A Question
10
AUGUST 2014
OF DEVELOPMENT
SYNTHESES OF AFD STUDIES AND RESEARCH
Securing
pastoral mobility
in Sahel
Complete report, "Pastoral Water Development in
Chad", Ex Post 51, can be downloaded at:
http://www.afd.fr/lang/en/home/publications/
travaux-de-recherche/PublicationsExPost/serieevaluation-capitalisation
For decades the Sahel has been characterised as a region in crisis, whose
northern reaches are afflicted by desertification, poverty and insecurity.
The recent situation in northern Mali and alarming prospects about
climate change has crystallised concerns among the international
community: beyond emergency, what forms of resilience should be
supported over the long term? How can support for mobile pastoral
systems help promote development and security in Saharan-Sahelian
areas?
Chad offers some interesting insights in this respect. In 2012, AFD appointed a
team, set up by the International Institute for Environment and Development
(IIED), to evaluate its work on pastoral water in Chad and suggest how it can
be taken forward. The interventions covered by this exercise date back 20
years and cover over 450,000 km². This long history and geographic scope
provided an extraordinary window onto the relationship between pastoralism
and development in the Sahelian context, which was explored through analysis
of the changes in pastoral paradigms and the three pillars of pastoral systems
(see Diagram 1). Due to the scale of the exercise, it was decided to conduct a
meta-evaluation based on previous evaluations, copious project documents
and three scenario planning workshops attended by local actors in Chad. While
maintaining a critical approach, the main aim of the exercise was to identify
the major achievements of pastoral water interventions over the last 20 years
that can be replicated or fed into policies to support pastoralism and rural
development across the Sahel.
De
velo
pp
ment
on of
ti
Pastoralism has long been
regarded as archaic, but
recent research shows
that pastoral systems can
effectively exploit the
characteristic instability
of dryland ecosystems
and make productive
use of their considerable
potential. Recent research
has increased recognition
of pastoralism’s economic
performance, and led to
policies that acknowledge
the role mobility plays in
development and security
across the Sahel.
Why should pastoral mobility be secured?
a Ques
A Basis for Peace
and Development
Results and lessons learned
ty
li
bi
o
Livestock
Animal health,
markets
specialist in pastoralism,
researcher and international
consultant
who developed the scenario planning tools with
pastoralists from East and West Africa. He also
works on education in nomadic settings, and heads
the journal Nomadic people.
SOURCE : IIED Evaluation, 2013.
• The economic performance of pastoral livestock
rearing is increasingly researched, documented and
recognised. To date, extensive pastoral economies
are the only systems that have proved capable of
effectively managing the vast drylands areas. A growing
number of international studies on livestock rearing
systems in arid and semi-arid zones of West and East
Africa show a positive correlation between livestock
mobility and productivity. Yet standard analytical tools
and classical evaluation systems still take little account
of the economic value of pastoralism; the market value
of pastoral production is often hidden in aggregated
data.
on drylands in IIED’s Climate Change Group with
a particular focus on pastoral issues in sub-Saharan
Africa, access to resources and pastoral societies.
Marie Monimart
Jeremy Swift
doctor in Economic Sciences
and consultant on pastoral development policy in
sub-Saharan Africa, Mongolia, China and Iran.
Blamah Jallo
sociologist
livestock specialist
with a particular focus on gender issues, access to
resources and pastoral societies.
and the Programme Officer for the Billital
Maroobe herders’ and pastoralists’ network.
of D e
loppe
m
estio
Qu
geographer and principal
researcher
ve
n
Ecology
Pastoral resources
water, salt
Mob i li t y
Ced Hesse
Saverio Krätli,
ty
Economy
ili
S trategic mobility facilitates crop-livestock integration
on a large temporal and spatial scale, across a whole
range of distinct production systems rather than at the
individual farm level. Pastoral production systems are
most effective and resilient when they operate on a
large scale, as key resources such as nutrients and water
only become available in ephemeral and unpredictable
concentrations. For example, herders need to be
mobile in order to exploit certain herbaceous species
Society
Institutions
Social services, policies,
legislation, consultative
frameworks
ob
S upporting mobility as a crucial strategy for exploiting
dryland environments. Mobile pastoral livestock rearing
is a highly specialised strategy for production in arid
areas. Once it reaches a certain scale, animal production
in these zones is usually mobile for at least part of the
year in both nomadic and sedentary communities. In
fact, the most recent forms of ‘sedentary’ production
depend on mobile systems for their long-term existence.
The three scenario-planning workshops emphasised
the strategic necessity of securing livestock mobility for
farmers and herders alike.
diagram 1. the three pillars of pastoralism
M
ecognising the unpredictable variability of pastoral
R
areas in the Sahel as an advantage rather than an
obstacle. This new analytical model views pastoralism as a
solution rather than a problem. It acknowledges the fact
that Sahelian environments are fundamentally different
from those in which globalised intensive agriculture
developed, and recognises that their potential is best
realised by working with unpredictable variability instead
of fighting against it. Adopting a radically different
approach to agricultural production allows this variability
to be exploited as a valuable resource rather than seen
as a constraint to food production. Pastoral systems
are thus attracting growing attention as examples of
resilience to climate change.
in northern areas. Pastoral mobility enables distinct
and specialist groups of farmers and herders to interact
at trans-national and trans-regional levels, helping
strengthen the productivity, sustainability and resilience
of both production systems. This higher-order of a
system of systems is based on pastoral mobility, and
cannot function without it.
M
Pastoralism is a complex, specialised and effective
production system whose three main elements (ecological,
economic and societal) work together through strategic
mobility. Since 1995, AFD interventions have striven to
understand and secure this mobility, using a pioneering
approach that challenged the prevalent mindset. The main
strengths of this approach are summarised below.
NUMBER
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AUGUST 2014
ent a
The economic value of pastoral production
Source: Authors
With nearly 80% of the
national herd estimated
as belonging to pastoral
systems, livestock
contributed over 18 per
cent of national GDP, 53
per cent of GDP from
the primary sector and
30 per cent of official
exports in 2004, with a
value of FCFA 134.7
billion – although only
35 per cent of exported
livestock were declared
(Saleh, 2011).
SUDAN
ETHIOPIA
The livestock rearing
sector generated USD
3.7 billion in 2009,
with most livestock
believed to come from
pastoral/agropastoral
systems (Behnke and
Osman, 2011).
UGANDA
The per-hectare return
on land in pastoral
systems is estimated
to be 6.8 times higher
than that of ranching
systems in the south
west of the county
(Ocaido et al., 2009).
About 70 per cent of
the national herd live
on arid and semi-arid
lands. Its estimated
value stands at USD
800 million, with an
annual return of about
USD 70 million
(Republic of Kenya,
2012; Davies, 2007).
Over 80 per cent of the
beef consumed in
Kenya is produced in
pastoral systems
(Behnke and Muthami,
2011).
Lessons learned from AFD interventions in Chad
P olicies: growing recognition of pastoralism but limited
implementation
Policies in West and East Africa increasingly recognise the
strategic importance of mobile livestock production for
development and security – such as the African Union’s
policy framework for pastoralism in Africa (2010), national
policies adopted in Niger, Kenya, Mali and Mauritania, and
the ECOWAS international transhumance certificate
that facilitates cross-border mobility in 15 countries. Yet
their implementation remains problematic. Persistent
prejudices against nomadic practices mean that ‘modern’
livestock rearing is associated with ranching and agroindustrial-type intensification. Misconceptions about the
ecological, economic and political rationality of mobile
pastoralism mean that it is often excluded from visions
of modernity in arid and semi-arid areas, although the
two approaches are complementary, not incompatible.
There is still no clear long-term vision for multi-regional
integrated crop-livestock production as the basis for rural
development in Chad or elsewhere in the Sahel.
ater: a key resource in securing mobility and land
W
governance
• T he Almy Bahaïm I project (1995) marked a turning point,
when AFD-funded pastoral water projects stopped
regarding water provision as an end in itself, and started
using it a means of securing mobility for transhumant
herders and supporting local livestock rearing. Subsequent
projects aimed to i) operate on a large spatial and temporal
scale; ii) consider water infrastructure in their social and
economic context; iii) support the complementarity
between different production systems.
• This radical change of approach – from the sectoral to the
systemic – shifted the focus to livestock productivity and
efficient living systems, using water infrastructure (over
1,000 water points) and the demarcation of livestock
corridors to secure mobility along the main north-south
transhumance routes. One of the most striking outcomes
of this approach is the way it has helped restore social
peace: in 20 years there have been no violent conflicts
over the works associated with these projects, despite
persistent and sometimes worsening tensions (especially
in peri-urban areas).
• P astoral areas are too large, remote and inhospitable to
be controlled by a sedentary population. This can only be
done effectively by a dynamic and flourishing network of
mobile pastoralists who are closely linked into the national
economy and national institutions, and can provide
economic and political stability in these areas. Pastoral
policies should support the development of flexible and
peaceful natural resource management systems, with a
hybrid of customary and statutory institutions responsible
for managing land and non-exclusive rights of access to
water resources. The costs of supporting a dynamic and
viable pastoral economy that can provide the first line of
defence against insecurity should be weighed against the
astronomical costs of armed intervention.
S ecuring mobility through jointly managed water
infrastructure
The systemic approach, which takes pastoral water as the
entry point for interventions, is built on respect for the
pastoral system and the three pillars on which it is based:
resources (water, land), societal (families, chiefdoms,
institutions) and economic (livestock). Reconciling the
technical and social imperatives of developing water
infrastructure represents a major achievement by these
AFD interventions, whatever their inevitable shortcomings.
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De
pp
NUMBER
It is estimated that 80
per cent of exports
come from pastoral
systems. Working
camels provide
transport services worth
USD 46 million per
annum. The collective
insurance value of
pastoral herds is
estimated at USD 340
million, and the return
on investment at 25 per
cent to 30 per cent per
annum (Behnke and
Metaferia, 2011;
Behnke, 2010).
KENYA
on of
ti
The livestock sector is
the second largest
source of export
revenues after
uranium (Republic of
Niger, 2011), with
pastoral/agro-pastoral
systems estimated to
represent over 80% of
production (Rass,
2006). Transhumant
herds score 25 per
cent higher than those
for sedentary livestock
for all parameters of
productivity (Colin de
Verdière, 1995).
CHAD
a Ques
NIGER
A Question
of Developpment
Water, peace and security are closely inter-related, but
water is an ambiguous asset since creating water points
can increase conflict as well as reduce it. By prioritising
support for traditional modes of management, AFD’s
approach strengthened priority use rights over rights
of appropriation and promoted efforts to maintain the
spirit of dialogue, negotiation and reciprocity. Using
traditional systems as the basis for water management
and conflict prevention enables local actors to manage
pastoral mobility. AFD projects have been widely praised
for helping create political and institutional spaces where
pastoral infrastructures can be peacefully managed; now,
more thought needs to be given to how these works
should be monitored, managed and maintained, and local
management bodies sustained and funded.
Interaction between knowledge generation, capacity
building and infrastructures
• In addition to installing thousands of infrastructures
(water points and livestock corridor markers) over
the last two decades, AFD interventions have helped
produce an enormous amount of information
through thematic research and systematic follow-up
work, building a body of technical, societal, ecological
and economic knowledge that is invaluable for our
understanding of pastoral systems in Chad and across
the Sahara and the Sahel. This production of knowledge
has encouraged different generations of AFD projects
and other agencies operating in this field to develop new
methodologies and approaches. As well as the ministries
concerned, technical and financial partners and NGOs in
Chad report that their interventions in this domain have
been inspired by what they learned from the ‘school of
AFD’.
• C onsiderable progress has also been made in terms of
capacity building: a solid core of senior national staff with
proven experience in pastoral issues now hold posts in
several projects and institutions in Chad. Institutional
support to the Ministry of Livestock (significantly
renamed the Ministry of Pastoral Development and
Animal Production) led to thematic studies, various
meetings and the creation of the Chadian Pastoral
Platform, which brings together actors from the State
and civil society. This should help dispel the negative
clichés associated with pastoralism and show that it is an
efficient, modern production system that is still needed
despite Chad becoming an oil-producing country.
However, the national policy on pastoralism remains
ambiguous, recognising the importance of mobility
on the one hand while seeking to modernise livestock
production through intensification/sedentarisation on
the other. The Pastoral Code has not been promulgated,
and civil society needs to play a larger role in lobbying in
this field.
P assport to the future: challenges to overcome
• The much-praised innovation, intelligence and continuity
of AFD’s pastoral interventions in Chad over the last two
decades will carry through into the next generation of
projects. Following a symposium on ‘Pastoral livestock:
A sustainable contribution to development and security
in Saharan-Sahelian areas’ at the regional conference in
N’Djamena in May 2013 (initiated by Chadian officials
and AFD), the ‘N’Djamena Declaration’ calls on the
regional community (which includes North and Central
Africa) and the international community to “unite [ ... ]
in building peace and development in Saharan-Sahelian
areas by recognising the value of pastoralism as a means
of maintaining stability.” This regional recognition of
the value of pastoralism marks an unprecedented step
forward, especially as the crisis in pastoralism was due
more to a failure of public policies than of pastoral
systems. What is needed now are effective and rapid
responses to legitimate demands for access to social
services (education, health) that are compatible with
a mobile way of life. The mobilisation of scientific and
technical research in nomadic settings, by integrating
the expansion of new information and communication
techniques (including cellular telephones), must
contribute.
Bibliographic references
Reference study
Krätli S., M. onimart, B. Jallo, J. Swift and C. Hesse, 2013a. Evaluation of AFD interventions
in pastoral water in Chad over the last 20 years. International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED),
London. EX POST n° 51, October 2013, AFD.
Conference proceedings
Pastoral livestock: A sustainable contribution to development and security in Saharan-Sahelian
areas. 27th -29th May 2013, N’Djamena, Chad. Republic of Chad, AFD, Club du Sahel et de l’Afrique de l’Ouest,
European Union, IFAD, IUCN, Swiss Confederation.
Aubague S. and P. Grimaud 2011. « Réflexion sur l’évolution de la mobilité des pasteurs nomades
au Tchad: sédentarisation ou transhumance? » In: Alfaroukh I.O., N. Avella and P. Grimaud (eds) 2011. Actes du
colloque national: La politique sectorielle du pastoralisme au Tchad. Quelles orientations? 1st-3rd March 2011,
Republic of Chad, Ministry of Pastoral Development and Livestock Production, N'Djamena.
De Jode, E. 2009. Modern and Mobile. The future of livestock production in Africa’s drylands, IEED
and SOS Sahel International, London
Behnke R.H., I. Scoones, and C. Kerven (eds), 1993. Range Ecology at Disequilibrium: New Models
of Natural Variability and Pastoral Adaptation in African Savannahs. Overseas Development Institute, London.
Krätli S. and N. Schareika, 2010. Living off Uncertainty. The Intelligent Animal Production of Dryland
Pastoralists. European Journal of Development Research 22(5): 605-622.
Reounodji F., W. Tchouna and M. Banzhaf, 2005. La sécurisation des systèmes pastoraux au
Tchad: enjeux et éléments de réponse. IRAM, Montpellier, 108 p.
A QUESTION OF DEVELOPMENT is an AFD Research Department publication which presents syntheses of studies and research initiated or supported by the AFD. This series aims to summarize the
questioning, the approach, the lessons and the prospects of the study presented. Thus, it intends to open new avenues for action and thinking. The analyses and conclusions of this document are formulated
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