Psychology 30 Unit 3: What is the
Developmental Process
during Infancy?
3.0 Unit Overview
The Infancy Stage: Birth – 2 years. The infancy stage
begins from birth to two
years old. Depending on whether you have a lot of
contact with young
children in this age of development, you may know a lot
or very little about
the realities of infants.
Pre-Unit Self Assessment
Consider: How far back can you remember?
Can you remember farther back into the infancy stage of up
to two years old?
Before going through the topics of the unit, consider what you believe you already know about
the topic.
K: Write at least 5 things you KNOW about the topic.
W: Write down at least 5 questions you have about the topic.
L: After the unit, you will write down at least 5 things you learned related to the topic.
Topic: Infant Development (From Birth – 2 years)
K
Know
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W
Want to Know
L
Learned
3.1 Unit Overview
How better to begin a unit on babies than to watch a movie about a baby boy who is born a
crack cocaine addict? In the last unit, we looked at the social environment of mothers who are
pregnant with poor surroundings and influences like drugs and alcohol will have potentially
long-term effects on the baby whereas a healthy environment for the mother will help her
develop a strong, healthy baby.
The question for those babies born from unhealthy environments is how much should you do
to improve the potential of that infant?
The movie Losing Isaiah is about two women who come from opposite social environments:
 One is white, middle class, educated, emotionally stable with a family and friends for
support
 The other is black, poor, uneducated, has no relatives or home – her only focus on a
daily basis is to get her next “fix”. She unfortunately, has just given birth to a baby
however.
While it is clear that, regardless of colour, the woman with
the most social/family support, education and professional
abilities will offer the baby the greatest opportunities in life.
How important is it for the child that s/he be raised by a white
or black mother? The question is not simple, but a moral
question with a different answer for every individual.
Before watching the movie, read through the questions
so you are aware of what to pay close attention to. After watching, answer the questions on
your own, individually without discussing them with others. Submit your questions for marks.
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Viewing Questions:
Name: ______________________
Characters:
Charles and Margaret: adoptive parents
Khaila: birth mother
Isaiah:
Respond to the following questions using thorough answers. Give examples when possible.
This assignment is out of 32 marks.
1. Explain how Isaiah and his mother are both victims of their environments. (2 marks)
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2. List aspects of Isaiah’s “systems of support”: (2 marks)
At Birth
After Adoption
Microsystem
Microsystem
Exosystem
Exosystem
Macrosystem
Macrosystem
3. What is the significance of Khaila’s relationship with her roommate’s son? (2 marks)
4. Describe the difference between the birth mother and adoptive mother’s background.
Be as detailed as possible using what you may infer from the film. (2 marks)
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5. Describe the conflict over the issue of “race” as it is brought up in the court trial. (2
marks)
6. List aspects of Khaila’s “systems of support”: (2 marks)
At Delivery
Microsystem
After Jail
Microsystem
Exosystem
Exosystem
Macrosystem
Macrosystem
7. Explain whether or not you would have returned Isaiah to his birth mother as the judge
does. Support your answer with 3 reasons. (2 marks)
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8.
Explain whether you believe affluent (wealthy) people are more able to provide opportunity for
proper development of a child. Explain your answer. (2 marks)
9. Poor people are more likely to be surrounded by abusers of alcohol and drugs and tend to be
more exposed to physical and sexual abuse. Should facts like this play a part in determining
where a child should be placed? (2 marks)
10. Several descriptions were given throughout the movie about common behaviours/issues of
“crack babies”. Describe three behaviours you noticed in Isaiah. (2 marks)
11. Without certain supports, Khaila would not have been able to improve the environment to raise
Isaiah in. Describe the 3 most significant supports that make the difference for her. (2 marks)
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12. Several people in Saskatchewan exist in similar circumstance as Halle Berry’s chacter does in this
movie. What is one thing that you think should be done for these individuals that would
improve their lives? Explain your answer. (2 marks)
13. What level in the systems of support do hospitals, ER doctors, and social workers fall under?
Describe how Isaiah’s life may have been difference if he had been found and cared for in a
country with different politics. (2 marks)
14. Paragraph Response: (6 marks)
Consider the influence of your own systems of support, and journal about its influence on you –
has your development benefited or been held back by the social environment you’ve existed in?
Give at least 2 examples to support your response.
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3.2 Overview of Developments
With your understanding of concepts like Nature
and Nurture influences, you should be able to
anticipate some of the areas we will learn about for
the Infancy stage of development.
In Particular, we will cover:
1. Nature and Nurture as it relates to this stage
2. The concept that age not equal development
3. Physical, Cognitive and Emotional changes
(PCE)
Use the image below to describe features of
Physical, Cognitive, Emotional chances that you
expect will develop for an infant.
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3.3 Documentary: My
Fake Baby
Babies are fawned over all over the world. From
baby animals to baby humans, they draw universal
reactions of appreciation and joy. Some Evolutionary
Psychologists believe there are particular aspects of
newborn faces that have a protection type of function
– large eyes and little pink lips mesmerize those around
them and protect them from harm. Either way, newborns
are a fascination and draw people in. Unfortunately, they
grow out of it.
But what if they didn’t have to?
What if you could have a newborn that would never grow, never chance, and always remain
their adorable self? Would you want one?
http://www.veoh.com/watch/v15565477Tt8Gmz96?h1=My+Fake+Baby+%5BPart+1%5D
http://www.veoh.com/watch/v15565479PD7gNBmF?h1=My+Fake+Baby+%5BPart+2%5D
For the women in this documentary, the answer is “Yes!” Their babies are called “reborns”.
Activity: While watching, try to come up with reasons why this behaviour (fixation and doting
on an infant that seems real but is fake) may be both positive and negative for these women.
Positive Aspects of Behaviour
Negative Aspects of Behaviour
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3.4 Physical
Development
In the Prenatal Stage, physical development of the embryo
and fetus under a great deal of visual changes. It starts as
one form and becomes quite another. For the physical
development of the Infancy stage, though, the visual
changes are mostly centered around “growth”.
Aspects to focus on in this section are:
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Innate abilities of infants at birth
Three primary reflexes and their functions
Names and descriptions of general reflexes
Importance of nutrition and trends of infant growth – what impact does it have on
physical growth?
Physical development milestones – baby activities per month
What are the three areas of measurement doctors check during initial checkups?
Describe 5 developments or new abilities of infants during the first year.
Vocabulary:
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Universal – affects the whole world
Innate – essential characteristic that you are born with
Synapse – gap where a nerve impulse passes
Neurons – send signals to other cells
Reflex – involuntary actions or responses
Cephalocaudal trend – head grows faster than the body. 5 mths.
Proximaldistal trend – limbs grow faster than your torso
Habituation/dishabituation – A. decrease in behavior due to a stimulus
B. Restoring the behavior
Gross vs. fine motor skills
A. Large muscles
B. Small muscles
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Videos:
Infant reflexes: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rjnQhno3LA4
Primary reflexes: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gyVLD0hl0XY
Time Lapse: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=js2UQJra1b8
Infancy Child Physical Development: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uhbeakhJi2U
A. Innate Capacities of a Newborn:
Newborns have natural, instinctual abilities that are present at birth.
One of these innate abilities are reflexes:
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A reflex is an involuntary muscle reaction to specific stimulation.
It causes specific muscular responses.
The presence and strength of reflexes in newborns are a sign of
neurological development and health
Some reflexes disappear with age, while others remain throughout
adulthood, such as sneezing and hiccups.
Infant reflexes that do not disappear indicate brain damage
1. Primary Reflexes:
Newborns have dozens of reflexes, but three sets of reflexes are critical for survival and
become stronger as the baby matures.
a) Reflexes that maintain oxygen supply:
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The breathing reflex begins in normal newborns, even before the umbilical cord (their
supply of oxygen) is cut.
Additional reflexes that maintain oxygen are reflexive hiccups, sneezes, and thrashing to
escape something covering their face
b) Reflexes that maintain constant body temperature:
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When newborns are cold, they cry, shiver and tuck their legs
close to their bodies
When they are hot, they try to push away blankets and then stay still
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c) Reflexes that manage feeding:
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The sucking reflex, the rooting reflex, swallowing reflex and the spitting up reflex are
all reflex actions that assist in getting nutrition
2. Reflexes to Describe:
Watch the videos and write a description about each reflex.
1. Moro: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ur0UcdJ8sR0
If the head is unsupported, but the body is lifted, arms will reach out and palms will try
to grasp.
2. Grasping: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OUV_XfSk1RM
Touch palm of baby’s hand, fingers will curl and grasp.
3. Toe Curling:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Ch48Sg9mVE
If the baby’s foot is stimulated, the baby’s toes will
spread and curl.
4. Sucking: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HQxZfSRd7H8
Deals with mouth movement and suction.
5. Rooting http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BRulwcteCIE&feature=related
If the baby’s cheek is brushed, it will turn it’s face in anticipation to suck.
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3.5 Cognitive Development
The most important development of infants is cognitive
development. Infants may put on weight and grow in length,
But if they do not have normal brain and spinal cord function, they will not mature properly.
Initially, a baby brain work so differently from an adult brain. A baby’s brain is more capable in
some ways, but loses these abilities with time. In other ways, a baby’s brain has innate abilities
to communicate right from birth.
Note: There are two aspects of cognitive development that are essential for you to
understand.
1. Development progresses with the maturity of the infant along with experience. While
one infant may be able to crawl at 8 months, another may be crawling at 7 months 1
week.
2. The brain doesn’t develop all at once. With all of the parts functionally fully at the
same rate, some parts of the brain mature before others. So, babies may see objects
and understand what they are, (visual part of brain), but will not have the coordination
to pick it up with their fingers (coordination and nervous system control gross motor
skills).
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Aspects of this section to focus on:
1. Newborns are born with some senses developed already, while others are still maturing.
Explain and give evidence.
2. Perception abilities (to sense surroundings) develop at different rates. Give evidence to
support this.
3. Babies are born with great brain capabilities, but by 9 months they begin to lose these
abilities if they are not necessary or used. Examples and evidence?
4. Activities of infants exist in six stages of alertness. Memorize these stages.
5. Psychologist Jean Piaget created categories and descriptions of universal stages of
cognitive development that became developed with maturity and experience. What are
the stages and abilities of each?
6. Explain whether cognitive abilities may develop without maturation and experience. Or
explain whether development may happen with maturity but not experience.
7. There are humorous but uncommon errors and abilities of infants based on their
cognitive stage and maturity. Explain what about the development of their brain allows
for these errors to occur.
8. Babies come out of the womb communicating immediately after birth. Their cry is their
method of communication for some time. What are the next several methods of
communicating needs?
9. Why is it possible for babies to sign meaning before they can verbalize or speak?
10. Describe two scientific experiments used to learn about cognitive abilities of babies.
Vocabulary Includes:
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Development
Maturity
Cognitive aspects
Perception
Jean Piaget
Universal errors
Non verbal communication
Holphrastic words
Babies are considered mini-scientists: Right from birth, they
learn because they are interested in their surroundings.
A famous Child Psychologist, Jean Piaget, described infants as
“cognitive aliens”, meaning much of their thinking is so
different from ours that they might as well come from another
planet.
A famous Child Psychologist, Jean Piaget, described infants as
“cognitive aliens”, meaning much of their thinking is so
different from ours that they might as well come from another
planet.
Cognitive errors like “scale error” and the common
habit of putting t-shirts on backwards are examples
of this. Young children learn through play instead
of instruction, since adults can’t think like
them.
Reminder: Cognitive Aspects of Development
include…
Attention
Sensation
Memory
Perception
Thinking
Learning Language
Newborn Senses
1. Senses: some newborn senses develop even before birth and mature after delivery.
Hearing
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Begins before birth
Matures after birth
Prefers frequency of human voice to other
sounds.
Touch/Taste/Smell
Matures at birth
Prefer sweet tastes.
Vision
Begins before birth
Matures after birth
At birth, can see 8 – 12 inches
At 2 mths, can track objects as they move
At 2 – 4 mths, colour vision develops
Preference for faces over abstracts, curves and
shapes
Inner Ear Senses
Matures after birth
Infant responds to balance or lack of balance;
rocks body.
Da/Ba Experiment: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ew5-xbc1HMk
2. Perception
As the different areas of the brain develop, infants are capable of greater perception
to interact with their surroundings.
Newborns can see and may be able to differentiate red and white but an adult-like
colour system does not appear until two months of age.
Infants 2 days old looked longer at patterned stimuli such as faces, than singlecoloured discs.
All three perceptual constancies are present at 3 months: size, shape, brightness.
Infants by 6 months have depth perception.
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3. Baby Synapses:
The infant brain works quite differently from an adult brain. While adult brains have learned to
filter out a lot of stimulus from the surrounding environment, infant brains take it all in.
Evidence suggests baby brains are more perceptive right after birth, but slowly learn
what information of the environment is unimportant and they begin discarding aspects
of their perceptual environments.
Note: As noted before, development of baby perceptions does not come with certain
ages, it comes with maturation. Each baby matures at different rates, so their cognitive
abilities do not develop with rigid ages (month/days).
Examples:
1) Perfect Pitch as Babies:
2) Recognizing Different Faces of Animals:
4. Six Stages of Alertness:
From birth, infants display six stages of consciousness – awake and asleep and a few inbetween stages.
These stages are universal – they apply to all infants
worldwide.
1) Active Crying
2) Active Sleeping
3) Drowsy Walking
4) Fussing
5) Quiet Alert
6) Quiet Sleep
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5. Jean Piaget’s Six Stages of Cognitive
Development
The Psychologist studied children and found that
there were universal stages of mental
development that each infant goes through, in a
particular order. The length of the stages is not
“set” but a range of ages that commonly display
these abilities.
Piaget believed babies move through these stages of intellectual progression because of their
constant struggle to make sense of our experiences.
Children are active thinkers, constantly trying to construct more advanced understanding.
They use the scientific method, in a very informal way. They test behaviours and watch for
responses.
Each stage is characterized by a different way of understanding the world.
Stage /Age /Characteristics
1. Birth – 1 month Reflexes – sucking, grasping, staring, listening
2. 1 – 4 months Acquired adaptations – assimilation and coordinating reflexes
3. 4 – 8 months Awareness of things – responding to people / objects
4. 8 – 12 months New adaptation and anticipation
5. 12 – 18 months Active experimentation
6. 18 – 24 months Mental combinations – considering before acting
6. Universal Errors / Abilities:
As all these perception / awareness stages are universal, infants make common
mistakes regardless of their culture, race, upbringing, etc.
Errors:
Parts of infant brains develop their functions sooner than others. At times, then,
parts of the brain will be in competition with each other to make
“understanding”.
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i. Example: “Scale Error”
Visual recognition develops quickly – it allows for recognition of objects
and categorizing them to understand the object’s function.
Perception develops more slowly, though, so while a child may
recognize a toy’s function as being a car you ride in, their perception
doesn’t recognize that the toy is too small for their own body.
This is common for infants 18 – 30 months old
They will try to slide down mini-slides, squeeze into tiny cars, or sit
inside dollhouses.
ii. Example: “Backward T-shirts”
 Children put shirts on backwards 50% of the time
 They arrange the shirt so the front is nearest to the front of their body
before putting it on. The result is that the logo on the front of the shirt
is at their back.
 They recognize the “front” of the shirt, but don’t perceive how their
front faces a different direction.
iii. Example: Putting on someone’s shoes for them
 It is common for kids to play with adult things, like their shoes. They will
often try to put someone’s shoes on for them.
 They begin by lining the fronts of the shoes up against the front of
mom’s feet, because they visually recognize that is where the “toes”
should go.
 Their brain hasn’t developed enough to understand or perceive the
method of how toes slip into a shoe from behind.
Abilities:
i. Categorization:
 Infants below 6 months can categorize objects on the basis of their shape,
colour, angularity, location (above or below) density, relative size, and number (up to three).
Experience is key since infants can categorize in more and more complex ways
as they mature.
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ii. Object and Perceptual Constancy:
 This is the realization that things remain what they are despite changes in the perspective of the
viewer or the appearance of the object.
 Vision is the least developed sense at birth, but at 3 months infants are able to distinguish the
boundary of separate 3-D objects.
 This ability also works when objects are in motion.
 Infants can also detect that the shape / size of the object remains the same despite apparent
changes by location.
iii. Object Permanence:
 This is the ability to understand that objects / people exist independently of
your perception of them. (They exist even if you cannot see them.)
 Objects do not cease to exist just because they are not immediately available.
 An infant’s ability to understand and anticipate events and to act
effectively in the world is based on an awareness of cause and effect.
 This cause and effect is crucial to problem solving abilities.
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iv. Memory:
 This is central to all cognitive abilities.
 In the first 6 months, babies have difficulty storing new memories, because the
hippocampus (long-term memory and spatial awareness) is still developing.
They can remember so long as:
1. It is regarding real life
2. Their motivation is high
3. There is a reminder (something associates and connects them to the
memory)
7. Learning to Speak / Understand Language:
 Crying is vital for communication for infants – it’s their innate method of
communication.
 Mothers can tell their own baby’s cry by day three.
 In one month, parents have learned if a cry is for hunger, pain, or anger.
 In the first three months, 1 – 3 hours of crying is normal per day.
 3 + hours crying per day = colic infants (degree of colic differs)
 Almost every infant is colic at some point through development
 Excessive crying may be indicative of child abuse (fractures, bruises causing pain)
 Babies read body language and facial expressions of others. These methods of nonverbal communication are universal and innately understood by infants.
Example: The Still Face Experiment
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=apzXGEbZht0
 Another development of communication is Baby Sign Language.
 As explained earlier, the infant brain areas develop in different stages. Recognition comes
before perception, for example. Because of this, a baby may recognize an object they
want / need but be unable to communicate it verbally. If they learn to associate a
gesture to represent that object, they may communicate it and have their need satisfied.
 What is your response to Baby Sign Language, after watching the videos?
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There are universal stages of language development:
 6 – 9 m Developed babbling
 6 – 9 m First words understood
 Age 2 Growth of receptive language ( 300 or more words)
 Age 2 Growth of spoken language ( 200 -275 words)
First words are Holophrastic
Holophrastic: A single word used to imply a complete sentence.
Milk can mean: “I want some milk” or “I spilt my milk”.
 18 – 24 m Infants speak in two – word utterances
Includes possible combinations like:
Agent + action
mommy give, daddy come
Action + object
give milk, open door
Action + location
sit there, fall floor
Possessor + possession
my mommy, baby bed
Videos:
1. Newborn Senses: Visual Tracking
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cCFzqcje838
2. Perception: Habituation
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kfu0FAAu-10
3. Baby Synapses: Synapses,
Recognizing Different Face, Perfect
Pitch
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8J-JflThHks
4. Stages of Alertness
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GK3ebhSmC4A
5. Piaget's Sages of Cognitive
Development
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TRF27F2bn-A
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k-rWB1jOt9s
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6. Errors and Abilities: Scale Error,
Categorization, Object Constancy,
Perceptual Constancy, Object
Permanence
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OtngSHtz-cc
7. Language: Still Face Experiment,
Sign with Baby
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=apzXGEbZht0
3.6 Emotional Development
A new infant will physically develop if the necessary
nutrients are provided. Their brain and nervous system
will develop, depending on the type of stimulation of senses
they get and exposure to experiences. Their emotional development, though, may be the
most essential element of development of the three – a baby without healthy emotional
development may fall behind in their development of the physical and cognitive aspects, so
being sure your baby is emotionally happy and secure is a primary importance for parents.
Areas that will be covered:
 What emotions actually are and how they affect behavior
 Aspects of living that are included with the emotional development category
 Roles parents play and its benefits
 Psychology perspectives on the purpose of play
 How the brain is involved in developing emotional reactions to experiences
Question: If people cannot hold memories of experiences before the age of three, how
important is protecting the emotional environment of an infant? Explain your response?
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Infant emotional development from 1 – 4 years is often overlooked, but it is the basis for
future emotional development and behaviour.
Emotions are:
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The way for the body to express positive/negative experiences
The thing that determines whether the infant/child will be motivated to repeat the
behaviour or not
Socializing:
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Some theorists believe the socializing skills developed during infancy are the basis for all
development in the lifespan
Socializing influences :
o Social skills
o Emotions
o Self awareness
o Language development
o Attachment
o Trust
o Autonomy (independence)
o Temperament
o Personality traits
1. Parent Support: In order to help their infant develop emotionally, parents need
to fulfill certain needs.
a. Develop a secure attachment with the infant:
 Infants need warmth/support of one or more caregivers
 The caregiver should be sensitive of the infant’s signals and respond
in a nurturing manner
b. Be sure that both the mother and the father nurture the infant:
 Infants develop best when the mother and father provide the support
 Fathers need to evaluate their responsibilities in raising a competent
infant
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c. Select competent daycare:
 If the infant will be in daycare, evaluate the options carefully
 Be sure the infant – caregiver ratio is low
 Assess whether the adults know how to interact with infants
 Determine if the facility is safe and provides stimulating activities
d. Understand and respect the infant’s temperament:
 Be sensitive to the individual characteristics of each child
 Provide extra support for distress – prone infants
 Avoid negative labeling of a child
e. Adapt the developmental changes in the infant:
 An 18m toddler is very different from a 6m old
 Be knowledgable of how infants develop and adapt
 Let toddlers explore a wide, but safe environment
f. Be physically and mentally healthy:
 Infant emotional development benefits when their caregivers are
mentally and physically healthy
 A distressed parent may not respond sensitively to the infant’s signals
2. Play develops emotional aspects
The benefits of play are: (please list)
3. Birth order contributes to emotional development by: (please list)
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4. Each Psychology Theory has different perspectives on the benefits of play. If
you recall, the different theories in psychology are different beliefs in the causes
of behaviour.
a. Psychodynamic Psychologists (Freud/Erickson) believe:
b. Cognitive Psychologists (Piaget) believe:
c. Humanistic Psychologist (Vygotsky) believe:
d. Evolutionary Psychologists (Daniel Berlyne) believe:
5. The Brain Connection:
 All experiences are measured by the brain which then:
o Determines whether the experience is important/positive or
negative
o The brain then stores the memory for future reference
o “Saved memories” are used as reference by babies to determine
further emotional responses
o This contributes to the a baby’s sense of self and worth
Videos:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=6CE9Zcbd1Hw
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-LkCY6nE0FE&feature=player_embedded
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=kIHNzOQynmQ
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ikTxfIDYx6Q&feature=player_embedded
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3.61a. Gender Puzzle
Part 1: 10 mins
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I7S3xqHKbjU&feature=player_embedded
Part 2: 10 mins
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uTEVYys136w&feature=player_embedded
Part 3: 10 mins
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hGWbs183GN8&feature=player_embedded
Part 4: 10 mins
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9JEr8DUB6Rc&feature=player_embedded
Part 5: 10 mins
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rhFV9_33IZI&feature=player_embedded
Please jot down any notes below:
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3.61b. Gender Conditioning Tomboy or Sissy?
In the Prenatal unit, it was explained that a fetus begins as female and
then with the release of testosterone and absorption of that hormone
becomes male. This is nature’s work in determining gender. It is not the
only determining factor, though.
Parents also unknowingly play a large role in a child’s adoption of genderspecific behavior. Because parents understand and follow gender roles in
society, they impose them on the newborn and so continues the behaviors
of males and females that differ. These influences are from Nurture.
In the following video, Tomboys and Sissy’s, researchers explore both Nature and Nurture
influences to determine exactly some of the ways infants develop an understanding of genders.
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Tomboy’s and Sissy’s Questions
Name: ________________________________
While watching, look for answers for the following questions:
1. Two babies of different ages are placed in front of a split screen with a woman and man
both moving their mouths, but only the older baby knows which adult to associate the
sound of voice to. Why is this?
2. There are several known behaviours that differ between genders that are unassociated
with physical differences. Describe these.
3. Describe the experiment performed to test how parents unknowingly impose gender
behavior in their methods to nurture crying babies.
4. There are some differences between the physical brain of men and women. Describe
this difference and how it affects their different ways of doing things like, reading a
map.
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5. Describe the “Loud Bethoven” experiment. What does it prove is different cognitively
between males and females in general?
6. Describe why the length of someone’s finger may indicate whether they are more of a
tomboy or sissy?
7. Why do men and women draw bicycles differently? (Hint: It’s related to the way male
and female brains process information.)
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Article: Why are boys turning into girls?
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthcomment/geoffrey-lean/6418553/Why-boys-areturning-into-girls.html
It is not just the parents that are part of the nurture aspect of gender. Having learned more of
the influencing factors related to male or female behavior, list aspects of gender that are
influenced by Nature and Nurture.
Nature
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Nurture
3.6.2 Theories on Play
Watching children play without any Psychological background,
you may just assume play is simple entertainment. From a
Psychology perspective, though, play has a great many benefits,
from helping to stimulate the senses and develop brain
functions to help coordinate fine and gross motor skills. Children
have a tendency to move towards more challenging types of
games as they get older and always look for the most engaging
and stimulating type of game or toy.
In this section of Infancy Development, you will learn about:





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The 6 stages of play children progress through as they get older
Four described functions or types of play that help promote different
parts of their cognitive and emotional development
Give an educated guess as to who a child would prefer to play with at a
certain age
Look at a list of child play activities, and identify which type of play
category it falls into
Going back to your 3.6.0 Emotional Development Handout, define play
and describe some benefits of it
1. Classifications of Children’s Play: Social Aspects
Mildred Parten (1932) classified the types of play children naturally exhibit
a. Unoccupied Play
 The child is not engaging in play
 They stand in one spot, look around, perform
random movements, but there is no goal to their
behavior
b. Solitary Play
 The child plays alone and independently of others
 This is more frequently exhibited by 2 – 3 year olds, rather than older
children
c. Onlooker Play
 The child watchers other children play
 Their active interest in the play of others distinguishes this as being different
form unoccupied play
d. Parallel Play
 The child plays separately from others but with similar toys others are using
in a similar manner
e. Associative Play
 Play involved social interaction with little
or no organization
 In this type of play, children seem more interested
in each other that the task they are performing
f. Cooperative Play
 This involved social interaction in a group with a sense of group identity and
organized activity
 Cooperative play is seen in the preschool years
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2. Contemporary Perspectives of Play – Cognitive and Social Aspects
a. Sensoriomotor Play
 The behavior of infants is derived from pleasure from exercising their
sensorimotor schemas (their categories of stored knowledge)
 Infants initially engage in exploratory and playful visual and motor
transactions in the second quarter of the 1st year of life (6 – 9 mths)
 By 9 months, infants begin to choose novel objects for exploration and play,
especially responsive toys (with noises, bouncing etc)
 By 12 months, infants enjoy making things work and explore cause and effect
 Infant children like toys that perform when they act upon them\
b. Pretense/Symbolic Play
 Between 9-30 months, children increase their use of objects in symbolic play
 They learn to transform objects, substituting them for objects and acting
toward them as if they were the other object
 Dramatic play or “make believe” often appears at 18 months and reaches a
peak at about 4-5 years, then declines
 With 2 year olds, infants begin to understand the social meaning of objects
 2 year olds may distinguish between exploratory play that is interesting but
not humourous and “playful” play that has incongruous/humerous
dimensions
c. Social Play
 This is play that involves social interaction with peers
 Helps establish rules of relationship and interacting
 Learn rrules for: give and take, reciprocity, cooperation, sharing, moral
reasoning, developing values, etc
d. Constructive Play
 This combines sensorimotor/practice repetitive play with symbolic
representation of ideas
 Constructive play occurs when children engage in self-regulated creation or
construction of a product or a problem solution
 This is the manipulation of objects for the purpose of constructing/creating
something
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
Using material to achieve a goal requiring the transformation of objects into
a new configuration, like lego made into a block
Website: http://www.kidspsych.org/index2.html
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nhF6E7zHqWI&feature=player_embedded
3.6.2 Assignment: Photo
Search/Analysis
Early childhood development includes all the categories
Of play and ideally creates opportunities for the six
Groupings of play. This may be seen in Kindergarten class,
where there are numerous options to stimulate a child’s
imagination and creative desires.
In your own schools, follow the instructions of this
Assignment to search out examples of these types and
categories of play. Using a camera, take a photo of each
example you find to support the necessary parts of the assignment. The second part of the
assignment is for you to explain how each chosen item fits the type of category you designate.
The choices and photos will be worth 7 marks and the explanation of choices will be worth an
extra 7.
The third part is hopefully going to be fun for you – either take photos of kids playing in the
different groups of play or ask friends to help stage these groups to take a photo of each type.
See how creative you can get!
It is likely that you may follow other friends around the room to take the same photos, but try
your best to find the most unique examples of play activities. You should hopefully enjoy this
walk down memory lane, as well, since you will recognize aspects of a Kindergarten room that
you have likely forgotten.
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Name: _____________________________
/20 marks
Using a camera, search through the Kindergarten room at WAS to find toys, games or activities
that fit into the different categories play.
There are two parts to this activity: First – Do the search and identify on the page what your
answer is and give an explanation for how your choice suits that category. Second – take a
photo of each item/answer to print and submit with your assignment sheet.
Scavenger Hunt Items
Description of Item/Photo
(0.5 x 14 = 7 marks)
Explanation of Choice – How
does your selection fit the
category? (0.5 x 14 = 7 marks)
1. Find an activity
designed for solitary
play.
1)

2. Find an activity
designed for group
play.
2)

3. Find three
activities/toys/product
designed for
sensoriomotor play .
3)

4)

5)
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
4. Find three activities
/toys/product
designed for symbolic
play.
5. Find three activities
/toys/product
designed for social
play.
6)

7)

8)

9)

10)

11)

6. Find three activities
/toys/product
designed for
constructive play.
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12)

13)

14)

7. Photograph each of
the following six types
of groupings for play:
unoccupied, solitary,
onlooker, parallel,
associative,
cooperative.



8. Photograph each of
the following six types
of groupings for play:
unoccupied, solitary,
onlooker, parallel,
associative,
cooperative.
You can try capturing these groupings of play in authentic
situations. You could also have your friends pose and create
the scene of these types of play groupings. Be sure that
whatever picture you create, includes clear evidence of that
play type. For example, if an aspect of play involved organized
play with rules, somehow make it clear rules are involved.
(6 x 1 = 6 marks)
Note: Submit your photos numbered appropriately. You could paste them in a word document
with their numbers beside the pictures.
Example: This toy, Barrel of Moneys, fits under the constructive play category because it
involves building a chain of monkeys. Kids need to learn and understand balance,
gravity, and how things connect, which are all parts to learning the physical parts of the
world.
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3.6.3 Attachment
Theory
Infants will soon develop attachments with their
caregivers, whether it be their mother, father or
daycare worker. Securing these healthy attachments
early on for the baby has been proven to be a factor
later in life as to whether that infant will grow to have healthy or problematic relationships. It
also may affect the child’s sense of self worth and other areas of personality and have healthy
or problematic relationships. It also may affect the child’s sense of self worth and other areas
of personality and emotion.
These studies have focused on what is now called Attachment Theory, the belief that the
healthy relationship and care from the immediate caregiver (often the mother), is a direct
cause of the baby’s ability to adapt to their environment and explore.
Once done this handout, you will be expected to understand:
 Explain the difference between what people believed infants needed in the past and
today
 Describe John Bowlby’s theory regarding the importance of an infant – caregiver
relationship
 Describe what Harry Harlow’s experiment with Rhesus monkeys
 What were the results of the Harlowo Monkey experiment regarding an infant’s
proximity to their caregiver?
 Describe Mary Ainsworth’s experiment testing infant responses to stress
 Name and give characteristics of the 3 types of attachment
 What is the significance of the “quality of attachment” and “proximity” in infants
response to stress?
 Explain what “attachment parenting” is and the believed benefits
 Vocabulary: attachment, proximity, Kangaroo Care , Fight or Flight response
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Then:
Psychologists used to believe infants only needed food to survive adequately.
Infants were:
 Given minimal care
 Separated from parents when sick
 Had a high child to caregiver ratio
 Suffered from high amounts of separation anxiety.
Psychologists question what needs infants would seed
to satisfy more: love or food.
Attachment Theory: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KlfOecrr6kI

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


John Bowlby, a Psychologist, had a theory that an infant had to develop a relationship
with one primary caregiver in order to have healthy social and emotional
development later in life.
He said the goal of the Attachment Behavioural System was to achieve and maintain
proximity to the attachment figure during stressful situations.
Since infants feel secure and confident when their attachment figure is present, the
infant can endure stress and recover from it in a healthy manner
With the attachment figure present, infants feel secure enough to explore their
surroundings, including strange new people. Infants without an attachment figure fail to
reach the same levels of exploration and self confidence
An attachment figure may exist for an infant, but if their responses to infant needs are
not satisfactory, the infant will develop an insecure attachment pattern, which will
hinder the infant’s self confidence and development
Secure or insecure attachment is the framework for later emotional development,
such as feelings, thoughts, expectations, relationships etc.
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

Bowlby’s theory was originally highly criticized, but later was accepted as “the
dominant approach to understanding early social development…[regarding] the
formation of children’s close relationships”.
This led to therapies and the formation of social and childcare policies to support early
attachment relationships of children that included hands on attentive child care
Research of Attachment Theory – Harlow’s Rhesus Monkeys

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

To test his theory of the significance of an attachment figure to the emotional
development of infants, Harry Harlow conducted experiments involving Rhesus
monkeys separated from their birth mother immediately after birth
Each monkey was kept in an cage isolated from any others, especially isolated from
physical touch
When the infant monkeys were placed in an area with toys to explore but no mother in
proximity, the infants would draw into themselves
He constructed 2 mother figures:
o One was a wire figure that was physically uncomfortable
to touch but included milk (nipples protruded through the
the chest). The second was a figure covered in a
comfortable, plush fabric with friendly large features on
the face.
When the infant monkeys were placed in the box with the choice of which mother to
cling to, the infants always chose the comfort of the cloth mother
o The gestures and movement of the infants indicated an innate need of infants
to physically cling and interact to a mother figure
o When they needed food, they would climb over to the wire mother figure to
drink the milk, but quickly return to the cloth mother
The ultimate test of their attachment to a mother-figure was when Harlow stressed the
infants
o Their immediate response to a stressful situation was to gain proximity
attachment figure (the cloth mother)
o Once they felt secure by their proximity to their attachment figure, they would
explore their environment
Harlow’s definition of attachment:
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


After WW11, Infant Deprivation Studies were done at orphanages to learn more
about what infants needed: care or food
Video: describe the effects seen on the video of lack of physical contact
It was found that if a child didn’t experience the “warm, intimate, and
continuous relationship with his mother (or permanent mother substitute)…it
could suffer significant and irreversible mental health consequences
Mary Ainsworth – The Strange Situation


One of Bowlby’s students, Mary Ainsworth, created an experiment to test the needs of
infants and their connection to a caregiver
Her study resulted in the acceptance of three attachment styles infants may have with
their caregivers
o Securely attached 70%
o Anxious Resistant 10%
o Anxious Avoidant 20%
The Strange Situation Experiment: Describe the experiment and your observations
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU&feature=player_embedded
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Findings:

There is a Psycho physiological aspect to attachment
o The Autonomic Nervous System (fight or flight kicks in)
o The Endocrine System causes the physical changes needed by activation the
Hypothalamus, pituitary and adrenal glands to release hormones to prepare the
infant body to react to stress
o This physical reaction will happen with all infants causing them distress
o The key, though, is the quality of their attachment to their attachment figure
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Example:



A highly stressed and easily agitated baby will encounter a
strange situation and have a strong emotional response to it
This response will include changes like increased heart rate,
tension in the muscles, shortness of breath, adrenalin and
others
If the infant has a secure attachment to the caregiver, they will respond less severely
and will be more easily calmed in the presence and proximity of the attachment figure
Attachment Parenting: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SrUcwJVN8A&feature=player_embedded
Time Magazine May 2012 Controversial Cover
http://www.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,20120521,00.html
http://lightbox.time.com/2012/05/10/parenting/#1
Marcy Walder: Include in unit! Yes I actually saw the front
cover yesterday. They made it look quite shocking by having
them stand so there was a survey online about whether it was
too provocative or not. If you're going to mention it in your
class or share with the other ladies you could mention that the
actress that plays Amy Farrah Fowler on Big Bang Theory
(Mayim Bialik) practices attachment parenting and has
written a few books on it too. That might catch their attention
to know "Sheldons lady friend" let's her kids decide when to
stop breast feeding!


There is a lot of criticism for parents who follow attachment parenting
It involves things like:
o Feeding the baby whenever they want, not training them on a feeding schedule
o Allowing the baby to sleep with you in your bed
o Baby wearing – always wearing the baby against your body
o Coming to the baby quickly when they cry, instead of letting
them cry it out or learn to self-sooth
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
Interestingly enough, there is a great deal of evidence that shows
Infants with a close secure attachment become more independent,
confident children and adults with healthier relationships
Now: Psychologists understand babies need proximity, touch, physical
warmth and lots of contact







Infants are:
Given hands on care
Eye contact, talking, singing
Interacting with primary caregiver
Reassurance
Lots of touch (sick infants held in a neonatal units)
Read: Kangaroo Care http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangaroo_care
Read: Baby Cuddler http://www.volunteerguide.org/hours/service-projects/babycuddlers
Separation Anxiety:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y6QtuU1L_A8&feature=player_embedded
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3.7 Assignment: Infant Observation
http://www.alluc.org/documentaries/watch-Babies-2010-online/200052.html
One of the main methods of research involving infants is with the Observation Method.
Watching babies in their natural environment respond to normal stimulations is the most ideal
way of learning about their growth, cognitive development and emotional well-being.
In a classroom setting, it is difficult to find babies for this type of observation, but a wonderful
new documentary released just recently provides such an opportunity. Babies documents the
first year of life for four babies living in different geographical and cultural locations. From
Namibia, Mongolia, Japan and the U.S.; viewers observe the babies interact with their
environment.
Question: Decide for yourself if this video is the Natural or Participant Observation method.
See answer at the bottom of the page 51.
One essential element to point out is that the video footage clearly displays different cultural
traditions in how the parents raise, parent and provide for their infants. While the two urbandwelling infants are very protected and attention demanding, the two nomadic babies are often
left unattended, at one point, even with a string tied to the one boy’s leg so he cannot wander
off. Looking at these cultural differences helps us see just how much the Microsystem and
Macrosystem play a part in the developing child’s future personality and behaviours.
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You will watch the documentary, but must take notes and look for aspects of their care that
relate to the following categories:





Microsystem Differences: (parenting techniques / practices, family dynamics that
differ)
Microsystem Similarities: (parenting techniques / practices, family dynamics direct
interactions with the infant that are the same for all four)
Exosystem Descriptions: identify aspects of their secondary level of influence (from
community services, neighbours, other parents, extended family members, friends
etc).
Macrosystem Descriptions: The culture, government style, and geographic
resources all will play a role in how children are raised, What are unique aspects of
the macrosystem level (culture / government/ economy) that will influence infants?
Paragraph response: From a Psychology perspective, what reaction do you have in
seeing such different parenting practices?
You may consider looking for evidence of the following in creating your answers:












Methods of devlivery
Amount/types of supervision for infants
Toys or surrounding objects that may stimulate the child’s senses/cognition
Bathing/cleaning techniques
Care/treatment of other nearby children (involvement of caregiver with other children)
Emotional well-being (methods to gain attention, content in solitude or not)
Methods of communication to/from baby (non-verbal communication, singing, talking)
Learning to talk – how do the parents speak to their children?
Values that dictate how they raise their kids
Other people directly/indirectly involved in raising child
Separation/interaction of families from others in community
Role of father in upbringing
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Infant Observation Assignment Handout: Fill in the categories with as much detail as possible
for full marks, Be sure, to use language specific to this course. It’s a wonderful video, so enjoy it.
Name: ___________________________________
Microsystem: immediate family, siblings, close friends (immediate influence)
Differences in care (7 marks)
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Similarities in care (7 marks)
Exosystem: community, health services, Doctors,
external supports external family, neighbours, parents
of peers. Secondary influence (7)
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Macrosystem: cultural values / practices, economy and
politics of country. Most removed influence, but
dictates beliefs and values (7)
Brainstorm observations in general:
Paragraph Response: The focus of the film was the different types of environments babies are raised in.
What are your reflections from a Psychology perspective? (What do you think – what are your thoughts
after viewing?) (5 marks)
Answer: This video would count as Naturalistic Observation. Even though the camera
and possibly cameraman are clearly there, the subject of study (the infant) is unaware of their
presence. Because the infant cannot understand the role or any influence from that camera, it
has no effect in changing the natural behaviour. If the older brother were the object of study,
though, it would be Participant Observation. You would hope a two year old wouldn't drag his
cat by a string around the throat unless he did it for someone's attention and reaction!
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