, there seems a trend showing that some euphemistic expressions are on
the track of unification. This tendency embodies that different cultures can
influence and infiltrate each other.
After studying some theorists’ ways of translating euphemisms, we
carried out investigating the English - Vietnamese translation of euphemism
84
basing on three ways as follows:
• a euphemism in the SL is transferred into a direct form in the TL.
• a euphemism in the SL is transferred into an equivalent euphemism
in the TL.
• a euphemism in the SL is transferred into a non-equivalent one in the
TL.
Employing these ways as the framework, we have investigated the
reality and practice of translating euphemism from English into Vietnamese
as manifested in published translated works. We have found that most of the
euphemisms in the SL are transferred equivalently into the TL texts, some in
SL texts are translated by non-equivalently euphemisms in the TL texts and
finally, a small number are translated directly in the TL texts, which are listed
as follows:
(1) a euphemism in the SL is replaced with an equivalent euphemism
in the TL: 45%
(2) a euphemism in the SL is replaced with a non-equivalent one in the
TL: 30%
(3) a euphemism in the SL is replaced with a direct form in the TL:
25%
Moreover, the research also identifies the main approaches taken by
translators in translating euphemism from English into Vietnamese, namely:
(1) Translation of euphemism into an equivalent euphemism by
finding the exact counterpart in the TL texts.
(2) Translation of euphemism into a non-equivalent euphemism by
translating the euphemistic meaning of the SL texts or by adding footnotes
and explanatory words in the TL texts.
(3) Translation of euphemism into a direct form in the TL texts.
85
Among them the method of translating a euphemism the SL into an
equivalent euphemism by finding the exact counterpart in the TL texts is the
most common one in the translating process.
5.2. IMPLICATIONS FOR TRANSLATION
In translation theory, there are two different main approaches: authorcentered and second reader-centered, of which the second approach is more
likely to create an equivalent effect and is more favored by translators.
However, how the second approach works, in fact, brings translators many
big difficulties because it relates to factors such as linguistic context,
situational context and cultural context. The quality of a translation
sometimes has nothing to do with the original work or with the original
writer; rather, it depends on the theoretical knowledge and practical skills of
the translator. Translators have to carefully choose the most suitable ways of
transferring for each context to make translation more meaningful and
colorful.
5.3. IMPLICATIONS FOR LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING
Translation in general and the translation of English euphemism in
particular is not an easy task so it requires both teachers and learners to learn
and research carefully with their best efforts to grasp the texts in the SL and
produce a TL text that bears a close resemblance to the SL texts. Thanks to
this thesis, both teachers and students will have a chance in enriching their
knowledge of euphemism. Moreover, they also discover polysemy of words
which may facilitate vocabulary learning as well as develop their English
vocabulary. Simultaneously, they can know more about the cultures of
English and Vietnamese and also find the importance of culture in translating
euphemism so that they can recognize it is necessary to teach and learn not
only linguistics but also non-linguistics or socio-cultural factors.
86
5.4. SOME LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Though there have been many books on English- Vietnamese
translation so far, few of the authors have mentioned or done really thorough
research on euphemism translation as we have done in our thesis. This is also
a big challenge for our work during the process of collecting data and writing
up this paper. Besides, due to the limitation of time and knowledge of the
writer in the translational perspective, and the shortage of material sources,
this study has only limited itself to three mainly ways: 1) a euphemism in the
SL is translated by a direct form in the TL; 2) a euphemism in the SL is
translated by an equivalent euphemism in the TL and 3) a euphemism in the
SL is translated by a non-equivalent one in the TL and identifies the main
approaches taken by translators in translating euphemism from English into
Vietnamese namely: Translation of euphemism into an equivalent euphemism
by finding the exact counterpart in the TL texts; Translation of euphemism
into a non-equivalent euphemism by translating the euphemistic meaning of
the SL text or by adding footnotes and explanatory words in the TL texts;
Translation of euphemism into a direct form in the TL texts and the data is
mainly collected from some famous English novels of literature and their
Vietnamese versions. As a result, the research has failed to address all
linguistic aspects and mention all translation ways, and some of the
conclusions drawn from the findings are rather subjective and the issues
mentioned are still somewhat general. Therefore, to some extent, Chapter
Four of the thesis has not accomplished a satisfactory depth as it should.
However, with the samples clearly classified into distinguished parts and
fully analyzed, the author believes that this chapter contains some useful
findings and this, we hope, will add additional value and make contribution to
the teaching and learning of translation.
87
5.5. SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
Whatever effort has been made in conducting the research, there is still
room for our study. Some notions of these occurred in the course of doing
this research. However, due to the lack of time we cannot present them all.
From the practical point of view, we suggest further research should be
focused on:
- Idiomatic euphemism or other kinds of euphemism.
- Cultural overlap as well as cultural distance between English and
Vietnamese which influence euphemism translations.
Besides another source of data for research should also be investigated
such as newspapers, magazines, and other mass media publications to make
the research more reliable and persuasive.
88
REFERENCES
In Vietnamese
[1]
Bằng Giang (1997), Tiếng Việt phong phú, NXB Văn Hóa, Hà Nội.
[2]
Diệp Quang Ban (2004), Ngữ pháp tiếng Việt, NXB Giáo dục, Hà Nội.
[3]
Đinh Trọng Lạc (1998), 99 Phương tiện và biện pháp tu từ tiếng Việt,
NXB Giáo Dục, Hà Nội.
[4]
Đinh Trọng Lạc (1999), Phong cách học tiếng Việt, NXB Giáo Dục, Hà
Nội.
[5]
Đỗ Hữu Châu (1981), Từ vựng ngữ nghĩa tiếng Việt, NXB Giáo dục,
Hà Nội.
[6]
Đỗ Hữu Châu (1998), Cơ sở ngữ nghĩa học từ vựng, NXB Giáo dục,
Hà Nội.
[7]
Đỗ Hữu Châu (2001), Đại cương ngôn ngữ học, NXB Giáo Dục, Hà
Nội.
[8]
Giang Hà Vỵ dịch, (2004), Giã từ vũ khí, NXB Văn hóa Thông tin.
[9]
Lê Quang Thiêm (2004), Nghiên cứu ñối chiếu các ngôn ngữ, NXB Đại
học Quốc gia Hà Nội.
[10] Ngọc Thứ Lang (1969), Bố Già, NXB Văn học.
[11] Nguyễn Hồng Cổn (2004), “Cơ sở ngôn ngữ của nghiên cứu dịch thuật
và bộ môn dịch thuật học”, Tạp Chí Ngôn Ngữ, 04(11), tr.16.
[12] Nguyễn Quang (2002), Giao tiếp và giao tiếp giao văn hoá, NXB Đại
học Quốc gia, Hà Nội.
[13] Nguyễn Quang (2003), Một số vấn ñề giao tiếp nội văn hoá và giao văn
hoá, NXB Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội.
[14] Nguyễn Thiện Giáp (2000), “Người khôn ai nỡ nói nhau nặng lời”,
Kiến thức ngày nay, số 351.
89
[15] Nguyễn Thị Lê (2006), An Investigation into Semantic, Pragmatic and
Syntactic Features of Euphemisms in English and Vietnamese
Newspapers, M.A. Thesis, University of Danang.
[16] Phạm Mạnh Hùng (2009), Tiếng chim hót trong bụi mận gai, (2007),
NXB Văn học và Đông A.
[17] Trần Kiệm dịch (2006), Hội chợ phù hoa, NXB Văn học.
[18] Trương Viên (2002), “Uyển ngữ và những vấn ñề kiêng kị”, Kỷ yếu
ngữ học trẻ, Hải Phòng.
[19] Trương Viên (2003), Nghiên cứu Uyển ngữ trong Tiếng Anh và việc
chuyển dịch sang Tiếng Việt, Luận án Tiến sĩ Ngữ văn, Đại học Quốc
gia Hà Nội.
[20] Vũ Văn Đại (2001), “Tính giao tiếp một nguyên tắc trong hoạt ñộng
dịch”, Tạp Chí Ngôn Ngữ, 01(3), tr.25.
In English
[21] Allan, K. & Burridge, K. (1990), Euphemism and Dysphemism –
Language Used as Shield and Weapon, Oxford University Press.
[22] Ayto, J. (2000), Bloomsbury Dictionary of Euphemisms, Bloomsbury
Publishing Plc.
[23] Barnwell, K. (1990), Introduction to Semantics and Translation, SIL,
England.
[24] Bassnett, S. and Mc. Guire (1980), Translation Studies, The University
of Sydney.
[25] Catford, J.C. (1965), A linguistic theory of translation, Oxford
University Press.
[26] Crystal, D. (2000), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English
Language, Cambridge University Press.
90
[27] Cullough, C.Mc. (1992), The Thorn Birds, Harper and Row Publishers
[28] Dixon, R. M. W. (1991), A New Approach to English Grammar on
Semantic Principles, Oxford University Press .
[29] Duff, A. (1996), Translation, Oxford University Press.
[30] Enright, D. J. (1986), Fair of Speech, the Uses of Euphemisms, Oxford
University Press.
[31] Galperin, I.R. (1977), Stylicstics, 2nd edition, Moscow High School.
[32] Hatim, B. & Mason, I. (1990), Discourse and the Translator, Longman
London and New York.
[33] Hemingway, E. (1929), A Farewell to Arm, Scribner’s Magazine.
[34] Holder, R. W. (1996), Oxford Dictionary of Euphemisms, Oxford
University Press.
[35] Hurford, J.R. and Heasley, B. (1988), Semantics: A Course Book, CUP.
[36] Hymes, D.H. (1972), Language in Culture and Society: A Reader in
Linguistics and Anthropology, New York: Hartper and Row.
[37] Ivan A. S., Thomas Wasow & Emily M. B., Syntactic Theory – A
formal Introduction, Center for the Study of Language and Information
Stanford, California.
[38] Jakobson, Roman (1959) 'On Linguistic Aspects of Translation', in R.
A. Brower (ed.) On Translation, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, (pp. 232-39)
[39] Jeffries, L. (1998), Meaning in English . An introduction to Language
Study, Maemilan Press LTD.
[40] John Lyons (1995), Linguistic Semantics: An introduction, Cambrigde
University Press.
[41] Kramsch, C. (2000), Language and Culture, Shanghai Foreign
Education Press.
91
[42] Larson, M. L. (1993), Translation and Meaning, edited by Marcel
Thelen and B.
[43] Leech, G. (1977), Semantics, Penguin Books Ltd.
[44] Lewandowska – Tomaszczyk, UPM, University of Maastricht:
Hogesschool of Translation and Interpreting.
[45] Meetham, A. R. and Hudson, R. A. (1969), Encyclopedia of
Linguistics, Information and Control, Oxford: Pergamon Press
[46] Neaman, J. S. & Carole G. S. (1990), Kind Words – A Thesaurus of
Euphemism, Maple-Vail Manufacturing Group, USA.
[47] Newbert, A. (1985), Text and Translation, Leipzig: VEB Verlag
Enzyklopadie.
[48] Newmark, P. (1982), Approaches to translation, Pergamon Press.
[49] Newmark, P (1988), Textbook of Translation. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
[50] Newmark, P. (1991), About translation, Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Hague.
[51] Nida, Eugene A. and C.R.Taber (1969 / 1982), The Theory and
Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.
[52] Nida, E. (1964), Principles of Correspondence, London: Routledge.
[53] Noble. V. (1982), Speak Softly, Euphemisms and Such, the University
of Sheffield Printing
[54] Oxford Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary (1992), Oxford University
Press.
[55] Pam, P. (1995), Australian English: Style Guide, Cambridge University
Press.
[56] Puzo, M.( 1969), The Godfather, G.P Putnam’s Sons.
[57] Rawson, H (1981), A Dictionary of Euphemisms and other Double-talk,
New York: Crown Publishers.
92
[58] Samuelsson, G.B. (1993), A practical guide for translators,
Multilingual Matters Ltd.
[59] Sapir, E. (1956), Culture, Language and Personality, University of
California Press.
[60] Thackery,W.M, Vanity Fair, Punch Magazine.
[61] Walter Benjamin (1923), The Task of the Translator, translated by
Harry Zohn, (1968), The Translation Studies Reader, ed. Lawrence
Venuti (London: Routledge, 2000).
[62] Other Internet Resources.