Movement
& physical
activity
Chapter
1
2
3
4
5
6
Proficiency of movement
2
Sport participation, teamwork
and fair play 30
Strategic thinking: game sense,
tactics and strategies 52
Body systems and energy
production for physical
activity 63
Physical activity, fitness and
health 94
Safety, first aid and sports
injury management 147
1
Chapter
Proficiency
of movement
All sports that we play require us to use our manipulative and movement skills.
Learning focus
Standards
After completing this chapter, you should be
able to:
After completing this chapter, you should be
able to demonstrate that you can:
• develop proficiency in a range of high-level
movement and manipulative skills
• demonstrate proficiency in the execution of
manipulative and movement skills during
complex activities
• focus on identifying and implementing ways of
improving the quality of your performance during
games, physical activities and sports
• learn new skills or adapt previously learnt skills
to fit a new context
• participate in peer teaching or coaching
situations with a focus on skill development and
improvement.
• demonstrate advanced skills in selected
physical activities
• participate in sports, games, recreational and
leisure activities that maintain your regular
participation in moderate to vigorous physical
activity.
N Introduction
Movement, moving, physical activity — regardless of what we call it — is a fundamental aspect
of the human experience that we often take for
granted. From the moment we are born, movement is one of our first means of expression,
response and communication. As we grow, our
movement patterns and basic movement skills
develop progressively. Over time, they become
increasingly refined and varied. Once proficiency in these basic, or fundamental, movement
skills is acquired, increasingly complex manipulative skills and specialised sporting skills can
be learnt through experience and practice.
Workbook
p. 2
N Fundamental movement
skills
Fundamental movement skills (FMS) are
common movement or motor activities with
specific observable patterns such as running,
jumping, skipping, leaping, throwing, catching,
bouncing, rolling and striking. Fundamental
movement skills are sometimes referred to as
‘fundamental motor skills’ or, more simply, as
‘basic skills’. Whatever terminology is used,
they are the foundation movements or precursor patterns to the more specialised, complex
skills used in games, sports, dance, gymnastics,
outdoor education and physical recreation. For
example, throwing in softball and cricket, the
baseball pitch, the javelin throw, tennis serve
and netball shoulder pass are all advanced
forms of the fundamental overarm throw skill.
In other words, most skills used in sports and
movement activities are advanced versions of
these fundamental motor skills.
Many physical education experts believe that
children need to be proficient in fundamental
skills if optimum development of higher-level
skills is to occur. Children who do not demonstrate proficiency in these skills are often less
able and less willing to persist with learning
more complex movement skills, and will
avoid activities that expose them to failure.
Ultimately, such children often reject participation in physical activity as part of their lifestyle. Therefore, it is argued that fundamental
skills must be taught explicitly in the early years
of primary school. During these years, students
are physically and intellectually capable of benefiting from instruction in the acquisition and
development of fundamental movement skills,
and are highly motivated and enthusiastic
about learning such skills. Most comprehensive physical education programs in primary
schools, and even some programs in the early
years of secondary school, incorporate fundamental movement skill instruction.
Once proficiency in basic fundamental movement skills is achieved, individuals are then able
to acquire and develop proficiency in a range of
more complex and specialised skills specific to
different sports and physical activities.
Figure 1.1 Relationship between fundamental movement skills and specific sport skills (overarm throw)
Proficiency of movement 3
Workbook
p. 2
N Proficiency of movement
Javelin throw, baseball
Golf swing, hockey
pitch, badminton
drive, baseball swing,
clear, tennis serve,
forehand drive,
gridiron pass,
cut shot
overhand
Sport
volleyball serve
specific
skills
Overhand
Two-hand
throw
Sport skill
proficiency barrier
side-arm
strike
Fundamental
motor skills
Rudimentary
movement skills
Infant reflexes and reactions
Figure 1.2 Fundamental movement skills
instruction and its effect on the performance
of sport-specific skills
Source: Department of Education, Vic. Fundamental Motor
Skills: A Manual for Classroom Teachers, 1996.
Workbook
p. 2
N Manipulative skills
Manipulative skills are those skills that require
the use of objects such as balls, bats, racquets and
clubs. Proficiency in manipulative skills implies
that the individual has control over the object and
is able to use it to perform a particular movement
or skill. Most games and sports, including tennis,
hockey, golf, basketball, netball, Australian
Rules football and lacrosse, require considerable
manipulative skill. For example, when dribbling
the ball in basketball, we are manipulating it so
that it is controlled and, at the same time, we are
also moving in a desired direction.
N Specialised sporting
skills
Specialised sporting skills are those movements and skills found in the wide variety
of games and sports played throughout the
world. Moving from the fundamental skills to
these more specialised skills involves a process
similar to assembling building blocks. The fundamental skills constitute the foundations upon
which the more specialised sporting skills are
developed. For example, the overarm throw,
catch and strike form the basis of the more
specialised sports-specific skills employed in
cricket, baseball and softball (see figure 1.2).
4
Inside & Out
More often than not, when we view movement performances we make judgements about
them. These judgements often reflect our like or
dislike for what we observe. When such judgements are based on our feelings or impressions
of the movement, we refer to them as subjective
judgements. Such subjective evaluation is fine
when we are spectators observing performances.
However, when we are involved in teaching or
coaching movement skills, or involved in the
actual judging of performances (e.g. a gymnastics competition), we need to make objective
judgements about the movement performances
we witness. Such objective judgements require
us to have a good understanding of what
constitutes proficiency in terms of the movement
performance, and to utilise methods, techniques
or tools for appraising the proficiency of the
movement performance.
Proficiency of movement (or skill proficiency) can be defined as ‘the achievement or
attainment of a movement goal with maximum
certainty, minimum energy expenditure, and
minimum movement time’.
Maximum certainty of goal
achievement
One quality of skill proficiency is movement
certainty. To be ‘skilled’ implies that the
individual is able to achieve the movement
or performance goal
with a high degree
of certainty. Those
individuals who can
achieve the goal of
the skill or movement
with a high and consistent level of certainty, on demand, and
without luck playing
a very large role, can
be considered to have
attained proficiency in
the performance of the
skill.
Figure 1.3 Essendon
full-forward Matthew
Lloyd has achieved a
high level of movement
certainty when it comes
to kicking for goal.
Workbook
p. 2
Minimum energy expenditure
A second quality of movement proficiency for
many skills is the minimisation of the energy
required to perform the skill. This often means
the elimination of any
unwanted or unnecessary
movements. This is crucial
for individuals in activities where conservation of
energy is crucial to success
(e.g. a triathlete, or a gymnast
involved in a physically
demanding floor routine).
This quality is often observable. Skilled performers often
appear to be performing the
activity easily.
Figure 1.4: Elite gymnasts
such as Australian Olympian
Lisa Skinner perform their
routines with a minimum of
unwanted or unnecessary
energy expenditure.
Minimum movement time
A third quality of movement proficiency is the
reduced time it takes an individual to achieve
the movement goal, or the increased speed with
which it is achieved. Skilled performers in many
activities are able to execute their movements
more quickly and efficiently. We often hear of
skilled performers seeming to have ‘more time’
in which to perform the skills of their chosen
sport. This is often a function of their ability to
perform movements in a reduced time frame.
Figure 1.5
Skilled cricketers
such as Ricky
Ponting often
seem to have
‘plenty of time’
in which to play
their shots — a
sign of a skilled
performer.
N Appraising movement
proficiency
It is possible to appraise or assess movement
or skill proficiency in terms of both its process
(e.g. the quality and efficiency with which the
elements of the skill are performed) and its
outcome (e.g. some kind of result such as a goal,
or some form of measurement such as a distance achieved).
In order to appraise movement proficiency, it
is necessary to observe the actual movement or
skill and employ some method, technique or tool
for judging or assessing the level of performance.
We can refer to these methods, techniques and
tools as performance measures.
However, before applying measures to assess
or appraise a movement performance, a number
of factors need to be considered. These factors
can affect our judgement of the movement
performance, and include the:
• individual characteristics of the performer;
for example, age, size, body type, fitness level
and experience
• level of performance; for example, novice or
elite, or club, state or national competition
• characteristics of the skill or task; for
example, whether it is open or closed, simple
or complex
• performance situation; for example, practice
as opposed to a game situation
• prevailing environmental conditions; for
example, cold or hot, wet or dry.
We also need to consider who determines
the criteria for appraisal and who sets the
standards upon which to assess the proficiency
of a movement. With many skills and movements, coaches, teachers and other experts
have developed and applied what have become
widely accepted standards and criteria with
which to assess or judge movement and skill
performance. In many competitive movement
situations, the performance criteria and standards are often well defined and established by a
governing body specific to the activity or sport.
For example, in many national and international
sporting competitions (such as gymnastics
and figure skating), movement requirements,
categories, deductions and degrees of difficulty
are all determined by national and international
sporting bodies and federations.
It is also important to realise that, while
most individuals will largely adhere to the
principles that underpin proper technique,
Proficiency of movement 5
Workbook
p. 3
some will modify their style to suit their biomechanical make-up. This explains why there
are an almost infinite number of possible
variations of the accepted technique. For this
reason, it is important for coaches and teachers
to determine whether any particular variation is
basically sound or inherently weak, as distinct
from labelling anything as ‘right’ or ‘wrong’, or
attempting to get every player to adhere to the
‘perfect’ technique. Many players will display
their own particular style of a movement but,
at the same time, adhere to the principles of
sound technique.
Workbook
p. 3
Performance measures
The appraisal of performance can be a
very complex task and therefore a range of
performance measures are frequently used.
These performance measures include:
1. Performance observation
Observation of performance can be used to
appraise both the level of skill proficiency
during the performance and also the outcome
or result of the performance. Observation can
be seen as a continuum from ‘highly objective’
to ‘highly subjective’.
An observation is completely objective
when the judges apply the same criteria to
measure a performance and to determine
its success and do not have to interpret the
performance . . . A subjective observation is a
judgement on the quality of performance and
results from a feeling, impression or an opinion
rather than some pre-determined scoring
system. (Fitzgibbon, et al., pp. 378–9)
2. Performance criteria and
checklists, rubrics and rating
scales
Observations of performance can be made more
objective by the use of performance criteria and
associated checklists, rubrics and rating scales.
These enable attention to be focused on the
specific criteria, qualities and/or desirable
aspects of a performance. Once these criteria
or qualities have been identified, categories
(e.g. excellent, good, average, fair, poor) and/or
rating scales (e.g. 5, 4, 3, 2, 1) can be assigned and
applied to the performance. To develop criteria
to be used in the appraisal of movement performance, the following steps should be taken:
6
Inside & Out
1. Specify the nature of the movement or skill
— ascertain exactly what it is you want to
appraise.
2. Establish the performance criteria you want
to use — determine and list the particular
aspects of the movement or skill that you will
be appraising and making judgements about.
3. Practise applying the criteria — to develop
the analytical skill to appraise movement
performance, it is necessary to practise.
Checklists and rubrics are usually developed
from performance criteria. They include a list
of criteria to evaluate or appraise when we are
observing a performance. Usually, if a particular part of the movement or skill is performed
correctly, a tick or rating is given to it. At the
completion of the performance, this information
can be used to help the performer rectify faults
or errors and thereby improve his or her level
of skill proficiency. Checklists, rubrics and
rating scales can allow for self-appraisal, peer
appraisal and teacher or coach appraisal of
performance. The use and application of checklists, rubrics and rating scales in relation to
specific movement skills will be explored in
greater detail later in this chapter.
3. Skill tests and performance
achievements
Skill tests can be used to assess how well an
individual can perform a skill, although such
tests tend to provide an indication of the movement or skill outcome as opposed to the skill or
movement process. There are many tests used
to measure skill performance, one example
being the wall target throwing test, which can
be used to assess the accuracy with which individuals perform the overarm throw. It is also
quite a straightforward task to develop simple
skills tests to assess a whole range of movement
skills in a wide variety of sports (see Practical
activity 1.1).
It is also possible to utilise a range of
performance achievements to determine and
judge the quantifiable (measurable) aspects
of a movement performance. These measures
can include speed, distance, time, height,
weight and accuracy, and are often expressed
numerically. For example, ‘Laughlan ran
13.5 seconds in the 100-metre sprint’.
4. Norm- and criterion-referenced
standards and percentile ranks
Norm-referenced standards (or normative
scales) are scales that allow an individual’s score
Workbook
p. 3
N
Practical Activity 1.1
Skill proficiency tests
Test yourself and a partner on the following
skill proficiency tests. Record your results and
those of your partner in the table provided in
the Inside and Out Workbook, 4E, or else draw
up a recording table of your own.
Test 1: Basketball field goal shooting
• Set out eight cone markers around the
vicinity of the key, as shown in figure 1.6.
• Begin at cone one and have three shots at
goal. Count the number of successful shots.
Record this score.
• Proceed to the rest of the marker cones in
sequence and repeat the three shots at goal.
Record the number of successful attempts
at each cone, and the number of successful
attempts in total.
• Additionally, or alternatively, you can
begin at cone one and attempt to shoot a
goal. Continue taking shots until you are
successful and then move onto the next
cone and repeat. Count and record the total
number of shots it takes you to score a goal
successfully at each cone marker.
• Repeat, but this time, run and dribble in
the opposite direction around the cones.
Record the time taken to complete the task.
Note: These basketball skill proficiency tests
can easily be adapted to other sports and
skills such as shooting and passing in netball,
and shooting, ball control and dribbling in
soccer.
6
1
2
3
8
4
5
7
Figure 1.6 Basketball field goal shooting set-up
Test 3: Basketball ball handling and dribbling
• While dribbling the ball, run in a figureeight shape twice around two marker cones
placed 10 metres apart. Record the time
taken to complete the task.
Questions
1. Obtain the results of all the other members
of your class for each of the skills tests.
Calculate the group average score for each
test. Use these group average scores as a
benchmark for proficiency in each test.
2. Based on the benchmark proficiency score
for each test, how did you perform relative
to these? Which skill did you perform best
on? Which skill did you do least well on?
3. Design three other simple skill proficiency
tests that could be used in a sport of your
choice. Be prepared to explain these tests
to the rest of the class.
or result in a performance or test to be compared to how a representative group of subjects
(usually a reference group such as a nationwide
sample of students) performed in the same task
or test. Criterion-referenced standards interpret
an individual’s score or result in relation to a
base or minimal standard score that subjects
should achieve on a particular task or test. The
physical fitness tests outlined in chapter 5 use
both norm-referenced and criterion-referenced
standards to enable you to compare your
performance with that of others.
Percentile ranking is a commonly used
normative scoring scale. Percentiles indicate
the percentages of a reference group that score
above or below a given score on the scale. For
example, ‘Siobhan achieved a score that put her
at the 85th percentile’. This indicates that she has
scored better than 84 per cent of those taking the
test or that only 14 per cent scored better.
Test 2: Basketball free throw shooting
• Have ten shots at goal from the free throw
line.
• Repeat three times, recording the number
of successful shots in each batch of
10 shots, as well as the total number that
were successful.
Proficiency of movement 7
5. Statistical information
Statistical information obtained from activity
(or games) analysis can also be used to appraise
performance. The most common statistical data
obtained from games analysis able to be used
to assess movement performance includes:
• possession skills; for example marks, passes
received
• disposal skills; for example kicks, handballs,
passes given, including the effectiveness or
otherwise of these
• successful and unsuccessful scoring attempts.
However, other data typically collected as
part of an activity analysis, including movement patterns and intensities, can also be used
when measuring and appraising a player’s
performance.
Workbook
p. 4
N Performance appraisal of
selected motor skills
In this section we consider the appraisal of
movement proficiency in a number of motor
skills, ranging from a selection of some of
the fundamental movement skills discussed
previously through to some more specific
sporting skills chosen from a number of
Workbook
p. 3
different sports. In each case, either a
criteria checklist or rubric has been provided
as the means of appraising the movement
proficiency related to the particular skill.
The skills covered are the basis for a series of
performance analysis and coaching activities
outlined in the Inside and Out Workbook, 4E.
Selected fundamental motor
skills
In the mid 1990s, the Victorian Department of
Education commissioned the development of a
fundamental motor skills program for primary
school-aged children. This program identified
a set of fundamental motor skills, along with
standards for the attainment of each skill, and
the performance criteria that could be used to
appraise or assess student proficiency in each
skill. The Fundamental Motor Skills Manual and
accompanying instructional video and posters
provided assessment checklists for each of the
core skills. These provide an excellent template
for the development of similar checklists for
other, more complex, specific sporting skills.
Provided below are performance criteria for
the catch, overhand throw, punt kick and twohanded side-arm strike.
Practical Activity 1.2
Performance appraisal by activity analysis
In groups of two or three, undertake an
activity analysis of a player engaged in a sport
of your choice. This can be done by observing
your physical education class (or another PE or
Sport Education class) engaged in playing your
selected sport, by observing a match played
locally, by attending an elite level match, or by
viewing a video of a match.
Your analysis should focus on one player,
and should include the collection of data
relating to possession and disposal skills, the
effectiveness with which these skills are performed, movement patterns such as sprinting,
jogging, walking, changes of direction and any
other data that you think might be relevant in
terms of appraising movement performance.
Record your data using the sample tables
provided in the Inside and Out Workbook, 4E, or
draw up your own appropriate data tables.
8
Inside & Out
N
Questions
Using the data your group obtained from the
activity analysis of your chosen sport, prepare
a written summary about the performance of
the player you analysed.
1. What appeared to be the key possession
and disposal skills utilised by the player?
2. How effectively did your player perform
these skills?
3. What were the key movement patterns
performed by the player?
4. Based on the key skills and key movement
patterns observed, what well-developed
components of fitness do you think your
player would need to possess in order to
be able to perform successfully in this
sport?
Figure 1.7 Fundamental motor skill of the catch
Workbook
p. 4
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p. 4
Performance criteria for the catch
1. Eyes are focused on the ball throughout the
catch
2. Preparatory position, with elbows bent and
hands in front of body
3. Hands move to meet the ball
4. Hands and fingers positioned correctly to
catch the ball
5. Catch and control the ball with hands
only
6. Elbows bend to absorb the force of the ball
Performance criteria for the
overhand throw
1. Eyes are focused on the target throughout
the throw
2. Stand side-on to the target
3. Throwing arm nearly straightened behind
the body
4. Step towards the target, with foot opposite
throwing arm during the throw
5. Marked sequential hip-to-shoulder rotation
during the throw
6. Throwing arm follows through, down and
across the body
Performance criteria for the punt
kick
1. Eyes are focused on the ball throughout the
punt
2. Ball is held at about hip height in front of the
punting leg
Figure 1.8 Fundamental motor skill of the overhand throw
Proficiency of movement 9
Workbook
p. 5
Figure 1.9 Fundamental motor skill of the punt kick
3. Step forward onto the non-punting foot
4. Bend the knee of the kicking leg during the
backswing for the punt
5. Hip extension and knee flexion of at least
90 degrees during the preliminary punting
movement
6. Guide ball down with one hand so it makes
contact with the top of the punting foot
7. Forward and sideward swing of the arm
opposite the punting leg
Workbook
p. 5
Performance criteria for the twohanded side-arm strike
1. Eyes are focused on the ball throughout the
strike
2. Preferred hand grips the bat above the nonpreferred hand
3. Stand side-on to the target
4. Bat held behind the shoulder prior to the
strike
5. Step toward the target with foot opposite
preferred hand during the strike
6. Marked sequential hip-to-shoulder rotation
during the strike
7. Ball contact is made opposite the front foot
with arms straight
8. Follow through with bat around body
Selected specific sporting skills
Performance criteria for the following specific
or specialised sporting skills — volleyball
spike, soccer throw-in, javelin throw and golf
swing — are outlined below.
Performance criteria for the
volleyball spike
The following performance rubric (table 1.1) and
accompanying sequential diagram (figure 1.11)
for the volleyball spike skill were developed by
the Curriculum Corporation.
Figure 1.10 Fundamental motor skill of the two-handed side-arm strike
10
Inside & Out
Workbook
p. 5
TABLE 1.1
Performance rubric for the volleyball spike
Indicators of student performance
Expected quality
High
Two-step run-up Clearly uses a two-step
run-up and correctly
positions feet
Medium
Low
Uses a two-step run-up but
positions only one foot for
take-off
Incorrect run-up and positioning
of feet
or
Uses only a one-step run-up
but positions both feet for a
two-foot take-off
Two-feet takeoff
Uses two-arm swing and
bent leg position to enable
balanced simultaneous twofoot vertical take-off
Uses two-arm swing, or bent
leg position, to achieve twofoot take-off
Does not use two-arm swing
and does not use bent leg
position and does not use twofoot vertical take-off
Spiking arm
preparation
Spiking arm is clearly drawn
backwards into a bent arm
position
Spiking arm is clearly drawn
backwards or is bent in
preparation for the spike
Spiking arm is not clearly
drawn backwards and is not
bent in preparation for the spike
Striking arm
action at ball
contact
Ball is clearly struck with full Ball is not struck with full
Ball is not struck with full
extension and with arm close extension or arm is not close extension and arm is not close
to the head
to head
to head
Hand and wrist
action at ball
contact
Clearly uses an open hand
with spread fingers and wrist
snap to contact the ball
Clearly uses an open hand
with spread fingers or wrist
snap to contact the ball
Does not use open hand and
wrist snap to contact the ball
Source: Curriculum Corporation.
Figure 1.11 Sequential diagram of
volleyball spike skill
Source: Curriculum Corporation.
Proficiency of movement 11
Performance criteria for the soccer throw-in
The following performance checklist (table 1.2) and accompanying diagrams (figure 1.12) can be
used to assess performance of the soccer throw-in skill.
TABLE 1.2
Performance criteria for the soccer throw-in
Movement phase
Preparatory phase
Performance criteria
1. Facing the target
2. Feet shoulder-width apart or stride apart
3. Ball secured overhead with both hands
4. Fingers spread to form ‘W’ on the ball
Execution phase
1. Ball brought back behind head
2. Body arched backwards
3. Body uncoiled to release ball
4. Ball released forward by both hands
5. Both feet in contact with ground
Follow through
1. Feet remain in contact with the ground
2. Arms extended forward and downward
3. Body follows direction of throw
Figure 1.12 Diagram of soccer throw-in
12
Inside & Out
Performance criteria for the javelin throw
The following performance checklist (table 1.3) and accompanying diagram (figure 1.13) could be
used to assess performance of the javelin-throw skill.
TABLE 1.3
Performance criteria for the javelin throw
Movement phase
Preparatory phase
Performance criteria
1. Javelin gripped behind the ledge made by the binding
(cord), and the javelin runs down the length of the palm
2. Javelin is held above the shoulder
3. Elbow of throwing arm points forward
4. Palm of the throwing hand faces upward so as to
provide a platform for the javelin to sit in
5. Javelin points in the direction of the run up — point
slightly down
Run-up phase
1. Running on the balls of the feet
2. At appropriate point the throwing arm is extended
backwards (withdrawn) with the hand at shoulder height
3. Head remains facing in the direction of throw
4. Hips are maintained at right angles to the direction of
running
Transition phase (cross-over)
1. Trunk inclined backward at an angle of about 115° to
the forward horizontal direction
2. Opposite leg lands on heel and braces
3. Throwing arm is still extended at shoulder height
Delivery phase
1. Opposite side of body braced (in this example, left)
2. Right leg driven upwards and forwards bringing hips to
90° to the direction of throw
3. Shoulders and chest turned square to the front
4. Elbow of the throwing arm brought forward
5. Throwing arm moves quickly with the elbow high and
close to the mid line
6. Release angle of approximately 30–35 degrees.
Follow-through phase (recovery)
Right leg brought forward to brace body and prevent fouling
Figure 1.13 Javelin throw
Proficiency of movement 13
Performance criteria for the golf swing
The following performance checklist (table 1.4) and accompanying diagram (figure 1.14) could be used
to assess performance of the golf swing.
TABLE 1.4
Performance criteria for the golf swing (right-handed player)
Performance criteria
Movement phase
Grip and stance
1. Right-hand little finger rests across or interlocks left-hand index finger
2. ‘Vee’ formed between thumb and forefinger is directed towards right collarbone area
3. Left arm relaxed and not tense
4. Right elbow below and inside left elbow
5. Shoulders, hips, knees and feet square and parallel to target line
6. Body weight evenly distributed between the feet and through vertical line formed by
shoulders, knees and centre of feet
Backswing phase
1. Body weight transferred onto right heel
2. Knees remain flexed
3. Head maintains same height level
4. Shoulder turn 90 degrees or more to spine
5. Left heel remaining on ground or slightly raised
6. Right elbow pointing down
7. Club face parallel to the left forearm
Downswing
phase
1. Weight evenly distributed on both feet
2. Left foot (heel) supporting left-side weight
3. Hips returned to square position
4. Knees remain flexed, weight returning to left side
Contact phase
1. Weight evenly distributed on both feet
2. Hips rotated and open slightly towards target
3. Left arm and club shaft in straight line
4. Right elbow slightly flexed
5. Head remains facing down at ball
Follow-through
phase
1. Right arm fully extended (straight)
2. Left leg extended
3. Right knee fully turned toward target
4. Right heel up, toes down
5. Head facing down towards ball tee area
6. Both arms finish flexed with hands behind head adjacent to left ear
Figure 1.14 Sequential diagram of the golf swing
14
Inside & Out
Skill BOOSTER
Thinking processes
Think, pair and share
Think, pair and share is a technique that
requires individual thought and recording of
ideas, followed by a sharing of these ideas with
a partner. Each pair discusses and exchanges
their ideas and opinions. A pair response is
agreed upon and then shared with a larger
group or the class.
Using the think, pair and share technique,
identify key criteria for assessing a movement
skill from a sport or physical activity of your
choice; for example, the chosen skill and sport
might be dribbling in basketball:
Dribbling — head up; eyes scanning court
rather than looking at ball; ball pushed to
floor using pads of fingers; ball controlled at
hip height or below; control demonstrated
with both left and right hand.
Based on the ideas generated during the think,
pair and share technique, each pair of students
is to develop a rating scale or rubric, based on
these criteria, that could be used to assess the
proficiency of their chosen skill.
Workbook
p. 6
N Qualitative analysis of
human movement
The process of observing, analysing and
appraising human movement performance
through the use of performance criteria and
checklists is a form of qualitative analysis of
performance.
Coaches and teachers need to be skilled in
qualitative analysis in order to be able to observe
and analyse performance for the purpose of
providing the most appropriate interventions
for improving the performance.
Qualitative analysis usually involves four
key tasks:
1. Preparation
3. Evaluation/diagnosis
2. Observation
4. Intervention.
The preparation task is concerned with the
coach or teacher developing knowledge about
the key performance features of a movement
or skill, as well as the common errors that performers exhibit. They gather this information
from scientific research, expert opinion and
personal experience.
The second task, observation, involves
gathering appropriate information about the
performance of the movement or skill.
There are a number of different strategies
for systematic observation of human movement, but perhaps the most common strategy
involves observation by movement phases. Put
simply, this involves dividing the movement or
skill into a number of phases or parts such as
the preparation phase, the execution phase and
the follow-through phase. Movement phases
can be further divided into key elements. Key
elements are distinct actions that join to make
up a phase. For example, in the execution phase
of a golf drive, the key elements are the weight
shift, hip rotation, head position, and arm and
club extension. These phases and elements can
be seen in most of the skill criteria and checklists provided previously in this chapter.
The third aspect of qualitative analysis
involves the evaluation or diagnosis of the desirable (strengths) and undesirable (weaknesses)
aspects of the movement or skill performance,
as well as the identification of possible ways of
improving the performance (interventions).
The final task in qualitative analysis is intervention. This involves providing feedback and
corrections, usually under practice conditions,
that will lead to improved performance.
The process of qualitative analysis can be
used by coaches and teachers to assist athletes
and students in developing and refining the
basic movement skills of throwing, striking,
running, stopping, kicking and catching, as
well as a range of sport-specific skills that
emanate from these fundamental movement
patterns.
N Video analysis software
An important tool in extending observational
power in qualitative analysis is the use of
video analysis software. Recent advances in
integrating video and computer technologies
have made many video analysis software
programs affordable for schools, sporting clubs,
teachers and coaches. These integrated video
and computer analysis software products allow
for the observation of greater movement detail,
the unlimited capacity to replay and observe
the movement over and over again, as well as
the ability to utilise features such as split-screen
comparisons and overlays of performance.
Some software products allow the placement of
graphics and drawings on the video to illustrate
or highlight key features and aspects of the
performance.
Proficiency of movement 15
Several companies that specialise in this type
of software have programs and packages especially designed for use in schools by teachers
and students. Two of the better known are
Webbsoft Technologies’ ‘Swinger’ software and
Dartfish’s ‘DartTrainer’ software (figure 1.15).
Basically, these products require you to
videotape the particular movement or skill performance with a digital video camera and then
capture the video to a computer, either directly
from the camera or from the videotape. You
then analyse the video footage using the extensive range of analysis tools provided by the
software program.
Figure 1.15 Video analysis software can be
an important aid in qualitative analysis and
performance appraisal.
Source: Dartfish (www.dartfish.com.au).
Workbook
p. 6
N Improving movement
and performance
Improving the quality of our movement skills
is important, because proficiency in these skills
allows individuals to:
• participate in many sporting, recreational
and leisure-time activities
• contribute successfully to group and team
activities
• engage in physical activity with safety
• gain confidence and build self-esteem from
being able to perform skills efficiently and
effectively.
In order for individuals to develop proficiency
in movement and sporting skills, they usually
rely upon a teacher (often, but not always, a
physical education teacher) or coach to help
them in their acquisition and development of the
necessary skills. Properly qualified, skilled and/
or experienced teachers and coaches possess
movement and sport-specific knowledge, as
well as an understanding of the principles of
16
Inside & Out
skill acquisition and biomechanics, which can
be applied to the development of motor skills.
It is not always necessary to learn each new
skill entirely from the beginning, since many
skills are similar to one another. It is possible to
adapt movements and skills from one sport to
the movements and skills required in another
sport or activity.
N Skill acquisition
Skill can be defined as ‘the learned ability
to bring about predetermined results with
maximum certainty, often with minimum
outlay of time or energy or both’ (Knapp). Skill
acquisition is the movement science concerned
with the processes and ways in which individuals acquire and learn motor skills.
As a coach or teacher (or a player), it is important to understand how individuals learn skills
through the mental and physical process of
skill learning. An appropriate starting point is
to be aware that there are three general phases
or stages of skill learning. It is important to
note that these stages occur for all athletes of
all ages, although some will progress through
the various stages more quickly than others.
Stages of skill learning
Whenever an individual is learning a new skill,
the teacher or coach should know and understand the stages of learning through which the
learner needs to progress in order to acquire
the particular skill. This means being able to
recognise the stage of learning the performer
has already reached. The three stages of
learning are:
1. Cognitive or beginner stage
2. Associative or practice stage
3. Autonomous or automatic stage.
1. Cognitive or beginner stage
Individuals who are at the cognitive or beginner
stage of skill learning need to know how to
execute the skill being learned. As a teacher or
coach, you can assist students or players in this
stage by first demonstrating the skill a number of
times so that they can get an idea of the skill, and
by identifying two or three key points to focus
on. If you explain more than this, it may be hard
for the learner to concentrate on these points. Try
to make the points as easy to understand as possible. For example, you can liken a grip to shaking
hands or a tennis serve to scratching your back.
Workbook
p. 6
An overarm throw may finish correctly with the
throwing hand in the back pocket.
Demonstrate the skill a few more times so the
player can visualise the skill then have the player
practise the skill. After allowing the person
to practise the skill for a while, point out common
errors, re-emphasise the key points and then
have the learner practise the skill again. Be aware
that during this first stage of skill learning, the
beginner’s movements often appear jerky and a
large number of errors may occur.
2. Associative or practice stage
During the associative or practice stage, the
individual is beginning to get the feel of
the movement and fewer errors are made.
Demonstrations and feedback from teachers
or coaches in this stage can be very important
in helping individuals to refine their skills. It
is important to note that the time spent in this
stage will depend on a number of factors, such
as the complexity of the skill, the level of motivation of the individual, the ability of the coach to
detect errors and to provide accurate feedback,
and the individual’s abilities and past experiences. Some people may not ever progress from
this stage onto the next stage of skill learning
— the autonomous stage.
One common way of classifying skills is to classify them according to the extent to which the
environment in which they are performed is
stable and predictable throughout the performance. Skills classified in this way are referred
to as closed and open skills. These open and
closed skill designations actually represent
the end points of a continuum, with the circumstances surrounding most forms of skill
performance lying somewhere between high
(closed) and low (open) degrees of environmental
stability and predictability (figure 1.16).
Closed skills
Closed skills are those skills performed in an
environment that is stable and predictable, and
allows performers to plan their movements in
advance. Performers executing a closed skill are
in full control of the timing or speed of the skill.
Examples of closed skills are a golf swing, a gymnastics routine, taking a free throw in basketball and swimming in a pool. Closed skills can
usually be mastered more easily because success
is a matter of practising the movement and
repeating it until the skill is learned. Figure 1.17
shows an example of a closed skill.
3. Autonomous or automatic stage
In the autonomous or automatic stage, the
individual is able to complete the skill virtually without conscious control. The skill could
be speeded up or slowed down, depending
on the requirements of the situation. Other
information can now be taken in, such as the
opponent’s moves, the weather conditions and
other external factors that may affect the skill.
Workbook
p. 6
Classification of skills
The teacher or coach should also be knowledgeable about the different types or classifications
of motor skills, as these have implications
in terms of skill acquisition and practice.
closed
Figure 1.17: Taking a free throw in basketball
is an example of a closed skill. Lauren Jackson
shoots at the free throw line.
open
Figure 1.16 Skill classification continuum
Proficiency of movement 17
Workbook
p. 7
Open skills
An open skill is a skill performed in an environment that is variable and unpredictable. Open
skills are usually externally paced and performed in a constantly changing environment.
Performers therefore need to be aware of these
changes and adjust their movements to suit.
Examples of open skills are batting in cricket,
softball or baseball, and playing team sports
that have opposition, such as football, netball
and hockey. Figure 1.18 shows an example of an
open skill.
Figure 1.18 Taking a contested mark in football is
an example of an open skill. Here, Peter Everitt
marks over Justin Longmuir during Freemantle
Dockers v. Hawthorn at Subiaco Oval in Perth,
22 May 2005.
Open skills are often more difficult to learn,
as more decisions need to be made before
executing the skill. For example, receiving a
pass in netball requires you to make decisions
on where to move to receive the ball, at what
height and speed the ball will come at you,
where your opponent will be and what you will
do when you receive the ball.
When learning skills it may be possible to
‘close’ the skill down, then gradually ‘open’ the
skill more. Using the netball example, passing
and catching the ball can be done in a closed
environment by passing it to a stationary player.
When that is mastered you can open the skill up
by receiving the ball on the move, then adding
token opposition, followed by full opposition, a
lead-up game, then a full game.
18
Inside & Out
Discrete, serial and continuous
skills
Another method of classifying skills is to
classify them according to the way in which
the movement is organised. Another method of
classifying skills is according to the way in
which the timing of the movements is organised. Skills classified in this way are referred to
as discrete, serial or continuous skill.
Discrete skills involve movements of brief
duration, and they have a distinct beginning
and end. Examples include throwing and
kicking a ball.
Sometimes, discrete skills are linked to form
more complicated actions. These types of skills
are classified as serial skills. The duration of
serial skills is more prolonged, but each individual movement in the series has a definite
beginning and end. However, the order of the
elements that make up the total skill is often
crucial to performance success. Performing a
gymnastics routine is an example. Such skills
are best acquired by breaking the skill down
into its component parts and then linking them
back together.
Continuous skills have no distinct beginning or end. These skills or movements are
often repetitive or rhythmic in nature and may
continue for several minutes. Examples include
running, cycling and swimming.
Factors that affect skill learning
The teacher or coach should also understand
that a number of factors or influences can affect
skill learning and acquisition. These factors
or influences include practice, feedback and
transference.
Practice
Practice is the most essential element in the
acquisition and development of movement and
sport-specific skills. The teacher or coach should
be aware of the different types of practice and
should select the method that optimises the
individual’s ability to learn. The main types of
practice are:
• massed and distributed practice
• whole or part practice
• mental and physical practice.
Massed and distributed practice
Massed practice involves continuous, uninterrupted practice time, in which the athlete does
not rest until the skill is acquired. This type of
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Motor skills
Open
Closed
Discrete
Continuous
Serial
Variable and
predictable
environment
Stable and
predictable
environment
Movements of
brief duration
No distinct
beginning or
end
Externally
paced
Internally paced
or timed
Distinct
beginning
and end
Rhythmic flowing
movements
Combination of
several discrete
skills to form
a more
complicated
action
Examples:
battling in cricket
and team sports
that have
opposition, such
as football, netball
and hockey
Examples:
golf swing,
a gymnastics
routine, taking
a free throw in
basketball
Examples:
throwing and
kicking
Examples:
running, cycling
and swimming
Example:
performing a
gymnastics
routine
Figure 1.19 Summary of skill classifications
practice is most suitable for highly skilled and
motivated performers. An example would be
practising 50 tennis serves in succession.
Distributed practice involves short sessions
interspersed with periods of rest, during which
either feedback is provided or another skill is
practised. Distributed practice is more suitable
when the athlete is learning a new skill, when the
skill is complex and/or physically demanding or
when the learner’s motivation is not high.
Whole or part practice
Whole practice involves practising a skill in
its entirety, whereas part practice involves
breaking down the skill to practise it in parts.
Some skills are best practised in their entirety;
for example, a golf swing. Others, such as a
basketball lay-up, might best be broken down
into component parts, with each part practised
in isolation, before the parts are combined and
practised as a whole.
provides us with information about the quality
of our performance. This can be in the form of
knowledge of performance or knowledge of
results.
Knowledge of performance is information
about the actual performance itself; for example,
was the skill performed correctly or with the
right technique? This feedback may be provided by an external source such as the coach
providing information to the performer, or it
may come from an internal feel for the movement by the performer themselves.
Knowledge of results is feedback about the
outcome of the movement or performance; for
example, whether a serve in tennis went in or
out.
Both types of feedback are important for
modifying performance and improving future
performances.
Physical and mental practice
Most of us are familiar with physical practice,
which involves actually performing a skill. In
contrast, mental practice involves imagining or
visualising the skill in your mind. Elite athletes
use such mental imagery to improve skill levels.
A combination of both physical and mental
practice can be beneficial to most athletes.
Further information about practice regimens
will be provided later in this chapter.
Workbook
p. 8
Feedback
Feedback is a very important part of the skill
acquisition and development process. Feedback
Figure 1.20 A coach can provide valuable
feedback to an athlete about his or her
performance.
Proficiency of movement 19
There are other types or forms of feedback
that can be used by coaches, teachers and
instructors.
Internal or kinaesthetic feedback is about
the ‘feel’ of the movement. For example, a golfer
can often feel whether the shot was a good one
by the way the movement felt and the way his
or her body flowed during its execution. On the
other hand, external or augmented feedback
can be provided by visual, verbal or audible
signals. For example, a golfer can tell that he
or she hit the ball well by the sound made on
contact, by seeing the ball flying down the
fairway, or by being told that the shot was a
good one.
Feedback is very important if players are
to improve. For feedback to be effective, it is
best given as soon as possible during or after
the performance and, where possible, it should
be positive rather than negative. The precision
of the feedback given is also very important.
Many teachers and coaches give feedback such
as ‘well done’ and ‘good effort’. This is good
for beginners, to encourage them to continue,
but more specific feedback and prescription for
improving is very important. Feedback such as
‘you need to follow through more at the end
of your throw’ followed by ‘try putting your
throwing hand in your back pocket after you
have released the ball’ is more specific and more
valuable to the learner. It is vital that a teacher
or coach moves around the group and provides
feedback to as many individuals as possible so
they feel the coach is interested in them. If you
are the teacher or coach, you may like to have
someone count the number of individuals to
whom you give feedback and whether it was
positive or negative. Feedback is one of the most
powerful tools a teacher or coach has at their
disposal. It is important to use it effectively so
that individuals and teams can optimise their
performance.
Transference
Skill transference occurs when the learning or
development of one skill can be used in the
acquisition and development of another skill.
This is possible because we are able to ‘withdraw’ past experiences from our ‘skills bank’
and transfer them to the process of developing
similar movements and skills. For example, there
are certain similarities and basic principles that
apply to all methods of kicking, regardless of
whether it is in Australian Rules football, rugby
20
Inside & Out
or soccer. There is considerable transference of
the elements of kicking from one of these sports
to another. Transference can also relate to the
way in which individuals think about notions
such as rules, use of space, positional play, and
tactics and strategies. Familiarity with the use of
space and positional
play in soccer, for
example, can be
beneficial to hockey
and lacrosse.
Figure 1.21 Skill transference occurs when the
learning or development of one skill can be used
in the acquisition and development of another
skill.
N Biomechanics
Skills can be very complex to perform and,
in order to understand how such movements
are produced, we can turn to the science of
biomechanics.
Biomechanics is the sport-science field that
applies the laws of mechanics and physics to
human performance. It is the study of forces
and the effects of those forces on and within
the human body.
Understanding biomechanics can produce
the following benefits for coaches, teachers and
athletes:
• optimisation of skill performance and proficiency by developing the most efficient and
effective technique
Workbook
p. 9
equipment and materials to maximise sports
performance, as well as the development
and modification of sports equipment to
widen participation; for example, junior-size
equipment to allow participation at a younger
age
• the transference of skills from the practice
field to the playing field; for example, batting
tees, ball-throwing machines, swimming
flumes, and video and computer software
that allows athletes to enhance technique in
practice and apply this in competition
• prevention and reduction of injuries through
an understanding of injury causes and the
development and application of proper
technique.
In this chapter we investigate the following
key biomechanical concepts:
1. Force production and application —
• summation of forces
• impulse
• accuracy
2. Projectile motion —
• velocity of release and angle of release
3. Balance and stability.
two ways: sequential summation of force or
simultaneous summation of force.
Sequential summation of force is when a
sequence of body movements takes place,
starting with the larger, more powerful body
parts, to produce the initial force then transferring this force to the next moving part
and eventually finishing with the smaller,
lighter body parts. To achieve the greatest
possible force, each segment must contribute
by developing its greatest force before the
next body part comes into action. As well
as developing the maximum force of each
preceding body part, each subsequent body
part needs a stable base to summate the force
effectively (figure 1.22).
Summation of forces
Forearm
Arm
Arm
Body
1. Force production and
application
The performance of all movement and motor
skills — including running, jumping, throwing,
kicking and striking — requires muscular force
being produced and applied. How effectively
the force can be developed and applied often
goes a long way towards determining the proficiency with which the skill is performed. The
following biomechanical principles are important factors to consider in force production and
application.
Workbook
p. 9
Summation of forces
Summation of forces is necessary when a
maximal effort is required; for example, in
kicking a football for distance, throwing a
javelin, fast bowling a cricket ball, performing
the high jump or a vault in gymnastics. When
performing these types of skills, many body
parts are used to obtain the desired force. To
achieve the best results, the individual must
combine movements of these different body
parts into a coordinated sequence of movements. This is what is meant by ‘summation
of force’. Summation of force can occur in
Forearm
Forearm
Force
• the design and development of improved
Body
Too late
Arm
Body
Too early
Well timed
Timing
Figure 1.22 Timing of sequential summation
of forces
Fast bowling in cricket is a good example of
how the sequential summation of force is used
to generate the delivery. In the delivery action,
there is a sequence of body movements beginning with the larger, heavier body parts (legs,
trunk) and finishing with the smaller, lighter
body parts (wrist, hand):
• The first part of the delivery action is the step
forward onto the front foot.
• This then provides a stable platform for the
rotation of the hips and trunk.
• Momentum is then transferred to the shoulder
and the arm swing, followed by wrist flexion
and the release of the ball from the hand and
fingers.
Figure 1.23 illustrates the concept of sequential summation of force in bowling.
Simultaneous summation of force takes place
when an individual performs a high jump or
a gymnastics vault. The performer carries out
Proficiency of movement 21
6 Wrist flexion
5 Arm swing 4 Rotation of shoulders 3 Rotation of hips
2 Step forward
1
Figure 1.23 The delivery action in fast bowling in cricket showing the sequential summation of force
an explosive action with maximum force over a
very short period of time. The aim of this type
of force production is to develop vigorous and
powerful movements of the arms and legs to
produce a powerful take-off.
Players who cannot throw a ball as far as
you would like them to may not be carrying
out summation of forces correctly. You may
need to ask yourself when analysing the movement or skill:
• Are as many body parts as possible being
used to contribute to the desired outcome of
achieving the desired distance?
• Are the body parts that are larger and
stronger operating before the smaller, faster
muscles?
• Are the body parts being used accelerating
in the correct order, so that each body part
contributes to an optimal level before the
next body part comes into operation?
• Is each body part stabilising around a stable
base to enable each following action to accelerate optimally?
• Are the body parts that are lighter but move
more quickly used at the point of release?
You may like to apply this to other skills.
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p. 11
Impulse
Another means of increasing the amount of force
production or momentum imparted during a
movement is by applying the force for a longer
period of time. This is the principle of impulse.
Impulse is the force applied to an object and the
length of time this force is applied. Impulse is
important in many sports, including: the start
of the 100-metre sprint in athletics, leaving the
blocks in swimming, pitching in softball and
baseball, the discus throw, and performing the
push pass in hockey. For example, in discus it
is beneficial to perform a circular spin before
22
Inside & Out
releasing the discus rather than throwing from
a standing position, so as to be able to provide
greater time for the generation of muscular
force.
In the 100-metre sprint, two techniques are
used at the start of the race to generate greater
impulse:
1. pushing from the blocks to maintain a strong
forward force for as long as possible; and
2. taking short, sharp steps over the first
10–20 metres, allowing the feet to push
repeatedly against the track and magnifying
the force applied.
Accuracy
When we are trying to obtain maximum force,
summation of force and impulse are important
concepts to remember. However, in some sports
maximum force is not required; rather, accuracy
is most important. Accuracy in throwing and
striking can be improved through the notion of
‘flattening the arc’ (figure 1.24).
Flattening of the arc in throwing activities
is achieved by moving the axis of rotation (the
shoulder joint) forward in the direction of the
throw just prior to the time of release of the
ball. The arm should straighten as the shoulder
moves forward, because of the transfer of
weight onto the front foot and the rotation of
the trunk.
When a player serves in tennis (figure 1.24),
he or she creates a flattened arc of the racquet
head by the shift of body weight forward and
the rotation of the body prior to the m o m e n t
of contact. When a player hits a softball, the arc
is flattened due to the rotation of the trunk,
which moves the shoulders forward, and the
transference of weight onto the front leg just
prior to contact.
Workbook
p. 13
A
2. Projectile motion — velocity of
release and angle of release
Out
Throwing, striking and kicking skills all
involve objects such as balls and implements
(e.g. discus, javelin) being projected into the air.
This is referred to in biomechanics as projectile motion. A projectile’s flight path or trajectory is influenced by a number of factors, of
which velocity (or speed) of release and angle
of release are the most important.
Good
B
C
Net
C
A
B
Velocity of release
Velocity of release is the single most important factor for achieving maximum distance of
a projectile. Basically, the greater the velocity
of release, the greater the distance achieved.
Velocity of release is largely determined by the
principles of force production (summation of
force and impulse) discussed previously.
Angle of release
When attempting to achieve maximum distance
in throwing and kicking skills, the theoretical
optimal angle of release of a projectile is
45 degrees for any given velocity of release. This
angle of release provides equal components
of vertical and horizontal force. However, this
applies only when the height of release and
height of landing are the same, and when
spin and air resistance are not present. Given
that this is rarely the case, the optimal angle
of release for achieving maximum distance
in most sporting activities is usually less
than 45 degrees, with an angle of between
35 and 45 degrees being most common.
Figure 1.25 shows the optimal angles of release
for various sporting skills.
Figure 1.24 In tasks requiring
accuracy, the release point of
a projectile is vital: (a) Accuracy can
be improved by flattening the arc of the swing;
(b) In a tennis serve the correct trajectory is
obtained by striking the ball at point B.
Pole vault
Lay-up shot
High jump
Front tuck somersault
Badminton serve
Hammer throw
Throw for distance
Shot put
60°
45°
30°
Triple jump
Lawn bowling
90°
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
Range (metres)
Figure 1.25 Optimal angles of release and associated trajectories for various sporting skills
Proficiency of movement 23
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p. 15
3. Balance and stability
Line of gravity
In sport, balance and stability can make the
difference between an effective or ineffective
performance. Stability is defined as ‘an object’s
resistance to movement from a balanced
position’. There are two types of stability:
1. static stability — when an object is at rest
2. dynamic stability — when an object is in
motion.
The stability of an object depends on a
number of factors, including:
• the area of the object’s base of support
• the height of the centre of gravity of the object
above the base of support
• the position of the line of gravity relative to
the base of support.
Base of
support
The area of the base of support
The ‘area’ of the base of support of an object
refers to the part or parts of the object in contact
with the support surface. For example, the hands
are in contact with the floor in a handstand, the
head and hands are in contact for a headstand.
The area of the supporting base of the object
is directly related to its stability; the greater
the area of support, the greater the degree of
stability. Therefore, stability can be increased
by increasing the area of the base of support.
This can be achieved by making contact with
more body parts or by spreading the body parts
so that they cover a greater area, such as when
placing the feet further apart prior to receiving
a bump in football.
The height of the centre of gravity
of the object above the base of
support
Stable
Unstable
Figure 1.26 Stability is lost when the line of
gravity falls outside the base of support.
and skills, athletes deliberately position the line
of gravity close to the limits of their base of
support so that only a small force is required
to get them moving in the required direction.
Swimmers and runners on the blocks lean
forward in the direction of intended movement,
so that when the gun goes off, they only require
a small amount of force to begin moving in the
required direction (figure 1.26).
Other athletes, such as sumo wrestlers
(figure 1.27), who require a position of stability,
attempt to do the opposite by positioning the
line of gravity as far inside the base of support
as possible.
The centre of gravity of an object refers to the
point in the object or body through which the
downward force of gravity acts. Generally
speaking, the higher the centre of gravity of the
object above its base of support, the less stable
the object. Lowering the centre of gravity of
an object relative to its base of support acts to
increase the stability of the object. Individuals
can increase their stability by bending their knees
and thereby lowering their centre of gravity.
The position of the line of gravity
relative to the base of support
The line of gravity is an imaginary vertical
line passing downwards through the centre
of gravity. The closer the line of gravity is to
the limits of the base of support, the less the
degree of stability of the object. In some sports
24
Inside & Out
Figure 1.27 Sumo wrestlers often try to
maximise their stability in order to ensure
success against an opponent who is attempting
to knock them off balance and out of the ring.
Workbook
p. 16
N Practice and training
regimes
Under the skill acquisition section of this
chapter we discussed practice as an essential factor in enabling individuals to acquire
and develop proficiency in motor skills. We
learnt that practice could be massed or distributed, whole or part, and mental or physical. We now consider some other aspects
about practice that can assist us in acquiring
and developing motor and sporting skills.
One of the most important elements in
developing skill proficiency is that individuals have the ability to perform the skills of
the game in game-like situations; most of us
would be familiar with the old adage ‘practise like you play and you are more likely to
play like you practise’. Most often, skills are
taught and practised (certainly to begin with)
through the use of basic skill drills. Many of
these drills take place in lines, lanes, circles,
squares or triangles, which can result in
individuals only attending to what is happening in such limited situations. If there
is an overemphasis on practising the skills
in this way, the individual may struggle to
apply these skills later on in game situations,
where peripheral vision and an awareness
of team-mates and opponents are required.
Therefore, skills should be developed
through basic skill drills to begin with and,
once learned, individuals should advance
their performance of these skills through
intermediate skill drills, advanced drills and,
eventually, game-like practice activities, so as
to prepare individuals for the type of movements and situations that take place during
actual games.
Basic skill drills
Basic skill drills are designed to allow the
individual to learn and perform the skills in
an environment where the individual does
not have to consider outside elements such as
the opposition or movement. In other words,
they are performed in a more ‘closed environment’. These types of drills are often performed with the individual stationary or
moving slowly at a walking or jogging pace.
In this early phase of skill learning (refer
to the section on stages of skill learning
on page 11), if the individual is required to
direct his or her attention to anything other
than performing the skill itself (such as
moving to provide support or taking notice of
where an opponent is positioned), his or her
focus can be distracted, leading to a lack of
concentration on the performance of the skill.
In ball games such as basketball, Australian
Rules football, soccer, netball and hockey, basic
skill drills are usually set up, with the players
in formations such as lines, circles, squares or
triangles (figure 1.28). The ball is generally
played in the direction of the arrows, with
players performing the skills in a stationary
position, or while walking or jogging. It is easy
to imagine setting up such drills for any number
and range of skills; for example, the push pass
in hockey or handballing in Australian Rules
football. It is important that players are fully
capable of performing a skill before advancing
from basic to more advanced drills.
Figure 1.28 In ball games such as basketball,
Australian Rules football, soccer, netball and
hockey, basic skill drills are usually set up with
the players in formations such as lines, circles,
squares or triangles.
Intermediate skill drills
Once players have acquired the basics of the
skill, the skill may then be practised using an
intermediate skill drill. In intermediate drills,
movement is the only other factor that the
player must attend to. The player must learn
to perform the skill with movement involved,
and with the pace of the movement slowly
progressing, all the while attempting to ensure
Proficiency of movement 25
that the proficiency with which the skill is
performed does not deteriorate. The types of
movement involved should include:
• stationary to moving — performing the skill
from a stationary position, playing the ball to
a moving partner, or into a moving zone
• moving to stationary — performing the skill
while moving, playing the ball to a stationary
partner, or into a fixed zone
• moving to moving — performing the skill
while moving, playing the ball to a moving
partner, or into a moving zone.
Intermediate skill drills can also be set up,
with the players forming lines, circles, squares
or triangles. In a moving-to-moving skill drill,
the ball may move in one direction and the
player in another.
Advanced skill drills
As the difficulty of the drill is increased, the
aim is to make the activity more like a real
game situation. With advanced drills, the challenge to the player is heightened by progressively increasing the speed with which the
drill is performed, so that it eventually reaches
match tempo, by reducing the space and time
the players have in which to perform the skill;
by introducing other techniques into the drill;
and/or by introducing opposition.
A quick method of remembering how to
advance any skill drill you wish to employ is
to use the acronym SSTEP to change any one or
more of the following parameters (table 1.5).
Opposed drills
Introducing opposition into any skill drill will
provide the stepping stone to performing the
TABLE 1.5
skill in a game-like situation. Opposed drills
entail the player (and the opponent for that
matter) weighing up the available options
and choosing the best way to perform the
task. Other skills, such as tackling and
evasion, are also developed alongside the
focus skill.
Grid games
Grid games are an extension of intermediate
and advanced skill drills. They take place, as
their name suggests, within a grid or defined
area and usually involve a relatively small
number of players, such as three to five players
per side. An example of a grid game would
include a keepings-off type passing game,
which requires players from each side to make
a certain number of passes while moving continuously within the defined grid or area. As
the players’ movements are not as defined as
in a skill drill, players must make decisions on
where and when to move, as in a real ‘game’ situation. Such games not only encourage awareness of time and space but also help develop
characteristics of team play, such as running to
support and communication. In grid games it is
also possible to limit the movement of players to
certain zones within the grid or area (non-invasive practices). This allows players to develop
positional sense, and limits the type and
amount of opposition that they encounter. Grid
games provide an opportunity for players to
begin developing what is referred to as tactical
proficiency, as opposed to skill or technical proficiency, which we have been discussing up to
this point.
SSTEP parameters
Speed
• the speed at which the drill is being performed
• having the player perform a number of repetitions within a set time limit or time frame
Space
• changing the amount of space available to the player performing the skill
Time
• changing the period of time in which the drill is being performed
• increasing the time period in which the skill has to be practised will increase the physical
demands on the performer
• decreasing the time will require the performer to increase the speed of performance
Equipment
• introducing different equipment, or setting up a drill with different equipment
Pressure
• introducing opposition to the person performing the skill
• this can be done progressively — first with token opposition, where the performer is not
challenged for possession. Second, allowing the performer to get possession and then
providing opposition in the form of a tackler; and, finally, by providing full opposition
where the possession is contested in a game-like manner
26
Inside & Out
Developing tactical proficiency
Tactical proficiency or decision making may
be defined as ‘the ability to weigh up game
situations and decide on which option to take
and when to take it’; for example, whether
to carry the ball or pass it to a team-mate, or
whether to shoot for a score or pass to a player
in a better position. Tactical proficiency can be
developed through activities that closely mirror
game situations — so-called game play or game
sense.
Game sense
Game sense is an approach to coaching that
uses the game as the focus of the practice
session. By focusing on the game (not necessarily a full game but, often, a modified version
of the game), players are encouraged to:
• start thinking strategically about game
concepts
• become more tactically aware and able to
make better decisions during the game
• develop skills within a realistic context rather
than practising them in isolation
• develop a greater understanding of the game
being played.
By using a game sense approach, players
are challenged to think about what they are
actually doing, and why. Players are taught to
use the appropriate technique at the right time
and place in the pressure situation of a game.
In other words, the players are challenged to
perform the correct skill given the circumstances or situations that confront them. Game
sense activities involve placing players in a
situation where they are forced to weigh up
the choice of which skill to perform, and how
to perform the skill in order to complete the
drill. Game sense activities require players to
perform skills while in situations that simulate
those they may be exposed to in a real game.
The player must adapt to the situation by being
aware of his or her options, choosing the correct
option and then utilising the most appropriate
skill technique to execute the option.
Game sense activities train improvements
in adapting skill or technical proficiency to
pressure situations and improving tactical
awareness, both of which are vital elements in
ensuring a player is competent in a match situation. Game sense activities are an essential
link between the development of skill or technical proficiency and being prepared to play in
full-game situations. A game sense approach to
developing tactical awareness and proficiency
is addressed in more detail in chapter 3.
Proficiency of movement 27
Chapter summary
The key ideas presented in this chapter are:
• Fundamental motor skills (FMS) are common
motor or movement activities with specific
observable patterns such as running, jumping,
catching, throwing, kicking and striking. They
are the precursor movements to the more
specialised, complex skills used in games,
sports and physical activities.
• Feedback and practice are two other important
factors affecting skill learning and acquisition.
• Feedback can be in the form of knowledge of
performance and/or knowledge of results.
• Practice can be of many types,
including: massed and distributed; whole
and part; and physical and mental.
• The core fundamental motor skills include
running, leaping, jumping, dodging, catching,
throwing, kicking, bouncing and striking.
• Biomechanics is the science that applies
the laws of mechanics and physics to human
movement.
• Proficiency of movement is defined as
the achievement of a movement goal
with maximum certainty, minimum energy
expenditure and minimum movement time.
• Important biomechanical concepts that
can assist in the improvement of skill and
movement performance include: summation
of force; impulse; accuracy; the velocity and
angle of release of projectiles; and balance
and stability.
• Movement proficiency can be appraised in
terms of both its process and its outcome.
• Measures used to assess movement
proficiency include: observation; checklists,
rubrics and rating scales; measurements;
norm- and criterion-referenced standards and
percentile ranks; and statistical information.
• In order for individuals to develop proficiency
in motor and sporting skills, they usually
commit to a teacher or coach to help in
the acquisition and development of the
necessary skills.
• Teachers and coaches often possess
movement and sport-specific knowledge
and experience, as well as an understanding
of the principles of skill acquisition and
biomechanics.
• Skill acquisition is the movement science
concerned with the processes and ways
in which individuals acquire and learn
motor skills.
• Teachers and coaches should be
knowledgeable about the stages of skill
learning. These stages are the cognitive
stage, the associative stage and the
autonomous stage.
• Teachers and coaches should also be
knowledgeable about the different types of
skills and the implications of this in terms of
skill acquisition and practice. Skills can be
classified according to whether they are open
or closed, discrete, continuous or serial.
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Inside & Out
• Summation of force can involve either
sequential summation of force or simultaneous
summation of force.
• ‘Impulse’ refers to the amount of force applied
to an object and the period of time over which
this force is applied. It is important in many
sports, including the sprint start technique in
athletics, pitching in baseball and performing
the push pass in hockey.
• Accuracy in throwing and striking skills is
often obtained through the application of the
concept of ‘flattening the arc’.
• When attempting to achieve maximum
distance in throwing and kicking skills, the
optimum angle of release is theoretically
45 degrees; although, in reality, it is usually
somewhere between 35 and 45 degrees.
• The stability of an object depends on a
number of factors, including the area of the
object’s base of support; the height of the
centre of gravity of the object above the base
of support; and the position of the line of
gravity relative to the base of support.
• Practice is the key to developing proficiency
in most motor and sporting skills.
• Skills should be practised through basic skill
drills to begin with, progressing through more
complex intermediate and advanced drills,
and, eventually, game-like practices such as
grid games and game sense drills.
Extension and research activities
1. Research performance criteria that could be
used to assess those fundamental motor skills
not specifically addressed in this chapter.
2. For a selected specific sporting skill, outline
a plan of action to take a beginner from the
cognitive stage through to the associative
stage of skill learning.
3. For a specific sporting skill, explain how you
would close this skill down so that a beginner
could learn it and then how you would
gradually open it up as the learner became
more proficient.
4. Using a video camera, tape your class
participating in a game situation. View the
tape and identify as many skill classifications
as you can.
5. Obtain a videotape of a sport and list
the skills used to gain distance and to
obtain accuracy. Describe which skills use
simultaneous summation of forces and which
involve sequential summation of forces.
6. Compare the way students at your athletics
carnival carry out the shot-put compared to
the athletes at the Olympic Games. How do
the techniques differ? What biomechanical
principles can be used to describe why the
differences in technique occur?
7. Explain how you would ensure consistency
in assessing the proficiency of a movement
performance in, say, something like a
gymnastics or dance routine. List the criteria
you would expect judges to follow.
Proficiency of movement 29