Peer-reviewed paper
There’s more to it! The visual art realm of three-year-old
children
Julie Plows
New Zealand Tertiary College
There is more to the visual art processes of young children than
meets the eye. Early childhood education research has revealed
the depth of art experiences for young children. This discussion
traces my study of three-year-old children in which the complexity
of the children’s engagement with resources, their earnest creative
processes and the absolute delight they expressed at the
panorama of life around them was astounding (Plows, 2013).
Predominantly focused on the children, this article explores
selected aspects of the five participants’ visual art experiences.
Documented during the study, these elements were the young
children’s light-hearted narration of events, their intense creativity
and their gestural representation of concepts. An outline of the
research methods used and relevant theoretical perspectives is
provided. This article brings pertinent content knowledge, teaching
strategies and implications for practice into consideration. The
following discussion advocates that responsive educators support
children’s sense of wonder and know the difference between open
and closed art experiences, consolidate professional learning and
practice and endeavour to document children’s visual art making.
Research methods and the analysis of children’s visual art
experiences
This article details aspects from the findings of an investigation into how threeyear-old artists expressed themselves, communicated and explored resources
during visual art making in an early childhood setting. The design of the study
was based on an interpretative, qualitative paradigm. To achieve authenticity,
multiple data collection methods were incorporated and these included gathering
voices from the children, the teachers, the parents and the researcher (Plows,
2013). Digital photography, video and audio recordings were used to document
children’s voices and actions during visual art making. Field notes, a digitally
audio recorded one-hour focus group interview with teachers, a concise
electronic mail (e-mail) questionnaire with parents of the five children and a
researcher’s reflective video diary were also utilised. Thematic analysis and
emergent coding (Eckhoff, 2011) were used to group findings from data into
three categories based on the three-part research question, which investigated
intrapersonal occurrences, interpersonal dialogue and interaction with
resources. A significant dimension of this study was the process of gaining
ethics approval, and this reflects the importance of respecting the rights of
young children (Loveridge, 2010). In accord with recent research, value for the
empowerment of children in this discussion is shown by acknowledging their
processes and perspectives (Carr, 2001; Dalli & Stephenson, 2010; Hedges,
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2001; Jordan, 2004; MacDonald, 2009; Ministry of Education [MoE], 2010;
Richards, 2009; Stephenson, 2009).
Following the discussion on pedagogy, I will bring attention to the way that
children’s natural humour was expressed during visual art learning. The second
element brings the profound creative processes to the fore and, thirdly, the lens
will zoom in on the way children used action representation during art making.
Pedagogy and theoretical perspectives
Pedagogical dichotomies about the teacher’s role in early childhood visual art
education are common (Hill, 2011; Katz, 1998; McArdle, 2003; Plows, 2013;
Probine, 2014; Richards & Terreni, 2013; Visser, 2005; Wrightson & HetaLensen, 2013). Constructivist viewpoints differ from sociocultural and social
constructivist approaches. Furthermore, Richards and Terreni (2013) believe
that a fusion of developmental theories and art world attitudes have caused
mixed messages about what constitutes visual art learning for young children.
Applying sociocultural perspectives to visual art education means that the child’s
context must be considered. Learning occurs via social, cultural and historical
influences (Vygotsky, 1978). Therefore vocabulary used in early childhood
professional discourse and the communication between educators and children
have the potential to enhance children’s visual art education. The sociocultural
paradigm highlights the quality of educators’ interactions with learners during
visual art making experiences. Vygotsky (1978) stated that “every function in the
child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later on,
on the individual level” (p. 57). Academics such as Rogoff have followed social
constructivist theory that is informed by Vygotsky’s cultural-historical ideas (Hill,
2011). Guided participation fosters the realisation of children’s artistic potential.
When implemented with knowledge and awareness, this effective teaching
technique brings scaffolding and guided participation together to benefit the
learning process (Rogoff, Mistry, Goncu, & Mosier, 1993).
A natural sense of humour during art-making processes
Mulcahey (2009) emphasises the role of
imagination in making life enjoyable. Both
imagination and amusement featured
during the children’s art making in my
research. Children demonstrated a sense
of fun and this added to the complexity
and holistic nature of the documentation
(Plows, 2013). Figure 1 captures a
moment part way through drawing on
paper with pastels, when Nessa laughed,
put her hand into the sleeve of the pastels
box, and transformed it imaginatively into
a crocodile (a character featured in
popular children’s games and activities).
Nessa
announced
“Ta
daah!”
dramatically. She followed this with sound
effects “snap, snap, snap”. Nessa
Figure 1. “Ta daah” announced Nessa
(Plows, 2013).
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explained it’s “... a snap thing ... a crocodile … when the crocodiles (are) in the
water... snap, snap, snap”. As the participant researcher nearby, I listened,
joined the conversation and enjoyed the moment. Nessa continued her art
making in a playful way and her extensive vocabulary was expressed conjointly.
Although a playful attitude towards visual art making was, at times, evident, the
word play was not used by children, teachers or myself, as the participant
observer, in association with visual art learning. Interestingly, only the parents of
the participant three-year-olds uttered the word play to describe children’s artmaking at home. For example, one parent explained that she and her threeyear-old son often sit down together at home for art time and play around with
the different materials (Plows, 2013). While it is accepted that young children
learn through play (White, Ellis, O’Malley, Rockel, Stover, & Toso, 2008), the
discourse of visual art education research tends to place more emphasis on art
media and technique than on the role of play.
Fully engrossed in the creative zone
Indeed, young children are perhaps more
sophisticated than adults realise (Mulcahey,
2009; Papandreou, 2014). Young artists expend
intellectual effort as they portray thought
processes
through
visual
art
media
(Papandreou, 2014). The way that three-yearold children engaged deeply with the art
materials and the process to achieve their selfset goals was impressive (Plows, 2013). Clay
and other three-dimensional materials increase
children’s skills as they explore, sculpt and
construct (MoE, 1996). In figure 2, Sam explores
the properties of the clay in several ways. He
rolled it flat, cut through it with a clay utensil and,
at times, enjoyed competently manipulating the
material with his hands.
Figure 2. Sam explored the
properties of the clay using tools
(Plows, 2013).
Fostering dispositions of curiosity and wonder
Curiosity and openness to different
possibilities are known artistic dispositions
(Mulcahey, 2009). Three-year-old Lucia
(see figure 3) demonstrated these
elements when she decided to create a
different creature (Plows, 2013). Lucia’s
delight
shone
through
as
she
contemplated the composition of her
drawing. From her prior knowledge, she
sketched an animal that was an amalgam
of three creatures. It had elephant’s feet,
the head of a hamster and a porcupine’s
tail.
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Figure 3. “This is going to be a different
elephant” narrated Lucia (Plows, 2013).
Similarly, the youngest child in Nevanen, Juvonen, and Ruismäki’s (2014) art
education research was three-years-old. Their study focused on narratives
consisting of historic facts and imagination. An example of one of these
consisted of environment and visual art topics. The techniques included
photography, graphics, water-colour painting, pottery and felting. Young children
bring their unique story to the early childhood setting with them: each of the five
children in my investigation carried prior knowledge and their narratives revealed
the richness and diversity of their lives (Plows, 2013). Binder and Kotsopoulos
(2011) were interested in the way young children created “visual narratives
through the use of personal artifacts” (p. 339). The authors stated that personal
artifacts are representative of the items that children feel are significant. Indeed,
their verbal narratives and their visual stories are both indicative of their
personal thought processes.
According to Wright (2010), aesthetic
appreciation is one of a range of creative
processes.
Children
benefit
from
teachers’ support of their developing
faculties of aesthetic appreciation and
openness to new ideas. During my study,
one child, Ethan, explored the overhead
projector with delight, looking at the
reflections in the front surface mirror and
at the condenser lens. With a sense of
Figure 4. Ethan demonstrated wonder
wonder, he was fascinated by the
and delight (Plows, 2013).
reflective quality of the projector (see
Figure 4). Attributes such as curiosity and reflection are “extremely difficult to
measure but are often observable in children’s responses and behaviours”
(MoE, 1996, p. 30). A curious, contemplative nature was evident as three-yearold Ethan demonstrated appreciation of the visual world around him.
The role of educators is to respond positively and reflect on ways to scaffold the
visual learning. Viewing the world around them and showing curiosity about
what they discover are aspects of children’s visual realm. Children benefit from
teachers who appreciate subtle visual effects because these adults will often
recognise items of interest and bring these objects into the learning
environment. In the Reggio Emilia settings, the teachers’ value for the visual
experiences of children is evident in the layout of the visual arts studio or atelier
(Edwards, Gandini, & Forman, 1993). Imagination, experimentation, creativity
and expression interweave in the learning process, according to Vecchi (2010).
Action representation in art-making
When children use gestural or action representation the process of making art is
foregrounded and the product becomes secondary (Cox, 2005; Ring, 2006;
Wright, 2010). Consideration of movement during visual art is important because
it assists the observer to appreciate the meaning behind children’s art making,
according to Ring (2006). A paintbrush may become the speeding car as the
child races it across the page, symbolising the action of the subject. Ring (2006)
states that the marks children make on paper may represent the movements
and sounds of themselves or objects. In this way, children invest drawing
materials with the capacity to embody themselves (Wright, 2010). While creating
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a three-dimensional artefact with found objects, Ethan emulated the racing car
he was making by zooming the cardboard tube through the air (Plows, 2013).
Excerpt from transcript: Ethan moved the cardboard tube through the air, saying,
“it goes… vroosh.”
Gestural expressiveness highlights the process of art making. However, value
for the art product can be seen when permanent artefacts serve as a means for
children to use their faculty of recall and to express their developing working
theories (MoE, 1996; Papandreou, 2014).
Visual art in society
Infants, toddlers and young children benefit from an introduction to visual art
history through appropriate learning experiences (Kolbe, 2004; Mulcahey, 2009).
European art education examples are often referred to in international literature.
In one example, Mulcahey (2009) explains how she showed young children one
of Jean Arp’s abstract paintings and one child’s interpretation was that it looked
like an octopus. When early childhood teachers are knowledgeable about the
history of visual art, they will feel more confident about discussing artefacts with
children. For example, a teacher could support young children’s interest in
drawing animals by bringing in a digital print of an artist’s work, such as Franz
Marc’s Blue Horses. Kolbe (2004) suggests that Durer’s Young Hare watercolour may be of interest to children. Local culture should be considered and
early childhood teachers could source appropriate carved, painted or threedimensional artefacts that are valued by the local community. For example,
Tongan designs on tapa (ngatu) might include the image of a turtle and such
images might be sourced in books on Tongan art traditions, photographs or from
artefacts made by people in the local community. Local museums are excellent
places for local urban early childhood educators to further research visual art
history. In my experience, there are many ways that thoughtful educators can
bring visual art artefacts of cultural and historical interest into an early childhood
setting.
Innovation versus imitation
In the same way that letter awareness
enables word formation and eventually
creative writing, visual art techniques
and media are part of the ‘alphabet’ of
visual art learning. For example, paint is
a medium and there are multiple
variations of how paint can be applied to
a surface. Charcoal is another art
medium and Figure 5 illustrates the way
that Joshua smudged the charcoal onto
the page, a technique learnt from his
observation of peers and educators. As
with every other child’s drawing in that
context, Joshua’s was unique. In
addition to knowing about a range of
techniques and media, teachers with an
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Figure 5. Joshua used a smudging
technique as he drew with charcoal (Plows,
2013).
awareness of closed and open-ended approaches can purposefully initiate or
respond to art experiences. An example of a closed approach to art is a
colouring-in template. Although children may enjoy colouring-in, the template is
fixed, which limits the imagination. The template concept is the antithesis of
uniqueness and innovation. This is in stark contrast to the rich, open-ended art
experiences that Mulcahey (2009) and Thompson (2005) describe.
Closed template-like experiences are limiting due to the lack of range and
possibility. As a youngster, I attended guitar lessons and I will never forget the
folksong titled Little Boxes (Reynolds, 1962). Reynolds sang “Little boxes, little
boxes, little boxes all the same.” In the lyrics of that song, there was a disdain
for things being identical. As a child of that era, I was influenced by the popular
views of the 1960’s and 1970’s. Like many other educators, I saw templates as
representations of imitation and a lack of freedom. Conversely, an open-ended
approach to art brings creative variation and promotes imaginative thinking.
Mulcahey (2009) believes that early childhood professionals with some visual art
content knowledge will have more confidence in guiding children towards rich art
experiences. A recent research by Probine (2014) sought an understanding of
how teacher knowledge and practice affects children’s learning in the visual arts.
It is time for experienced visual artists, early childhood teachers and researchers
to share their visual art knowledge with colleagues for the purpose of improving
responsiveness to the art realm of children and to increase the depth of
professional discussion. This will also enable complex analysis of children’s art
learning and widen the scope of planning.
Concluding thoughts about implications for practice
This discussion highlighted the impressive artistic capabilities, intellectual
competence, observation skills and enthusiasm of young children (Mulcahey,
2009; Papandreou, 2014; Plows, 2013). The sense of playfulness, depth of
creative process and communication through movement were indicative of
children’s range of abilities. My investigation involving five participant children,
their teachers and their parents revealed that the careful observation and
documentation of young children’s art making is the first step for early childhood
professionals in the sector. This includes empowering children by listening to
their ideas and recording their voices to understand the prior knowledge they
bring from their home setting. Aesthetic appreciation and artistic processes are
important and early childhood teachers have a role in mindfully supporting and
guiding children’s visual art experiences. When analysing children’s learning and
conducting self-review, educators will benefit from collaborative discussions with
colleagues and parents. Visual art content knowledge can be extended through
professional development or consolidated within the teaching team through
sharing effective visual art ideas, techniques and experiences. Additionally,
teachers will benefit from taking time to extend their knowledge of visual art in
society by researching visual artefacts from their context. There is space for
both delight and earnest artistic endeavour in rich early childhood visual art
education experiences. Educators are encouraged to stop and look anew at
children’s visual art making with a sense of wonder and openness to seek to
appreciate children’s outlook on the panorama of the world around them. Finally,
it is important to wait and listen to children’s voices, in case they choose to
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share an accompanying narrative – there is more to young children’s artistic
processes than first meets the eye.
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