Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
A
griculture is such as economic activity that manifests the complex
interrelationship between physical and cultural milieu, usually
called geographical environment. Since the main thrust is to understand
spatial aspects of agriculture, it is essential to present succinct geographical
character of the district. Physical conditions of the region play pivotal role in
shaping not only the physical landscape but the socio-economic landscape
also. Particularly, such common man as farmer can hardly afford to ignore the
physical limits. Physical environment puts problems to them and also provides
solutions. But they perceive the physical environment in their own way,
evaluate it according and try to extract best out of it. They process of extraction
and utilization of the physical environment, specialty for agriculture purposes,
is influenced by the physical conditions on one hand and by the characteristics
of the farmer, his society and economy on the other. But it is certain that new
measures of agricultural improvement are considered and adopted in
perspective of physical environment and the process of their adoption is
influenced by the human factors. Therefore, these aspects, relevant to
understanding agriculture of Dhar district have been discussed here.
PHYSICAL DETERMINANTS OF AGRICULTURE
Man's agricultural activity depend on the physical environment in which
he lives although he often has tried to minimize the restrictions. Bisher (1932)
has rightly put forward the theory that a special field of geography concerns
itself with the study of the influence of natural environment on the nature and
distribution of man's activity. Nature, in its diverse manifestations, namely, the
soil, the water and climate, provides man in different areas with a variety of
possibilities for development (Hettner, 1947). Certainly no other branch of
human geography deals so directly with physical environment as agricultural
geography does. From the very beginning workers in the field were attracted to
the problem of explaining how variations in environment influenced the
agricultural landscape. Gregor, (1970) and McHarg (1969) has emphasized the
importance of Man's harmony with nature and the need to understand and
coordinate the resources of nature with those of human beings. By following
these principles of what he calls ecological determinism, he has shown how
nature and agriculture can impose limits, provide guidelines and assist man in
solving environmental problems.
Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
To make a scientifically viable inquiry into agricultural phenomena, one
must pay particular attention to their basic sets of inter relationships, i.e. those
between (the intricately related quadruplet complex viz.) the land, the climate,
the soils, water resources, hydrological hazards (the exogenous variables) and
the available cultivated area. Such a study determines the extent and
magnitude of usefulness of usable land for different agricultural purposes. The
number of people engaged in farming they are totally depend on agriculture in
the study region there are found various type of agriculture. The tribal farmers
also cultivate number of crops. In the field survey the researcher noticed
soyabean, groundnut, sugarcane, gram, vegetable, like cabbage, cauliflower,
brinjal, etc. beside the tradition crop. The types and the number of crops that
can be grown on the same field in the course of an agricultural year (Singh,
1974).
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE
Major portion of the plateau is underlain by the Deccan trap, Bagh bed
and Lameta beds. This structure has played a dominant role in making its
morphology. This part along-with other parts of the peninsular region has been
stable land mass since the Cambrian and has never been sub-merged in masse
under sea. The major portion about 85 percent is covered by deccan trap, these
are located in north-east and southern part of the district, in part of west of the
district is found Bagh and Lameta beds. Gneiss, granites and schists of these
systems have been denuded to low hills and have given birth to red soils. The
Vindhyans dominated by sandstones, shales and limestones are characterised
by the presence of escarpments. The rolling surface of the Malwa Plateau is
composed of the Deccan traps which were originated by fissure irruptions and
were deposited on older surface of the Vindhyans and Archaeans. This is the
area of black soils, would be clear from the discussion on relief that these
systems are associated with their typical landforms and soils (Plate 1.1).
The geological formations are bedded in the following order of increasing
antiquity.
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
Table 1.1
Succession of Geological Formations
Age
Formation
Bed
Recent.
Alluvium, Laterite
Unconformity.
Lower Eocene to
Upper
Deccan Trap (Malwa
Trap with Intertrappeans.
Red boles, limestone and gritty
sandstone.
Lameta beds, Bagh
bed.
Sandstone and limestone-Coralline
limestone.
Cretaceous.
Cretaceous
1. Deola Marl
2. Nodular Limestone.
3. Nimar Sandstone,
Unconformity.
Archaeans..
Intrusives
Pegmatites and quartz-veins.
Metasedimant
1.Amphibolites.
2. Slates and phylites.
3. Siliceous dolomites.
4. Biotite gneisses.
Source: District Gazetteer, Dhar, 1994
Archaeans
The Foliation trend of the metasediments varies from N.35º W.-S.-35ºE.
to N.65º W.-S-65ºE. The dip is steeply towards south-west and north-east. The
metasediment in the vicinity of Bagh are folded into an isoclinal synciline which
appears to plunge towards south-east.
The biotite-gneiss is pink to light grey in colour and contains thin bands
of quartz-feldspathic material alternating with mafics. The gneiss occurs in the
Bagh river section between Khera and Oria, the Gadri nadi section between
kher and Pipri and around Baktala.
The siliceous dolomite is dark-grey, compact and finegrained. It contains
essentially quartz and dolomite. It occurs near Wanda, Jamla and Barkhera.
Slates and phyllites, pink to grey in colour, are found near Bagh, Wands,
Deojhiri and Barkhera.
The amphibollites occur as instrusions, generally as sills, into the biotite
gneisses and phyllites. These rocks are medium to coarse grained and dark
green to black in colour. They are hard and compact. Mineralogically, they
consist of hornblende, quartz oligoclase, andesine and subordinate labradorite.
Sphene, apatite, magnetite and ilmenite occur as accessories. These occur near
Bhurkia, Udaipur and Belda.
Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
Instrusives (Pegmatite and Quartz-veins)
A pegmatite vein occurs within the gneiss near Bhurkia. Except slates,
all other Archaean metased ment of the area traversed by quartz veins, mostly
comformable to their foliation planes.
Bagh Beds
The Bagh beds comprise the Nimar Sandstone, Nodular Limestone,
Deola Marl and Coralline Limestones in the ascending order and occur as
inliers within the Deccan Trap. Of these, the last three members are profusely
fossiliferous and attain a thickness of about 25 m. These beds are of marine
sedimentary origin. They are horizontally bedded.
The Nimar sandstone is well exposed along the Bagh river, south of
Bagh, the Uri river north of Ajanta, the Gadri Nadi, north of Pipri, the Hatni
river and the Man river east of Gandhwani. The Nimar Sandstone is yellow to
brownish red in colur. It is ferruginous, Medium to coarse grained, gritty and
slightly calcareous in nature. East to Bagh and near Satemri the sandstone is
conglomeratic and contains pebbles of quartz and jasper.
In this section this rock contains quartz together with microcline,
oligoclase and fragment of quartzite, granite, cherts and basic rocks.
The
matric is ferruginous siliceous calcarous and clayey. Tourmaline, zircon,
apatite, rutile, garnet and sphene are the heavy minerals.
Major
occurrences
of
the
Nedular
Dimestone
are
found
near
Jamniapura, on both sides of the Bagh river near Nandgaon and Khandlai. It is
thinly bedded and white to light blue and light brown in colour. The nodules
are of calcareou and cherty nature. The limestone is soft, cavernous and
fossiliferous.
The Devla marls is well developed in the Man river valley near Deola,
Chirankhan, Chakrod, Karaondia, south of Thuati and north of Ajantar. It is
soft and highly friable, grey and argillaceous in nature. It overlies the partly
weathered Nodular Limestone. Good outcrops of coralline limestone occur near
Thuati, Barkhera, Ajantar, Khandlai, Karaondia, Chakrod, Deola, Oudiapura
and Chirankhan. The Coralline Limestone is yellow to red, light green and
reddish browns in colour. It is fine grained and compact and is fossiliferous
containing abundant fragments of bryozoa.
Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Physical Basis of Agriculture
Lameta Beds
The Lametas crop out about 2 km. south-west of Bagh, north of Aspura
and south-westward upto Hatini.
These are represented by shales, ferruginous sandstones and cherty
limestones. These are grown to yellowish brown and fine to medium grained.
Fossil wood of Gymnosperm species has been reported from the beds.
Deccan Trap
By far the major part of the District is covered by the Deccan Trap locally
called the Malwa Trap. Its flows have a horizontal deposition. Nine basaltic
flows have been recorded in the area. The flows vary in thickness from about
10 to 36 metres. The Basalt in some flows is massive, compact and fine-grained
in nature. It is steel grey to dark grey in colour. But at places it is purple,
greenish black to dark grey in colour and vesicular in nature with zeolites
(stylbite, natrolite and mesolite), calcite and secondary silica as vesicular
fillings. The rocks contain phenocrysts of plagioclase felspar embedded in a
mesostasis of labrodorite microlites, granules of augite, iron ore and glass.
Intertrappean horizons are represented by red boles, limestone and
gritty sandstone. At places the traps have irregular thin laterite cappings.
RELIEF
In the district, forested hills and ranges, extensive plateau and river
valleys characterise the physiography. Most prominent physical features in the
topography are ranges of Vindhyan with broad valley of the Narmada river and
the Malwa plateau. Over looking the Narmada Valley in the North, the
Vindhyan range marks the edge of the Malwa plateau that slopes towards north
to south & in southern part and south to north in northern part of the study
region. Vindhyan range is a prime divider of the region. The highest peak is
existed on 751.03 metre above sea level and the lowest portion is existed along
the Narmada river and is 170 metre above the sea level. The northern half of
the district lies on the Malwa plateau. Man, Uri-bagh, Hatni and Karam are the
southern flowing rivers and Mahi, Chambal and Bageri are the northern flowing
rivers (Plate 1.2).
Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
The District extends over three physiographic division. They are the
Malwa plateau in the north, the Vindhyachal range in the central zone and the
Narmada valley along the southern boundary. However, the valley is again
closed up by the hills in the south-western part.
The Vindhyachal Range
A part of the range extends in the district in crescentic belt a generally
from south-east to north-west. The range is represented by a strip of hilly area
5 to 20 kilometres in width. It is about 5km. wide near village Dani near the
south-eastern boundary. Near Mograba in the centre it is about 10 km. further
widening to 20 km. west of Tanda. To the west of Bagh and Kukshi the Range
stands disconnected by the valleys of the Esai and the Hatni.
It re-starts along the Narmada in the south-west. The northern spur of
Pipahiabon Peak (543.76 metres) forms the boundary between the Sardarpur
Tahsil and Jhabua District. It extends from the peak of Gomanpura (556.26
metres) to Bajrangarh in Jhabua. Another spur extends towards Jhabua in the
north-west. The Great Vindhyachal Range extends generally from west to east
and scarps at most of its length towards the south. In Dhar also the southward escarps are well marked, the wall rising from 400 to 600 meters. However,
in the western part their faces have been eroded back into long and deep
rugged valleys of the tributary rills of the Narmada. In fact the strong currents
of the small streams on the steep southern side have cut back at their heads.
With the result now the numerous streams of the Narmada valley find their
sources on the Malwa Plateau. The main line of the highest peaks has been left
to the south of their present couress. Khiniamba (530.96 metres), Kodi (541.93
metres), Suneri (572.41 meters) and Dhanakhera (548.64 metres) lie to the
south of the water divide (Plate 1.3).
In the eastern and central parts of the Vindhyachal in Dhar the main hill
range is continuous but in the west it is dissected by deep channels of the
rivulet. The Range slopes towards the north and gradually meets the Malwa
Plateau. Numerous spurs also extend over the Malwa plateau in the north. But
in the western half in the District one may also find a series of the denuded
ridges alternating with the parallel stream-channels and running for some
kilometres from north to south. The phenomenon leads the marked excel of the
Range into a local confusion, unless one tries to trace the line of the main peaks.
Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
The highest peak of the district is Magraba (751.03 metres) lies in the
central part. Nilkanth (702.26 metres) lies further east and the Shikarpura hill
rises up to 698.91 meters. The famous historical fort of Mandogarh towards the
flat topped hill above 600 metres, from the mean sea level.
The Malwa Plateau
The northern half of the District lies on the Malwa Plateau. It covers the
northern part of Dhar, Sardarpur and Badnawar tahsils. The average elevation
of the plateau is 500 metres above the mean sea level. The land is undulating
with a few scattered flat topped hills roughly aligned between the valleys from
south to north. The general slope is towards the north. The valleys are covered
with the Black Cotton Soil of varying thickness, mostly adopted for cultivation.
The mounds may bear gravels or the underlain sandstone rocks may have been
exposed. The plateau covers an area of about 466,196.83 hectares in the
district (Gazetteer, 1994).
The Narmada Valley
Below the Vindhyan scarps lies the narrow valley of the Narmada. It
occupies the southern part of the district in Manawar tahsil and the southeastern part of Kukshi tahsil. The width of the valley is 15 to 30 kilometres. The
elevation varies from 275 metres in the northern part of Manawar tahsil to 150
metres in the low plain of Nisarpur in the south-west. To the east between
Khalghat and Bakaner the valley is undulating, wider, more open and fertile
with the alluvial cover. Proceeding westwards the valley is studied with hills
alternatively cut up by numerous streams which join the Narmada along the
southern boundary of the district. The result is that there are few stretches and
pockets of alluvium along the streams.
CLIMATE
The number of climatic variations on the earth has resulted primarily
from its rotation and variation, uneven distribution of land and water, and
unevenness of its surface of all the geographic influences to which man is
subjected, climate seems to be the most potent. It is an influence that no
individual or race can escape on land or sea, on plains or mountains, in
primitive or civilized societies, man must face the climate virtually on its own
terms. In a large measure climate determines where man may live and thrive,
what crops he may raise, what type of home he may appropriately build, what
sort of clothing he may wear, and what pests and diseases he must combat
Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
(Whitebeck, 1932). The potential crop-producing capability of a given area is
dependent mainly on the existing climatic and soil conditions. Since climatic
factors exert mainly a regional influence on plant life, the differences in the
behaviour of a crop or a group of crops over extensive areas, as in a given state
or a group of states, may be considered as due primarily to differences in
climatic rather than soil conditions (Klages, 1958).
The climatic elements and their effects on plant growth are far more
complex than it appears. In the field, the plant is never subjected to a single
variable at any given time, but has to interact with an almost in finite number
of combinations of the elements (Chang, 1968). In analyzing the features of a
particular kind of agricultural economy we shall first make a rapid survey of
the relevant features of its 'Soi-disant' natural environment. First, the climatic
conditions will be described, for, these are not susceptible to modification by
man, except at great cost (Dumont, 1970). The success or failure of the
cropping season is determined by the intensity of the climatic factors. The three
most important factors of climate from the stand point of plant response are
temperature, water supply and light (Hildreth et al., 1941), and the may be
treated as primary determinants of crop growth. Plant growth does not depend
on limited variables but is controlled by various elements acting in combination
at a time. All these factors are subject to accelerated fluctuations taking place
from time to time, from season to season and from place to place.
Consequently, they determine the type of crops raised and cause regional
differences in crop associations. In fact, different combinations of these factors
account for different types of climates and are responsible for various types of
cropping patterns all over the world.
Climate is the principal aspect of the physical environment affecting
agriculture. The characteristics of the soil - the essential medium for plant
growth, are largely the product of present and past climates and the vegetation
that has flourished in them, and the affects of relief are to no small degree
expressed through resulting climatic variation (Symons, 1978, 33). It consists
of the elements like rainfall, temperature, length of growing session, sunlight,
frost, fog conditions, snow, hailstorms and winds. All these elements of weather
have direct and indirect influence on the cropping pattern of a region (Hussain,
1986, 23). Consequently, the expression of agriculture, the cultivable area, the
Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
spatial and temporal cropping pattern and above all strategy of farm economy
and its ecology depend on climatic conditions.
Climate is most influencing factor, it effect on human along other
factors, climate is first of them, it is not for the reason that climate is most
important, but it is more basic. Climate is the most important elements of
natural environment and directly effects all aspects of human life. Type of
climate largely controls the occurrence, type and pattern of various vital
resources such as forests, soils, water as well as the productivity of agricultural
land. In this way we can say that in any place among geographical factors
climate play a major role and it is assumed as the main factor.
In generally weather and climate is assumed as one and in any place for
a minimum time temperature, winds pressure, moisture and the winds is
known as weather, whether climate is a long term process. So climate is the
compilation of day to days weather conditions.
The climate of India is tropical monsoon, which is according to the wind
flow of different season. As the region lies on the tropical latitudes, the climate
of the region in marked by high temperature round the years. The region is a
part of the monsoon land and is characterized by seasonal distribution of
rainfall. The year round high temperature and seasonal distribution of rainfall
has a far reaching impact on the human activities in the region.
Various elements of climate in the region are equally significant for the
welfare of the people. Temperature and rainfall required by the area together
becomes the deciding factor not only for agriculture but for other allied
activities also. On the other hand hail-storms, thunderstorms and other
features of the climate too have been effecting the geographical environment of
the region.
The characteristics of the climate in the region are not very different
from that of the climatic region suggested by Koopen, to which this region is a
part. The year is divided into three main seasons i.e. (1) Summer Season
(middle of March to middle of June), (2) Rainy Season (middle of June to
September), (3) Winter Season (October to middle of March).
Temperature
The temperature during summer season, remains high and reaches upto
41ºC and during the winter season temperature dips to 25ºC. Most of the
Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
rainfall in the region is received during the rainy season, leaving winter and
summer seasons fairly dry.
Not a single meteorological observatory is located in the region. March
onwards the temperature of both days and nights steadily increases and
reaches to its peak in May which is the hottest month, with the daily maximum
temperature
at
about
40ºC
(104.0ºF) and
the
mean
daily
minimum
temperature at about 26ºC (78.8ºF) (Table 1.2).
Table No. 1.2
Dhar District : Average Temperature (in ºCentigrade)
Month
1974
1975
1976
1977
1987
1988
Max
Min
Max
Min
Max
Min
Max
Min
Max
Min
Max
Min
January
27.4
5.9
25.2
9.0
27.1
17.3
26.1
10.2
25.0
11.0
25.0
12.0
February
29.4
12.4
28.3
12.1
30.2
12.3
30.4
13.9
28.0
11.0
28.0
14.0
March
-
-
33.0
16.0
34.5
18.0
36.2
18.9
34.0
17.0
32.0
19.0
April
-
-
38.8
23.0
37.1
21.1
-
-
40.0
20.0
39.0
22.0
May
39.6
24.2
39.8
25.1
38.3
20.6
39.0
24.2
41.0
21.0
40.0
23.0
June
34.8
24.3
34.8
24.3
33.0
22.8
35.8
23.8
37.0
21.0
37.0
24.0
July
27.2
22.4
27.2
22.4
29.7
22.4
-
-
33.0
19.0
30.0
22.0
August
27.6
21.4
27.6
21.4
27.1
21.5
-
-
30.0
18.0
29.0
23.0
September
27.1
20.9
27.1
20.9
29.0
21.0
-
-
33.0
18.0
31.0
22.0
October
31.1
18.5
31.1
18.5
34.0
19.0
-
-
33.0
16.0
31.0
30.0
November
29.1
11.8
29.0
11.6
30.9
17.9
-
-
31.0
14.0
28.0
17.0
December
26.7
10.1
27.2
9.8
28.7
13.0
-
-
27.0
11.0
26.0
14.0
-
-
31.0
18.0
32
19
-
-
33.0
16.0
31.0
20.0
District
Average
Source: (1) District Statistical Office, Dhar
(2) District Gazetteers, Dhar, 1994,
The over all climate of the region is generally pleasant, the Winds mostly
remains dry except during the rainy season due to the influence of southwest
monsoon. In the area, maximum rainfall received due to the bellowing of
monsoon winds from Arabian sea.
Due to Uttarayan, the whole north India receives more solar energy &
becomes hot. The study region is for away from the sea coast. Hence, during
summer season the maximum temperature of the study area reach upto 4041ºC. As a result of increasing temperature low air pressure belt has been
develop in the north-west India, at that time high air pressure belt is formed on
Arabian sea. In the month of July minimum air pressure recorded 653 milibar
whether during this time in Indian Ocean it has been recorded 1035 milibar.
During the end of June air pressure becomes 340 milibar in the low air
pressure belt, which is so powerful to create winds from sea and flow towards
Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
the interior of Indian sub continent. While winds from line also flows towards
the land area. Due to the obstacle of Satpura and Vindhyanchal Mountain
ranges the orographic rain fall occurred in the region, and the study region is
not an exception.
Occasional thunder showers especially in the afternoon brings some
relief from the scorching heat. With the onset of monsoon in the region from the
middle of June and substantial drop in temperature is recorded. During the
post monsoon season i.e. from October slight increase in day temperature is
recorded but the nights remain progressively cooler by the end of October both
the day and the night becomes cooler as the temperature starts declining. In
January the mean daily maximum temperature remains about 27ºC and the
mean daily minimum temperature about 7ºC. During the winter season the
region is affected by cold waves due to westerly disturbances which passes
eastward across the north India. On such occasions the minimum temperature
further drops to about a degree or two followed by occasional frost. Altitudinal
variation also govern the rhythm of climate in the region.
Rainfall
Rainwater or rainfall is also known as the precipitation. It is a primary
significant source for the recharge/augmentation of ground water reservoir of a
particular area, and also plays an important role in the estimation of water
balance of a basin (Sahu O. P. & P. Dev, 2007) Precipitation has been defined
as 'the depositing of water from the atmosphere on to the surface. This deposit
may be liquid or solid to give the various form of precipitation' (Weisner, 1970).
Rainfall as the primary ecological parameter has created a variety of
farming enterprises, types or system in the world. It is the dominant single
weather element influencing the intensity and location of farming system and
the farmer's choice of enterprises. Thus, variations in rainfall characteristics
affect agriculture as a whole and therefore, there is need to investigate them in
details. They become more suitable when crops are affected by moisture
conditions at sowing, germination, shorting, stalking and heading and at
maturing, harvesting and threshing. Moisture is indeed a basic factor in all
crop producing areas. It is all the more important in the minimal regions,
where average or normal rainfall is generally necessary for successful crop
production. In such areas the system of crop production must be correlated
more or less to the moisture factor (Klages, 1958). Rainfall effectiveness is
Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
usually expressed as the actual total rainfall minus the total possible
evaporation (Monkhouse and Wilkinson, 1967).
In the district rainfall in the summer season due to monsoon winds. This
starts during the middle of June month when arise of monsoon in Arabian sea
and ends in the middle of September month. The average rainfall of the district
is 894.4 ml (75 to 100 centimeter) which is lower than the average requirement,
it happens due to the winds become dry till arrive to the region.
Table No.1.3
District Dhar : Average rainfall (in mm)
No.
Block
1999-
2000-
2001-
2002-
2003-
2004-
2006-
2007-
2008-
2009-
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2007
2008
2009
2010
1
Dhar
524
547
718
726
1091
874
1153
680
699
1204
2
Tirla
602
602
640
658
1089
630
1343
601
689
1071
3
Nalchha
514
543
811
801
1330
829
1025
651
820
880
4
Badnawar
478
480
585
654
1143
870
961
824
653
647
5
Kukshi
377
377
416
633
559
691
993
639
593
667
6
Bagh
290
290
627
655
649
732
897
588
593
741
7
Nisarpur
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
8
Manawar
385
400
587
619
788
626
1070
778
688
741
9
Bankaner
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
10
Sardarpur
482
493
531
723
1078
867
820
620
655
766
11
Gandhwani
328
328
603
868
1017
590
1165
585
679
860
12
Dharampuri
332
332
318
492
603
483
490
446
380
759
13
Dahi
288
288
427
500
807
878
1073
719
596
561
418
425
573
677
923
734
490
648
641
809
District Average
Sources: District Statistical Handbook, 2010, District Statistical Office, Dhar
According to the records of the year 1999-2000 to 2009-10, during this
decade maximum 923 mm rainfall has been recorded in the year 2003-04.
During this year out of 13 development blocks maximum rainfall recorded 1143
mm in Badnawar block and minimum 559 mm rainfall recorded in Kukshi
tehsil, which is less than half of the Badnawar block. During this decade
minimum rainfall only 418 mm recorded in the year 1999-2000, in this year
maximum rainfall 602 mm recorded in Tirla development block while minimum
290 mm rainfall recorded in Bagh tehsil of the district. In this way, this year
was more dry year of the decade. Looking towards the records of the decade, it
has been noticed that during this decade maximum rainfall 1343 mm has been
recorded in Tirla block in the year 2006-07, which is maximum rainfall of the
decade among blocks of the district. During this decade minimum rainfall
recorded in Dahi block, in the year 1999-2000 and 2000-2001 only 288 mm
Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
rainfall has been recorded. In the study region from December to May month
the rainfall is very less.
The rainfall effects agriculture of the study area, because hundred
percent tribal population of the area depends on agriculture, as a result tribal
agriculture of the area is directly affected by rainfall. As a result of decrease in
rainfall economic system of the tribals is disturbed. In this area in the month of
December to May rainfall is rare by recorded (Table 1.3 & Plate 1.4). In this
area rainfall is recorded only from June to November month, which happens
through western monsoon air and in the month of November the rainfall
receives from retreat monsoon. Due to the global warming and climatic changes
day by day the proportion of rainfall has been reduced and it highly affected on
tribal agriculture.
Table No.1.4
District Dhar : Monthly Rainfall (in mm)
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Dhar
Block
0
0
0
0
0
Jun
Jul
Tirla
0
0
0
0
0
Nalchha
0
0
0
0
0
Badnawar
0
0
0
0
0
Kukshi
0
0
0
0
Bagh
0
0
0
0
Nisarpur
0
0
0
0
0
NA
NA
Manawar
0
0
0
0
0
94.0
134.0
Bankaner
0
0
0
0
0
132.0
143.0
360.0
Sardarpur
0
0
0
0
0
NA
NA
Gandhwani
0
0
0
0
0
100.0
172.5
Dharampuri
0
0
0
0
0
140.0
234.0
Dahi
0
0
0
0
0
102.0
264.0
Dist. Total
0
0
0
0
0
1151.6
Dist Avg
0
0
0
0
0
104.7
77.4
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Annual
246.3
448.4
296.8
0
135.6
0
1204.5
91.6
225
489.1
244.9
0
20.1
0
1070.7
116.0
311.8
291.4
9.8
0
62.4
0
880.4
18.0
225.0
283.6
71.8
0
48.6
0
647.0
0
184.6
123.6
246.0
87.0
0
25.4
0
666.6
0
96.0
152.0
326.0
153.0
0
14.0
0
741.0
NA
NA
0
NA
0
NA
257.0
74.0
0
5.0
0
564.0
75.0
0
31.0
0
741.0
NA
NA
0
NA
0
NA
326.0
121.5
0
46.0
0
766.0
323.0
137.0
0
30.0
0
864.0
300.0
81.0
0
12.0
0
759.0
2231.2
3650.5
1440.8
0
430.1
0
8904.2
202.84
331.9
131.0
0
39.1
0
809.5
Source : District Land Records, Dhar, 2010
Soils
The main functions of the soils, from agricultural point of view, are to
give mechanical support to plants and store and supply the required nutrients
and water for plant growth. These functions of the soil depend on its physical,
chemical and biological characteristics. Among physical properties texture and
structure are very important which determine such characteristics of soil as
water absorbing and retentive capacity and movement of air and water.
Chemical and biological properties determine its fertility status. All these
Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
properties vary with parent rocks, climatic conditions, relief, stages of
development of the soil and biological influences (Jain, 1988, 19).
Out of the long list of nature's gifts to man none is perhaps so utterly
essential to human life as soil (Bannett, 1939, 5). Soil, one of the three
attributes of land, is an outstanding renewable resource which sustains the
biotic resources of vegetation and animal life. In this district of the state where
more than 80.0 per cent ruralties derive their livelihood directly from
agriculture. Soils has unique position in resource use system and their very
living standard, depending upon agriculture is often determined by the
physical, chemical and biological combination of the soil and the crops and
livestock raised on them (Shrama, 1989, 33). In any agricultural operation soil
is of the almost importance as it is the cradle for all crops and plants (Hussain,
1979, 31). Soil and their properties are also influenced directly and closely by
topography, relief and altitudes. The physical, chemical and biological
properties determine the rate of adoption regarding the agricultural innovations
within any region particularly, use of fertilizers and irrigation as well as high
yielding variety of seeds is closely associated with the soil.
The soils of the region play a significant role not only in the agricultural
productivity of a region but have been influencing the distribution and density
of population in the region. The soils have variations in the texture, in the
biological and chemical compositions depending on the mechanism of their
formation. In the river valleys most of the soil is derived from the disintegrated
materials of the rocks from the adjoining hills. Most of the river valleys have
black cotton soil because the wider part of the region is covered by the Deccan
Traps. The black soil in the river valley is very fertile in nature and has
supported the agriculture. The entire Narmada valley, which intersect the
Vindhyan hills and lie in the southern part of the region also have the black
cotton soil. Soils covering the forests and hilly tracks and stony areas are
infertile. The soils of the forest and hills are generally shallow and contain
quartzite, basalt and sandstone boulders which are of little use.
The study region is a part of old Deccan trap. In the region where hard
Malwa plateau there is found a suitable alluvial and laterite soil. In the region
from recent period to Archaeans period igneous to sedimentary all type of rocks
are existed.
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
In this region the soil has been classified as black soil and brown soil.
These two type of soil are also divided into three categories these are - good,
medium and low standard soil. Among these good quality black soil and brown
soil is most valuable soil, which is suitable for rabi and kharif crops. In
comparison to brown soil the dark black soil being more moisture capability is
suitable for rabi crop.
In the plateau area mainly the soil is black soil, but in Nimar area these
are mainly brown soil. A large part of Nimar soil is brown and stony. Due to
less depth this soil is suitable for kharif crops. In the study region Dharampuri
sector is most fertile in comparison to other. The other fertile area of the district
is Dhar, Badnawar, Nalchha, Manawar and Dahi.
The soils are also classified on the basis of their capacity to support
particular crops. The soil available in the study region is categorised in four
groups1. Black soil - The soil varies in depth and usually are loomy to clay in texture.
These soils are usually ill supplied with phosphorus, nitrogen and organic
matter but are sufficient in Potash and lime (Jain, 1988, 19). Due to the
damage and break of lava shaili. The black soil is formed. In Nisarpur block of
Kukshi tehsil this soil is known in the name of old Jalod soil. In this area dark
coloured balui soil is found, where in some places stone are found. In this soil
all the three seasons (kharif, rabi and jayad) crops are produced. Cotton,
Ginger, Banana etc. commercial crops are produced in the region which are the
main crop of the area. According to some intellects, this soil is produced from
Deccan trap. Since ancient period it was covered by forests, as a result it is full
of mineral and chemical components and humus is more. Having maximum
plant parts its colour is black. This soil is more suitable for the cotton crop. It
is having maximum water conserving capacity. The black soil area of the
district is Dhar, Badnawar, Gandhwani, Kukshi and Manawar tehsil where
soyabean and cotton is produced.
2. Red Soil - Red soil are derived from gneisses and other metamorphic rocks.
These soils are developed either in sites or from the decomposed rock materials
washed down to lower level by rain. These soils are formed under well drained
conditions. Alluviation of clay, iron, aluminium bases are the main soil forming
process. Red soils vary in colour between red and reddish brown. These soils
show lighter texture, friable structure and low contents of soluble salts.
Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
Absence of lime concretions and free calcium carbonate are other important
features (De and Ghosh, 1993). The soils are well drained with moderate
permeability. Because of the predominance of sand of different size and shape,
water retentive capacity is comparatively lower. They disintegrate very easily.
This soil is available in north-west part of Kukshi and southwest part of
Sardarpur tehsil. This soil is made through the erosion of crystal stone. In
higher part this soil is of less thin layer stony. Generally in this soil maize,
jawar, bajra, kodon, kutki, arhar, urad, rice, mung, groundnut etc. crops are
produced.
3. Brown Soil - This soil is found in Vindhyan hills and its foot area. This type
of soil is found in Kukshi tehsil in its south-western part in Dahi block in
Akhrani hills. In this type of soil calcium, sodium, potas and phosphorus is
available in sufficient quantity. The colour of this soil is light brown and brown.
In this soil iron is available but there is shortage of nitrogen.
4. Kachhari Soil - This soil is available in the basin of Narmada and its
supporting rivers. In Kukshi tehsil and Nisarpur block this soil is known as old
Jalod. Here dark colour balui soil is found where in some places stone is found.
In this soil Kharif, Rabi and Jayad three type of crop is produced. In this area
gingar, cotton, banana etc. are produced as commercial crop which is main
crop of the area.
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
Surface water, that is, the water on the surface of land, represents the
drainage from the land. We see it in flowing rivers and creeks, lakes and ponds.
Surface flow is derived partly from the rainfall that is shed into the water
courses from sloping lands. A part of the rainfall that is absorbed by the soil
also becomes surface water by its discharge when it seeps into rills and
runnels. The portion of rain or snowmelt that penetrates deeply becomes the
ground water recharge and it is discharged into the streams slowly.
Groundwater effluent becomes the base flow that maintains the flow of streams
in fair weather when we speak of surface water, we mean stream flow
regardless of its source (Langhein and Wells, 1955). Therefore, surface water is
by far the most important means for providing substantial irrigation which
stabilizes and improves agro-economic life in an area that has otherwise plenty
of land potential. Because of the uncertainty in the flow of surface water, it is
probable that any attempt to improve agricultural techniques and land-use
Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
planning without combating the problems with the help of shallow and deep
water-tables is bound to be abortive. Throughout the world, efficient use of
water and the priorities we attach to it is going to engage the attention of the
next generation. The main problem in surface water utilization in dry lands is
the prevention of losses by evaporation and percolation and absorption. So it is
essential to stand ardize certain methods for measuring evaporation from water
surfaces and to adopt suitable techniques to check water losses. In the
beginning, such methods and techniques may cost a large amount of money,
but ultimately they will be advantageous as they will prevent waterlogging and
unnecessary loss of water (Singh, 1976).
The southern part of the district lies in the catchment area of the
Narmada which forms the southern boundary. The north-eastern part is
drained by the Chambal and its tributaries. It forms the catchmant area of the
Ganga. The north-western part drains into the Mahi. The water-dividing line
between the Narmada and Chambal is marked by the northern fringe of the
Vindhyachal range. The waters of the Chambal and the Mahi are separated by the
off shoot range which runs along the Sardarpur-Jhabua boundary (Plate 1.5).
The Narmada
The magnificent river flows along the southern boundary of the district
in a rift valley from east to west with a sountherly inclination. It rises from the
Amarkanatak plateau (22 040' to 81045') of the Satpura range in Shahdol
district. Flowing to the west it touches the district at Lasangaon (75031'East) at
the confluence with the Karam. It forms the southern boundary of the District
along with that of the West-Nimar for about 107 Kilometres. It receives the
Borad, Dob, Nahali and Goi on its left while the Karan, the Man, and the Bagh
join its right bank.
The river has been mentioned by Ptolemy and the author of Periplus.
The Ramayan, the Mahabharat and Puranas refer to it frequently. The
RewaKhand of Vayu Puran and the Rewa Khand of Skand Puran are entirely
devoted to the story of the birth and the importance of the river. It is said to
have sprung from the body of Lard Shiva. It was created in the form of a lovely
damasel who enamored gods and hence named by the Lord as Narmada,
delight giving.
Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
It is also said to have been in love with the Sonbhadra, another river
flowing on the Chhota Nagpur plateau. On the male river’s inclination towards
the Ganga, the Narmada took a westerly course. According to the Puranas the
Narmada is also called the Rewa, from its leaping motion (form the root rev)
thought its rocky bed.
To Shiva the river is specially sacred on account of its origin, and it is
often called Shankari, i.e. daughter of Shankar. All the pebbles rolling on its
bed are said to take the shape of his emblem with the saying. Narmada ke
kanker utte Shanker. These lingam shaped stones, called Banalinga are much
sought after for daily worship by the Hindus.
In the central parts of India the River is held to be far more sacred than
any other stream in India. Even Ganga herself is obliged to come and dip in
these waters once a year. She comes in the form of a coal-black cow and
returns home pure white, free from all sins. A sight of the Narmada is
equivalent to a bath in the Ganga. At numerous places along its course there
are temples, and fairs are held. Pilgrims perform Pradakshina, i.e. walking
along the southern bank from its source to the mouth and going back along the
northern bank. The performance is regarded to be of the highest religious
efficacy.
The States of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujrat and Rajasthan are
interested in developing the resources of the River by the construction of a
series of dams on the Narmada and tributaries.
However, the varying claims of the States are now pending with the
Prime Minister for final decision based on an overall National interest. The river
had been a potential barrier of free communication in the past. So were the
floods causing destruction to the valley region inspite of its deposits of fertile
silt. The river is crossed by roads at Khalghat and Chikhalda in the district.
Otherwise ferries are managed by the local administration at important
crossings. Narmada is a dominent perenial river in the study region. It play a
vital role in irrigation. Comparatively other blocks of the district, Dahi,
Nisarpur, Manawar, Bankaner, and Dharimpuri under the irrigated area is
high. These blocks are the dominent tribal blocks. The effect of Narmaba river
water is clearly seen on tribal agriculture.
Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
The Chambal
The Chambal, Charmanwati or Charmawati of the ancient times rises
from the western slopes of Janapao hill (854.35 metre) in Indore district. It is
the most important river of Malwa. Initially it has a north westerly course and
flows through Dhar district for 17 km. The river then turns to the north and
forms the eastern boundary for about 10 km. The river further flows in to
Ujjain, Ratlam and Mandsaur district of Madhya Pradesh while forming the
northern boundary of Gwalior Division. The Chambal is a main tributary of the
Yamuna river.
The Mahi River
The Mahi River rises from the northern slopes of the Gomanpur hills in
Sardarpur tahsil. It flows towards north and forms the north-western boundary
of Sardarpur tahsil. The river is joined by the Bageri nala from the right before
it leaves the district. Hence it takes a north-westernly course in Ratlam district.
After crossing the Banswara district of Rajasthan the river takes an acute turn
towards the south-west and enters in to the Bay of Khambhat.
The Karam
The Karam rises from the Singarchori hill of Indore. It drains a small
area north of the Vindhyachal range and cuts across it to south. It forms the
south-eastern boundary near Gujri and joins the Narmada.
The Man
It rises from the southern scarps of the Malwa plateau. It flows to the
south and joins the Narmada pass Nimkhera and Kheri amidst the hills and
Manawar and Bakaner in the Narmada valley. The catchment area of Man river
is higher than Karam & Bagh. Man project is constructed on this river, near
the zirabad.
The Bagh
The Bagh and the Uri also rise from the southern scraps and jointly
drain into the Narmada. Tanda is located on the bank of Uri. The Bagh flows
past Bagh, Khushi and Nisarpur. The Hatni rises in Jhabua district and form
the western boundary of Dhar for some distance before joining the Narmada.
Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
VEGETATION
Under the abolition of proprietary rights order (1950) the Malguzari
forest have been taken over by the State Government and most of these have
been declared as protected forests. Some of the forests blocks were reserved in
the beginning of 20 th century. The reserve forests are under scientific
management of the government. The public has no rights in these forests
except for the privileges granted by the government.
Due to increase in population and expansion of agricultural activities on
additional land considerable wooded area has been cleared for human
settlement and the land made available was put directly under agricultural
uses. As a result the forest has substantially been reduced in last few decades.
Still the region has almost ideal proportion of forests one-third per cent of its
total geographical area.
The forest environment in the region has been practically negative to the
settlement and the population. The reserved and protected forests are not open
to settlements besides, some wild animals and various insects. Which have
their habitat in these areas are also harmful to the human life. However forests
have many positive impacts also on the human activities.
Forests not only purify the air but also control pollution to a great extent
by extent regulating the climate. To replenish the ground water decrease the
runoff rate of rainy water helps in controlling floods. Prevents soil erosion and
ultimately helps in maintaining the fertility of soil.
Forest area also influences the distribution of rural settlements which
have developed close to the forest areas while the dissected land ravines and
residual hills etc. have restricted the distribution of settlements.
In the recent years forests are restricted only to the hilly areas which are
not suitable for cultivation. According to the information of the district forest
office of the region total area covered by the government forests in the region
under study comes to about 3043 sq. kms. and the forests are classified as –
1. Reserved Forest
-
615 sq. kms (20 per cent)
2. Protected Forest
-
2428 sq. kms (80 per cent)
The reserved forest in the area were demarcated as early as in the year
1879 the reserved forests are still under the scientific management of
government.
Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
Type of forests and their composition - The forests in the region are broadly
classified as tropical dry deciduous forests. However, in different areas of the
region, variation in the predominating species their quality and density is also
observed. A good number of deciduous evergreen or semi-evergreen and a few
xerophytic to semi-xerophytic type of species too are found in the region.
In varying proportion in certain localities one or the other species also
seems to have monopolized the area. The forest of the region can be classified
into the following typesMixed
–
Good, Medium and Poor quality.
Teak
-
Good, Medium and Poor quality.
Grass Blanks
-
Good quality.
Salai
-
Poor quality.
Karlhai
-
Poor quality.
Ghant
-
Khair
Bhirra
Poor quality.
-
-
Poor quality.
Poor quality.
Population residing in the adjourning areas of the forests and their
growing activities i.e. excessive grazing by animals and cattle, cutting of green
trees to meet the requirement of fuel and other needs have been damaging the
forests without realising the adverse affects in the long term. The tribal
communities in India largely occupy forested regions where for a long period in
their history, they lived in isolation but in harmony with the nature. They draw
their sustenance largely from the forests. The forest not only provide them food,
material to build houses, fuel for cooking, light and warmth, fodder for their
cattle but also satisfy their deep rooted sentiments. Tribal life is connected in a
way or the other with forests right from birth to death.
Forests occupy the central position in tribal economy. Tribal life is
profoundly affected by what ever happens to the forest. Forest is for them a
whole way of life, and hence the development cannot make much head way
without the contribution of forestry sector.
Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
The tribal traditionally collect many items of daily use as well as minor
forest produce items from the forests, which are necessary for their day-to-day
sustenance. During drought and adverse conditions, the tribal households live
only on edible products collected from forests.
CONCLUSION
Dhar district has a triangular shape. Vindhyachal range divide the
region in two part. It is located in central part. Magaraba is a highest peak in
the region, it height is 751.03 meter above sea level. According to census 2001
54.50 percent of the people of the region belonging scheduled tribes. Bombay,
Agra highway is existed in south eastern part of the district, Pithampur is a
industrial hub of the Madhya Pradesh state. It is known as the "Detroit of Asia"
due to the unemployment the tribal marginal farmers are migrated in Nov. - May.
Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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Chapter-1
Physical Basis of Agriculture
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Department of General & Applied Geography, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.)
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