The Economic and Social Review, Vol. 14, No. 3, April 1983, pp.
173-184
Commercialisation in West of Ireland
Agriculture in the 1890s*
M I C H A E L C U D D Y and C H R I S C U R T I N
University College, Galway
Abstract: The "sale of farm products ratio" indicator is used in this paper to establish the extent to
which the agricultural economy of the West of Ireland and, in particular, the economy of the smaller
landholders was commercial or subsistence oriented in the final decade of the nineteenth century.
Using two separate methodologies, estimates of commercialisation ratios are provided for farms in
selected Poor Law Unions in the West of Ireland. The results from the use of both methodologies show
that farms in the West of Ireland, even the smaller farms of approximately JE4 valuation, were by this
period highly commercialised, with livestock to the fore in commodity production.
I
INTRODUCTION
T
he debate o n the subsistence or commercial character o f West o f Ireland
agriculture i n the nineteenth century began w i t h the p u b l i c a t i o n o f
L y n c h and Vaizey's (1960) study of the role o f Guinness's Brewery i n the
Irish economy. I n their attempt t o explain the regional varation i n the sale o f
Guinness's beer, L y n c h and Vaizey conceptualised the early nineteenth
century economy i n terms o f t w o geographically and economically separate
zones, a commercial market zone i n the East and a subsistence zone i n the
West. This dualistic interpretation o f the agrarian economy was assailed b y
T h e authors wish to thank the Committee for Social Science Research in Ireland for funding the
research from which this paper is drawn. They also wish to thank the following for useful comments
and suggestions: N. Canny, L . Kennedy, C . 6 Grada, T . O'Neill, G . 6 Tuathaigh and T . Varley, the
assistance provided by Seamus McCarthy is also gratefully acknowledged. The authors alone are res­
ponsible for the content.
Lee (1971) who argued that the western subsistence zone was i n fact penetrated
by a cash economy. Johnson (1970) also contended that commercial influences
were widespread at this period and argued that farmers i n the West o f Ireland
derived money incomes from livestock sales, from the domestic linen industry,
from the illicit distillation o f whiskey, and f r o m seasonal harvest w o r k . The
western subsistence zone was also shown to have been incorporated in b o t h
national and international markets i n the growing and harvesting of corn
( C r o t t y , 1966; G i b b o n , 1975); i n the supply o f cheap labour (Collins, 1976;
Cullen, 1967; H a y , 1947; O T u a t h a i g h , 1972) and i n rural based industries, in
particular the linen industry ( A l m q u i s t , 1977).
A serious weakness i n the L y n c h and Vaizey argument and that o f their
opponents is a failure t o provide a precise definition and measurement of
their key concepts, commercial and subsistence. I t is only i n the w o r k o f
O Grada (1975) that one finds any attempt t o systematically use quantitative
data t o measure the extent to w h i c h agriculture i n the West o f Ireland was
commercial or subsistence oriented. Following Nerlove's (1958) model w h i c h
argues that farmers do not respond to all price changes but rather to those
w h i c h are expected t o be permanent, 6 Grada presented measures o f supply
elasticity during three periods, 1850-1879, 1880-1909 and 1897-1926, for
six agricultural commodities, m u t t o n , flax, barley, wheat, oats and eggs.
His conclusion was that Irish agriculture i n the nineteenth century was
" r a t i o n a l l y " organised. I n another study, 6 Grada (1973) compared supply
elasticities for the above products, and for pigs, for five modern and five
" t r a d i t i o n a l " western counties over the period 1848-1878. He argued that
the results indicated a " r a p i d and substantial response to price change and
substantial u n i f o r m i t y [across counties] i n response patterns."
Due to the fact that what actually constitutes subsistence agriculture
is a source o f some disagreement i n the literature, Wharton (1970) systemati­
cally sets o u t various criteria b y w h i c h the level o f subsistence i n agriculture
may be evaluated. One o f these criteria is the "sale o f farm products r a t i o " ,
w h i c h is the fraction o f agricultural p r o d u c t i o n that is sold. I t is an indicator
of the l i k e l y relative importance o f internal and external factors i n influencing
decision making. The greater the dependence o n " o w n p r o d u c t i o n " for sur­
vival, the less the influence changes i n market conditions w i l l have o n the
farmers' decision m a k i n g . I f p r o d u c t i o n is defined as off-farm sales plus
household consumption o f farm p r o d u c t i o n , then a measure o f subsistence/
commercialisation is the ratio of off-farm sales t o off-farm sales plus house­
h o l d consumption o f " o w n p r o d u c t i o n " .
The "sale o f farm products ratio " i n d i c a t o r is used i n this paper t o establish
the actual extent to w h i c h the agricultural economy o f the West o f Ireland
and i n particular the economy o f the smaller land holders was commercial
or subsistence oriented i n the final decade of the nineteenth century. Using
t w o separate methodologies, estimates o f commercialisation ratios were
derived from farms i n selected Poor Law U n i o n s i n the West o f Ireland i n
1 8 9 1 . These t w o methodologies are applied t o data derived from the reports
o f the inspectors o f the Congested Districts B o a r d (hereafter referred t o as
Baseline Reports ( 1 8 9 8 ) ) and published sources, respectively. The results
from the use o f b o t h methodologies are presented and they independently
show that farms i n the West o f Ireland, even the smaller farms o f approximately
£4 valuation, were b y this p e r i o d highly commercialised, w i t h livestock t o
the fore i n c o m m o d i t y p r o d u c t i o n . We contend that the manner i n w h i c h
the data are presented i n this study represents an advance o n earlier dis­
cussions o f the agrarian economy i n the West o f Ireland i n the nineteenth
century, i n so far as for the first time the level o f commercialisation w h i c h
obtained has been quantified.
1 , 2
3
II METHODOLOGY AND D A T A
Each Baseline Report o f the Congested Districts Board include a budget
w h i c h is, i n the view o f the inspector making the report, a fair representation
o f the economic activity o f a t y p i c a l farm family i n a particular class. The
particular class includes only those farmers whose holdings have a rateable
valuation o f approximately £ 4 . The budget and accompanying commentary
enables the degree o f commercialisation i n the congested districts t o be
quanitified. Since, however, there is considerable variation between reports
i n the t y p e and degree o f detail given (Cuddy and C u r t i n , 1983), i t was
necessary to standardise i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h regard t o sales off-farm and house­
h o l d consumption o f o w n p r o d u c t i o n . Where there were reports for one or
more congested district i n a u n i o n , average figures across districts were used
t o represent the level o f commercialisation i n a u n i o n .
Published data were also used to provide independent estimates o f com­
mercialisation levels i n the West o f Ireland i n 1 8 9 1 . Using this m e t h o d ,
estimates were made at Poor Law U n i o n level for all farm sizes (including
those w i t h a rateable valuation o f approximately £ 4 ) . The ratio estimated
4
1. A Poor Law Union which was an administrative unit in 1891 became a District in 1898.
2. See Appendix I for the selection and location of Poor Law Unions.
3. "The original congested districts were Poor Law Electoral Divisions in the Counties Donegal,
Leitrim, Sligo, Roscommon, Mayo, Galway, Kerry and West Cork in which the total rateable value
when divided by the number of the population gave a sum of less than one pound ten shillings for
each individual." (Micks, 1925).
4. However, there is sometimes within this class what is described by the inspector as a family in
"good" or "ordinary" circumstances. Where two budgets are presented by the inspector (which is
rare) a judgement is made as to whether this is the majority or minority circumstance and in all cases
the budget which appears to represent the majority situation is used.
for these data were net sales t o net sales plus household consumption. The net
sales refers o n l y to livestock, that is t o t a l sales o f livestock less livestock
bought i n . Since the ratio o f net sales t o net sales plus household consumption
is mathematically less than the ratio o f sales t o sales plus household con­
s u m p t i o n , this latter ratio, i f i t could be calculated from published data,
w o u l d be greater than the actual ratio calculated.
Because the data published for 1891 were insufficient in themselves t o
enable the commercialisation ratio t o be calculated, published data extending
over the period 1871 t o 1908 were used t o improve o n , or complement, the
1891 data. The data sources were:
(i)
The official volumes o f agricultural statistics for 1 8 7 1 , 1872, 1 8 9 1 ,
1892, and 1908.
(ii) The Census o f 1 8 9 1 .
(iii) The Department o f Agriculture and Technical Instruction's publica­
t i o n , Agricultural Output (1908).
(iv) The p u b l i c a t i o n , Irish Land Commission (Department o f Agriculture)
Prices, 1892-1894 ( V o l u m e 75).
I n order t o derive the basic i n f o r m a t i o n o n net sales and consumption,
several assumptions had t o be made. The more i m p o r t a n t o f these assumptions
are discussed here. ( A more detailed discussion o n these assumptions can be
f o u n d i n Cuddy and C u r t i n ( 1 9 8 1 ) ) .
Since statistics o n acreage o f crops b y farm size are n o t available for 1 8 9 1 ,
the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f farm size was assumed to be the same as i t was i n 1 8 7 1 . A
certain confidence i n this assumption arises from the fact that the number o f
farmers i n each size category remained remarkably stable over the period.
Indeed, i n all b u t one category i n one u n i o n the variation is w i t h i n ± 2V2 per
cent o f 1871/72 figures. The only remaining question then is w i t h regard to
whether there was a differential shift o n the part o f different size farmers
i n t o or away f r o m particular crops. We assumed that there were no differential
shifts.
I t was assumed that 80 per cent o f " g r o w n u p " p o u l t r y were layers. A
laying rate as presented i n the General Report o n Agricultural Prices, 1908,
was applied. M i l k p r o d u c t i o n was assumed to be 400 gallons per cow while
w o o l p r o d u c t i o n was assumed t o be seven pounds per ewe per year. I t was
also assumed that the same q u a n t i t y o f home p r o d u c t i o n was consumed per
family i n 1891 as i n 1908, as calculated from Agricultural O u t p u t , 1908, and
that the needs o f the family were always met first out o f domestic produc­
t i o n , before animal needs were met.
Table 1: Commercialisation
Carrickon Shannon
Boyle
(a)
(b)
0.65
0.64
0.86
0.81
(15-30)
Mo hill
(a)
(b)
0.54
1
(5-15)
Skibbereen
0.77
0.75
0.87
(5-15)
(15-30)
ratios for farms
of approximately
£4 valuation
Castlebar
Dingle
Donegal
0.68
0.77
(15-30)
0.72
0.81
(30-15)
0.49
Skull
0.70
0.84
(15-30)
Sligo
0.72
0.84
(5-15)
0.85
(15-30)
Strokestoivn
0.68
0.78
(5-15)
in selected
Poor Law
Glenamaddy
0.62
0.71
(5-15)
Tubbercurry
0.62
0.82
(15-30)
Unions
in
Kenmare
0.69
0.84
(15-30)
Tuam
0.65
0.73
(5-15)
1891
Millford
0.52
0.79
(15-30)
Westport
0.76
0.81
(15-30)
(a) D e r i v e d f r o m Baseline R e p o r t s .
(b) D e r i v e d f r o m published data.
1. S i z e o f farm with a p p r o x i m a t e l y £ 4 valuation (farms classified b y valuation w e r e m a p p e d into farms classified b y size for this
purpose).
I I I RESULTS
The picture w h i c h emerges is that i f one takes 0.50 as being the level o f
commercialisation at w h i c h , according t o Wharton, farm households move
f r o m being subsistence t o being commercial, then, i n all b u t one o f the
sixteen Unions chosen, farms o f approximately £4 valuation had clearly
become commercialised b y the 1890s (Table 1). The ratios derived f r o m the
Baseline Reports are i n all cases less than those derived f r o m published data.
This is n o t surprising since the Baseline Reports include only farms i n con­
gested districts, whereas the published data refer t o all farms o f £4 valuation.
The high commercialisation ratios were, i n general, strongly influenced
by the extent t o w h i c h farmers were engaged i n livestock p r o d u c t i o n (Table
2). The high ratios i n C o r k and K e r r y were influenced t o a large extent b y
b u t t e r sales. The l o w ratios derived from the Baseline Reports i n b o t h
Donegal Unions are possibly explained by the fact that farmers i n the con­
gested districts i n these Unions were engaged also i n non-agricultural activities.
These included home crafts, fishing and migratory labour. The actual farm
activities o f these households were then more directed towards meeting the
household food needs than in other Unions. The high ratios for these Unions
using the published data w o u l d suggest that these non-agricultural activities
were confined mainly t o the poorer districts o f Donegal.
The commercialisation ratios derived from published data supported the
results obtained from using the Baseline Reports. Indeed, apart from the 1-5
acre size category in a few Unions, the ratios for all other size categories
show that a very high level o f commercialisation had been reached i n all
farm sizes i n all Unions (Table 3). The published data also indicate that the
larger the farm size the higher the level o f commercialisation attained.
I V SUMMARY A N D CONCLUSION
I n this paper the level o f commercialisation o f West o f Ireland agriculture
i n the 1890s was estimated b y applying Wharton's "sale o f farm products
r a t i o " t o sets o f data derived f r o m the Baseline Reports and published
sources. The Baseline Reports enabled the calculation o f commercialisation
ratios for farms o f approximately £4 valuation i n the congested districts o f
16 Poor Law Unions. The results show that these farms, although constituting
the poorer segment o f the c o m m u n i t y were highly commercialised. The
published data allowed us t o broaden the investigation to all farms i n each
U n i o n . These results c o n f i r m those already found using the Baseline Reports
for the farms o f £4 valuation. I n addition, i t was f o u n d that all farms, apart
f r o m the 1-5 acre category, were i n fact quite highly commercialised and
that the larger the farm the greater the degree o f commercialisation.
Table 2: Livestock
Boyle
Carrick-on-
sales as % of total sales on farms
Castlebar
Shannon
of approximately
£4 valuation
in
1891
Dingle
Donegal
Glenamaddy
Kenmare
Millford
.52
.44
.51
.56
.36
Sligo
Stroke'stown
Tubbercurry
7"«am
.54
.60
.56
.46
1
.58
.66
Mo hill
Skibbereen
.80
.36
Source:
Baseline R e p o r t s .
.61
Skull
.48
.58
00
o
T a b l e 3 : Commercialisation
Farm
size
1-5
5-15
15-30
30-50
>50
Boyle
0.63
0.72
0.86
0.93
0.96
Mohill
1-5
5-15
15-30
30-50
>50
Source:
0.39
0.77
0.86
0.92
0.96
Carrickon-Shannon
0.71
0.80
0.87
0.92
0.97
Skibbereen
ratios
Castlebar
0.52
0.67 ,
0.77 .
0.87 ..
0.93
Skull
0.53
0.56
0.74
0.87
0.90
0.94
o:?i
D e r i v e d from published data.
0.84
0.89
0.94
for different
farm sizes in selected
Dingle
0.67
0.82
0.81
0.83
0.91
Sligo
0.66
0.84
0.87
0.89
0.96
Donegal
,
0.48
0.72
0.85
0.87
0.91
Strokestown
0.73
0.78
0.85
0.91
0.97
Poor Law Unions
Glenamaddy
0.57
0.71
0.82
0.91
0.95
Tubbercurry
0.43
0.72
0.82
0.85
0.93
in 1891
Kenmare
Mill ford
0.27
0.68
0.84
. . 0.87
0.91
0.51
0.72
0.79
0.88
0.94
Tuam
Westport
0.83
0.73
0.79
0.89
0.96
0.61
0.78
0.81
0.76
0.91
The results presented i n this paper can bring some light to bear on the
extent to w h i c h a peasant model can usefully be used t o describe and con­
ceptualise the West o f Ireland agrarian economy i n the 1890s. Hannan (1979)
has argued that what he terms "a deviant peasant t y p e system" existed in the
West o f Ireland in the 1920s and 1930s. A m o n g the economic and social
structural aspects o f the peasant model is the feature that "the family farm
produces mainly for its o w n needs and only to a l i m i t e d and circumscribed
extent produces for exchange. Production is geared to meeting 'use values'
rather than maximising exchange values." (Hannan 1979, p . 29). This facet
o f the peasant model seems not to apply i n the West o f Ireland o f the 1890s
where most farm households were involved p r i m a r i l y i n maximising exchange
values. The process o f destruction o f the "natural e c o n o m y " b y the pene­
t r a t i o n o f c o m m o d i t y relations was well under way, aided b y the expansion
o f w o r l d markets, improvements i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n , expansion o f credit
facilities and the government land reform and rural development policies.
The reproduction o f farm households i n the 1890s greatly depended o n
relations o f c o m m o d i t y p r o d u c t i o n and exchange.
Equally, i t w o u l d n o t be accurate to refer t o these same households as
specialised c o m m o d i t y producers. Elsewhere, household producers o f wheat
at this period were according t o Friedman (1978) as specialised i n their
p r o d u c t i o n as were capitalised producers. As Table 2 indicates, the extent o f
specialisation i n a single c o m m o d i t y , i n this case livestock, was not so great.
Irish households were dependent on markets rather than a market. Also,
except for the larger farms, the majority o f households continued t o produce
"use values", agricultural and non-agricultural products for immediate coms u m p t i o n alongside their p r o d u c t i o n o f commodities.
'••
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APPENDIX 1
S E L E C T E D POOR U N I O N S
The Baseline Reports provide i n f o r m a t i o n on 84 congested districts i n
eight western counties. The published data, p r i m a r i l y agricultural statistics,
are available at Poor Law U n i o n level. However, because o f the extent of the
w o r k involved i n m a k i n g the necessary calculations only t w o Unions are
chosen from each o f the eight counties.
Three criteria are used i n choosing unions:
(i)
Unions must contain one or more congested district as listed b y the
Congested Districts Board.
Congested districts very often straddle t w o Unions. I n this case the
U n i o n w h i c h had at least another congested district w i t h i n its boun­
dary is chosen since n o t all Unions had a congested district.
(ii) Subject to ( i ) , Unions w i t h i n a county are chosen i n such a way as t o
reasonably represent the c o u n t y , i.e., as far as possible Unions side
b y side are n o t chosen.
(iii) Some reports contain more detailed and refined i n f o r m a t i o n than
others. A bias is shown towards those Unions whose congested districts
have the most detailed reports.
The data derived f r o m the Baseline Reports are used t o estimate com­
mercialisation ratios for farms o f approximately £4 valuation i n the congested
districts o f the selected Unions. Data derived f r o m published sources are
used t o estimate commercialisation ratios for different farm sizes (including
those o f approximately JE4 valuation) i n each o f the selected Unions. (The
selected Unions and associated congested districts are given i n Figure A l . l
and their geographical location i n Figure A 1 . 2 ) .
Figure A . 1 . 1 : The Congested
County
Cork
Donegal
Galway
Kerry
Leitrim
Mayo
District
in each of the selected
Union
Congested
Skibbereen
Bealanageary, B a l t i m o r e
Skull
Skull
Donegal
Inver, L o u g h E a s k
Millford
Fanad, Rosguill, Garten
Tuam
Lavally, Dunmore
Glenamaddy
G l e n a m a d d y , Castlerea
Dingle
Castlegregory, B r a n d o n
Kenmare
Kenmare, Sneem
Mohill
Mohill
Carrick-on-Shannon
Kilturbrid ,Tumna
Westport
Unions
by
District
Ballycroy, Achill, Newport,
Islandeady, Clare
I s l a n d , L o u i s b u r g h , Aghagower
Roscommon
Castlebar
P o n t o o n , Partry
Boyle
B o y l e , Ballaghadereen
Rooskey
Strokestown
Sligo
Sligo
Tubbercurry
Grange
Tubbercurry
County