Two-part multiple spell models for health care demand

TWO-PART MULTIPLE SPELL MODELS
FOR HEALTH CARE DEMAND
João M. C. Santos Silva
Frank Windmeijer
THE INSTITUTE FOR FISCAL STUDIES
WP 99/2
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