ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY TO THE PAST
Archeology Poster & Educator’s Guide
A Vermont Standards-Based Unit of Study for Grade Levels 5-8
1609
Contact Period
1790
Euro-American Settlement Period
SAXE’S MILLS
Saxe’s Mills was named for John Saxe (1732-1808) of
Langensalza, Saxony, Germany, his wife Catherine
(Weaver) Saxe (1744-1791) and children who established a farmstead and the county’s first grist mill here.
The Saxe family immigrated to what they believed to be
Canada in 1786, actually the far northwest part of
Highgate. John Saxe became a prominent
Highgate citizen and served in several
town offices. Archaeological investigations at the Saxe Farmstead and Mill
Site highlight the importance of this
unique historic property.
1863
Industrial Period
2000
Modern Period
Rock River Valley
Pathway to the Past
ARCHEOLOGY
POSTER & EDUCATOR’S GUIDE
A Vermont Standards-Based Unit of Study for Grade Levels 5-8
Developed, Researched, and Written by
Kathleen E. Callum and Robert A. Sloma
GEOARCH, Inc.
Geoarcheological and Archeological Consulting
594 Indian Trail
Leicester, Vermont 05733
TEL: (802) 247-8127
FAX: (802) 247-0107
EMAIL: [email protected]
WEB: www.GEOARCHinc.com
Artwork and Illustrations by
Reed A. Prescott III
Prescott Galleries
47 East River Road
Lincoln, Vermont 05443
TEL/FAX: (802) 453-4776
EMAIL: [email protected]
WEB: www.prescottgalleries.com
Graphic Design by
Paul Kaza Associates
1233 Shelburne Road
South Burlington, Vermont 05403
TEL: (802) 863-5956
FAX: (802) 864-8232
EMAIL: [email protected]
WEB: www.paulkaza.com
Produced by
Vermont Gas Systems, Inc.
P.O. Box 467
Burlington, Vermont 05402-0467
TEL: (802) 863-4511
TEL: (800) 639-8081
FAX: (802) 863-8871
EMAIL: [email protected]
WEB: www.vermontgas.com
To obtain copies of Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past
Educators may request copies of the Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past poster and educator’s
guide directly from Vermont Gas Systems, Inc.
Vermont Gas Systems, Inc. grants permission for all to make fair use of the Rock River Valley:
Pathway to the Past multi-media, intellectual property and/or for educators in non-profit institutions to make multiple copies of poster images and any part of this guide for non-commercial,
educational use.
Vermont Gas Systems, Inc. also grants permission for all to make fair use of the Rock River Valley:
Pathway to the Past multi-media, intellectual property and/or for educators in non-profit institutions to reproduce poster images and parts of the educators guide in electronic form for non-commercial, educational classroom or internet use if the copyright notice is prominently displayed.
Please request written permission from Vermont Gas Systems, Inc. for hard-copy publication or
electronic reproduction of the entire poster, educator guide cover, or entire guide for fair use and
educational purposes. Citation of complete multi-media title, copyright notice, and web site link
to Vermont Gas Systems, Inc. is required for electronic use if permission is granted. All other purposes also require written permission.
© Copyright 2001 Vermont Gas Systems, Inc.
All rights reserved
i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past poster and educator’s guide are the
results of archeological investigations associated with Vermont Gas Systems, Inc., System
Expansion Project; the construction of approximately 15.5 miles of
natural gas transmission pipeline in Franklin County, Vermont. Vermont Gas Systems
and the authors are grateful to the many people who contributed to the archeological
groundwork and the development of these standards-based
educational materials.
ii
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
To obtain copies of Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past ..........................................................i
AKNOWLEDGMENTS................................................................................................................ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................................iii
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................vi
ABOUT ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY TO THE PAST .........................................................vii
Archeology Contributes to Local History..............................................................................vii
Encouraging Archeological Stewardship ...............................................................................vii
Vermont Gas Systems, Inc., Systems Expansion Project Demonstrates Stewardship..........viii
Recommended Resources .......................................................................................................ix
USING THE EDUCATOR’S GUIDE AND POSTER ....................................................................x
Who Might Use This Guide?...................................................................................................x
Central Focusing Question .....................................................................................................x
Unit Assessment for Students..................................................................................................x
EDUCATOR’S GUIDE ORGANIZATION...................................................................................xi
Learning Section Introduction ...............................................................................................xi
Learning Section Standards ...................................................................................................xii
Learning Section Assessment ...............................................................................................xiii
Learning Section Completion Time .....................................................................................xiii
Learning Section Organization.............................................................................................xiii
Other Appendices, Glossary, and Index...............................................................................xiii
Recommended Resources ......................................................................................................xv
POSTER ORGANIZATION......................................................................................................xvii
Poster Design.......................................................................................................................xvii
Rock River Valley History....................................................................................................xvii
The Characters ...................................................................................................................xviii
Time Line...............................................................................................................................xx
What is Archeology?..............................................................................................................xx
Scientific Archeological Method...........................................................................................xxi
Recommended Resources...................................................................................................xxiii
SECTION ONE: TIME FLOWS THROUGH VERMONT’S ROCK RIVER VALLEY
Time, Time Lines, Eras, and Periods...........................................................................................1
Section 1 Lesson: .....................................................................................................................2
1.1 time flows through Vermont’s Rock River Valley.......................................................2
1.2 archeology adds time depth........................................................................................3
1.3 cyclical versus linear time ..........................................................................................3
1.4 time cycles: seasons, clocks, and calendars ...............................................................3
1.5 linear time: calendars, time lines, and time scales.....................................................4
1.5.1 calendars..............................................................................................................4
1.5.2 time lines .............................................................................................................4
1.5.3 time scales ...........................................................................................................4
1.6 historical sequences and transitions...........................................................................4
1.7 dating systems ............................................................................................................5
Activity 1A...............................................................................................................................7
Activity 1B ...............................................................................................................................8
Recommended Resources ......................................................................................................10
SECTION TWO: IF A RIVER COULD SPEAK
Continuity and Change .............................................................................................................13
TABLE OF CONTENTS
iii
Section 2 Lesson: ...................................................................................................................14
2.1 if a river could speak ................................................................................................14
2.2 new site discoveries, new stories..............................................................................14
2.3 culture, continuity, and change ................................................................................14
2.4.1 changing environments brought Paleoindians to Vermont...............................17
2.4.2 continuity during the Paleoindian Period.........................................................17
2.4.3 who were the Paleoindians? ..............................................................................17
2.4.4 traveling and eating in an arctic environment ..................................................17
2.4.5 Paleoindian shelter, clothing, tools, and other activities ..................................17
2.4.6 environmental change ends Paleoindian Period ...............................................18
2.5 scientific archeology speaks for those who can’t......................................................18
Activity 2A.............................................................................................................................20
Activity 2B .............................................................................................................................21
Recommended Resources ......................................................................................................23
SECTION THREE: ARCHEOLOGICAL DETECTIVES
Archeological Site Formation and Transformation ...................................................................27
Section 3 Lesson: ...................................................................................................................28
3.1 archeological detectives ............................................................................................28
3.2 investigative methods ...............................................................................................28
3.3 establishing patterns of evidence .............................................................................28
3.4 surviving evidence is rare.........................................................................................29
3.5 nature and people alter evidence .............................................................................29
3.5.1 natural processes bury and alter sites ...............................................................29
3.5.2 cultural processes transform sites .....................................................................30
3.6 analyzing surviving material clues ...........................................................................31
3.7 interdisciplinary investigation..................................................................................31
3.8 bringing the past to life ............................................................................................32
Activity 3A.............................................................................................................................33
Activity 3B .............................................................................................................................34
Recommended Resources ......................................................................................................37
SECTION FOUR: SCIENTIFIC EXPLORERS
Hypothesizing Archeological Site Types and Locations ............................................................39
Section 4 Lesson: ...................................................................................................................40
4.1 scientific explorers....................................................................................................40
4.2 archeologists avoid sites!..........................................................................................40
4.3 archival research .......................................................................................................40
4.4 settlement patterns ...................................................................................................41
4.5 predictive models .....................................................................................................42
4.6 finding the right source ............................................................................................42
4.6.1 archeologists explore maps................................................................................42
4.6.2 finding your way around a map ........................................................................43
Activity 4A.............................................................................................................................45
Activity 4B .............................................................................................................................46
Activity 4C.............................................................................................................................47
Recommended Resources ......................................................................................................49
SECTION FIVE: EARTH’S ARCHEOLOGY LIBRARY
Archeological Site Preservation and Excavation .......................................................................51
Section 5 Lesson: ...................................................................................................................52
5.1 earth’s archeology library..........................................................................................52
5.2 contributions of archeology......................................................................................52
5.3 preserve irreplaceable and non-renewable sites in their natural setting..................53
5.4 archeologists focus on threatened sites ....................................................................53
5.5 who ensures the public benefits from archeology?..................................................53
5.6 trained professionals.................................................................................................54
5.7 inductive and deductive scientific reasoning ...........................................................54
5.8 careful phased fieldwork allows site avoidance .......................................................55
5.8.1 Phase I Site Identification fieldwork and provenience......................................56
5.8.2 Phase II and III site excavation and context .....................................................56
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ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
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PAST
Activity 5A.............................................................................................................................58
Activity 5B .............................................................................................................................60
Recommended Resources ......................................................................................................64
SECTION SIX: ARCHEOLOGISTS WEAR WHITE LAB COATS TOO!
Archeological Materials Analysis and Curation ........................................................................67
Section 6 Lesson: ...................................................................................................................68
6.1 archeologists wear white lab coats ...........................................................................68
6.2 the third step: laboratory analysis ............................................................................68
6.3 zooming in on hypotheses .......................................................................................68
6.4 sorting out site ethnicity, function, and age.............................................................69
6.5 identifying, classifying, and dating sites and collections .........................................69
6.6 scientists practice ethical research............................................................................70
Activity 6 ...............................................................................................................................72
Recommended Resources ......................................................................................................74
SECTION SEVEN: CAN WE PRESERVE ALL ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES?
Problem Solving Through Consensus and Archeological Site Significance..............................75
Section 7 Lesson: ...................................................................................................................76
7.1 can we preserve all archeological sites? ...................................................................76
7.2 Vermont’s historic landscapes attract growth...........................................................76
7.3 Vermonters must balance stewardship and growth .................................................76
7.4 citizens reach consensus in public forums...............................................................77
7.5 the Systems Expansion Project illustrates challenges ..............................................77
7.6 significant site management .....................................................................................78
7.7 Vermont Gas Systems weighs resource impact and construction redesign .............79
7.8 CRM compromise allows planned growth to proceed .............................................80
7.9 you are part of the problem and part of the solution ..............................................81
Activity 7 ...............................................................................................................................82
Recommended Resources ......................................................................................................85
SECTION EIGHT: PROTECTING THE PAST
Reporting and Long-Term Stewardship of Archeological Sites .................................................87
Section 8 Lesson: ...................................................................................................................88
8.1 public reporting and stewardship.............................................................................88
8.2 site loss accelerates ...................................................................................................88
8.3 balancing private rights and public trust .................................................................89
8.4 sites retain multiple values.......................................................................................89
8.5 why does the public lack archeology awareness? ....................................................90
8.5.1 obscure antiquarians and private preservationists ............................................90
8.5.2 scientific archeology evolves out of relic hunting.............................................90
8.5.3 conservation movement and federal acquisition...............................................90
8.5.4 salvaging archeological sites..............................................................................91
8.5.5 environmental movement and CRM .................................................................91
8.5.6 grass-roots stewardship is just beginning .........................................................91
8.6 today’s site preservation problems...........................................................................91
8.6.1 archeological illiteracy.......................................................................................91
8.6.2 scarce support beyond CRM .............................................................................92
8.6.3 irregular CRM quality........................................................................................92
8.7 public involvement for successful site reporting and stewardship.........................93
8.7.1 responsible reporting.........................................................................................93
8.7.2 global, interdisciplinary, and community based stewardship ...........................93
8.8 your participation saves sites ...................................................................................94
8.8.1 exercising archeological citizenship ..................................................................94
8.8.2 becoming an archeological educator .................................................................95
8.8.3 increasing archeological stewardship ................................................................96
Activity 8 ...............................................................................................................................98
Recommended Resources ....................................................................................................101
APPENDIX ONE: Fact or Fiction? Arti Fact’s Archeology Awareness Questionnaire...........104
APPENDIX TWO: Rubrics ......................................................................................................106
TABLE OF CONTENTS
V
APPENDIX THREE: Activity 5B: Sample Artifact/Feature Key and Lesson Plan ...................114
APPENDIX FOUR: Vermont Archeological Inventory Site Forms .........................................120
APPENDIX FIVE: Frequently Asked Questions .....................................................................124
APPENDIX SIX: Additional Recommended Resources...........................................................128
Directories and Resource Guides ........................................................................................128
Organizations Offering Educational Programs....................................................................128
Pamphlets and Brochures ....................................................................................................128
Magazines and Journals.......................................................................................................129
Places to Visit (Museums/Galleries)....................................................................................130
Government Agencies and Other Organizations ................................................................130
APPENDIX SEVEN: About the Authors and Artist ................................................................133
GLOSSARY...............................................................................................................................135
Recommended Resources ....................................................................................................143
INDEX .....................................................................................................................................144
GEOARCH APPRECIATES YOUR COMMENTS....................................................................151
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1. Recommended Section Combinations..............................................................................xi
TABLE 2. Vermont’s Framework of Standards ...............................................................................xii
TABLE 3. Student Assessment ......................................................................................................xiv
TABLE 4. Scientific Archeological Method ...................................................................................xxi
TABLE 5. Rock River Archeology versus Standard Time Lines .........................................................5
TABLE 6. Threats to Addison County Sites....................................................................................88
TABLE 7. There Should Be Laws Against ......................................................................................94
vi
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
ABOUT ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
V
ermont Gas Systems, Inc., invites you and
your students to learn about local history and archeology
through the Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past educator’s guide and accompanying poster. These multi-media
educational materials are products of the Vermont Gas
System Expansion Project. Vermont Gas provides natural
gas fuel to homes
and businesses in
northwestern
Vermont.
Educators may use
this guide and
poster to address
Vermont’s
Framework of
Standards and
Learning
Opportunities. The
Rock River Valley:
Pathway to the Past
educator’s guide
and poster integrate two complementary aims into
this multi-media,
standards-based
curriculum. First, we illustrate how archeology contributes to our knowledge of local Vermont history.
Second, we encourage stewardship of Vermont’s important archeological sites for future generations.
Archeology Contributes to Local History
Ever wonder how we piece together Vermont, national,
and global history? Archeological sites in your community hold the answers. Each site is a unique, rare, nonrenewable time capsule with the potential to contribute to
earth’s library of knowledge. From individual sites, we
unearth details about local history and broad historic
themes. Historic themes link to state, national, and even
global trends.
Archeology is an interdisciplinary scientific field with
broad public appeal. It tells us about human past before
written history, the lives of ordinary people, and illuminates unrecorded details about notable people, significant
TO THE PAST
CATION
U
D
E
HISTORY
places, and important events. The Rock River Valley:
Pathway to the Past curriculum unit highlights local history with chronological dates, geographic locales, and historical characters. Data is drawn from archeology, architecture, historic documents, published books, journals,
and oral history, people’s memories. The Rock River
Valley: Pathway to the Past educational materials present
ground-breaking, local archeology for Grades 5-8 in a format meeting Vermont’s Framework of Standards and
Learning Opportunities (Spring 1996, revised for History
and Social Sciences Spring 1999). These educational
materials promote cultural awareness and sensitivity. Your
local community’s archeological sites reinforce the concept of a shared human heritage. An interactive approach
enlists student participation through hands-on activities,
oral history, reading, the internet, applied sciences, and
real stewardship challenges. We hope Rock River Valley:
Pathway to the Past will inspire your students to start on
their own pathway to the past.
Encouraging Archeological Stewardship
Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past encourages educators and students to steward Vermont’s endangered archeological sites. Many people remain unaware that our
important and irreplaceable sites are vulnerable to a variety of natural and cultural threats. Fewer still are aware of
the extent of site loss, particularly to looting or vandalism. Archeological sites preserved in place and in their
natural setting possess recreational, economic, sacred or
traditional, as well as informational, importance.
Stewarding sites in place helps us understand the past,
gives us a sense of identity, and provides an important
base for future heritage tourism. Unfortunately, many still
equate archeology with “digging” or artifact collecting.
Where an artifact is found, referred to as context, is vital.
Excavating archeological sites destroys context and other
surviving information. Undocumented collecting also
results in the tragic loss of site data. As an educator, you
ABOUT ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY TO THE PAST
vii
are in a unique position to encourage your students and
community to save Vermont’s endangered sites for the
future.
EOLOGIC
H
RC WARDSH A
I
TE
P
S
L
A
Using a real project as an example, Rock River Valley:
Pathway to the Past explores the value of archeology and
how it contributes to our understanding of history.
Standards-based educational materials introduce students
to the importance of preserving archeology sites and the
scientific investigation of threatened sites. Most schools
or educators do not have the resources to teach archeology by properly excavating sites. Even if threatened, arche-
ological excavations require the experience and commitment of professional qualified archeologists, months of
planning, a specialized research team, and the money for
long-term curation of artifacts and other materials.
Excavation is only part of a scientific method that encompasses thorough archival research, careful fieldwork, laboratory analysis, and most importantly, public reporting.
Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past addresses stereotypes that have plagued public perception of archeology
since the last century. Students follow modern archeologists as they preserve and investigate threatened sites in
the Rock River Valley. Through standards-based activities,
they apply the archeology preservation ethic to current
issues facing their own community. The difficult choice
between economic growth and historic preservation is
one you and your students will increasingly face.
Stewardship of Vermont’s endangered archeological sites
and other cultural resources for the future will require
greater public involvement. Successful archeological
reporting and stewardship begins with you. Developing
your student’s archeological literacy and historic preservation ethics will prepare them to save Vermont’s heritage.
Vermont Gas System Expansion Project
Demonstrates Stewardship
The Vermont Gas System
Expansion Project furnishes an
excellent opportunity to demonstrate how a modern firm balances
the need for growth with concerns
for historic preservation.
Vermont’s rich and ancient heritage is being lost at an increasingly alarming rate due to natural and
human causes. Even archeological
excavation, or digging a site, destroys it forever. Over the
past century, people in the United States concerned about
unplanned growth enacted laws, designated government
agencies, and drafted regulations to protect historic properties (a legal term including historic districts, archeological sites, standing structures, and objects), historic landscapes, and traditional cultural places. Section 106 of the
National Historic Preservation Act and Vermont’s Act 250
Criterion 8 are two such laws. The concept of managing
archeological sites along with natural resources grew out
of the 1960s environmental movement. This approach to
public consensus and compromise, called cultural
resource management (CRM), allows planned development to proceed.
The Vermont Gas System Expansion Project exemplifies
how advance landuse planning and design flexibility can
preserve our nation’s significant historic properties, particularly archeological sites. Archeologists found dozens
of diverse sites, from a broad range of time periods,
telling stories about significant historic Franklin County
themes. Vermont Gas took the extra effort to steward historic properties for the future through planning well in
advance and approaching project design with flexibility.
Years of Vermont Gas involvement in System Expansion
Project planning have culminated in a lasting legacy of
archeological site reporting and stewardship. Through
time, an explicit and comprehensive outreach program
evolved that summarizes the project’s important public
contributions.
A Random Sample Poll Conducted by the Society for
American Archaeology, National Park Service, and others
...most thought of digging or bones when they heard the
word ‘archeology,’ with no mention of archeologists analyzing plant remains, settlement patterns, past environments..., or using hi-tech tools such as satellites. More
than 8 in 10 respondents agreed... that archeologists
study dinosaurs.
– David Andrews (1999:4) “Excavating the Public Mind”
in Common Ground
viii
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
PUBLIC
REP
ORTING
RECOMMENDED RESOURCES1
Callum, Kathleen E. and Thomas R. Buchanan. 1996. In Situ Site
Burial: The Efficacy of a Geotextile and Gravel Fill Cover as
Protection Against Temporary Construction-Related Traffic over
an Archeological Site. Unpublished Contract Report by
GEOARCH, RR2 Box 2429-1, Brandon, Vermont 05733.
Submitted to Vermont Gas Systems, Inc., P.O. Box 467,
Burlington, Vermont 05402-0467.
Vermont Gas Systems, Inc., P.O. Box 467, Burlington, Vermont
05402-0467.
Callum, Kathleen E., Sheila Charles, and Thomas R. Buchanan.
1996. Phase I Archeological Survey of a Rerouted Segment of the
Proposed Vermont Gas Systems, Inc. Expansion Project in
Swanton, Vermont: Unpublished Contract Report by GEOARCH,
RR2 Box 2429-1, Brandon, Vermont 05733. Submitted to
Vermont Gas Systems, Inc., P.O. Box 467, Burlington, Vermont
05402-0467.
Vermont Gas Systems Inc. 1998. Vermont Gas Systems Inc.
Prospectus. Produced by Paul Kaza Associates and Lake
Champlain Productions, South Burlington, Vermont.
Vermont Gas Systems Inc. 1995. Swanton System Expansion.
Produced by Paul Kaza Associates and Lake Champlain
Productions, South Burlington, Vermont.
Annotation: Video. Color/Running Time: 6.41 minutes.
Vermont Gas Systems Inc. 1998. Vermont Gas Systems Inc.
Home Page. www.vermontgas.com
Sloma, Robert A. and Kathleen E. Callum, with contributions by
Jacquie M. Payette, Peter H. Morrison, Gerald B. Fox, Sheila
Charles, Robert J. Hasenstab, 2001. Phase I Archeological Site
Identification Survey of the Proposed Route 1 Vermont Gas
Systems, Inc., Systems Expansion Project, Highgate, Franklin
County, Vermont. Unpublished Contract Report by GEOARCH,
Inc., 594 Indian Trail Leicester, Vermont 05733. Submitted to
Vermont Gas Systems, Inc., P.O. Box 467, Burlington, Vermont
05402-0467.
Sloma, Robert A. and Kathleen E. Callum, with contributions by
Jacquie Payette and Gerald Fox. 2001. Phase I Archeological Site
Identification and Phase II Site Evaluation of the Proposed Route
2 Vermont Gas Systems, Inc. Expansion Project, Highgate,
Franklin County, Vermont. Unpublished Contract Report by
GEOARCH, Inc., 594 Indian Trail Leicester, Vermont 05733.
Submitted to Vermont Gas Systems, Inc., P.O. Box 467,
Burlington, Vermont 05402-0467.
Robinson, Brian S., and James B Petersen. 1990. Vermont Natural
Gas Transmission Line Archaeological Phase IB Study Scope-ofWork. Unpublished Proposal by Archaeological Research Center,
University of Maine, Farmington.
Annotation: Outlines the original predictive model and sampling strategy for the Systems Expansion Project. Later Scopesof-Work conform to the outlined methodology, with some modification.
Robinson, Brian S., Wetherbee B. Dorshow, and Richard P. Corey.
1993. An Archeological Phase IB Survey of the Vermont Gas
Systems, Inc. Systems Expansion Project, Franklin County,
Vermont. Unpublished Contract Report by Archaeological
Research Center, University of Maine, Farmington. Submitted to
1
Recommended resources above represent the end product of Systems Expansion archeology reporting to the public. In Vermont,
most consulting archeology projects begin with a Scope-of-Work that outlines research design. Construction begins after submission
of an End-of-Field Letter describing preliminary findings and recommendations. For further public reporting of the Systems
Expansion Project cultural resource management, review primary documents cited in the above final reports and on file at Vermont
Gas Systems, Inc. and the Vermont Division for Historic Preservation.
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
ix
USING
THE
EDUCATOR’S GUIDE
AND
POSTER
Who Might Use This Guide?
Unit Assessment for Students
Vermont Gas and GEOARCH developed Rock River Valley:
Pathway to the Past for educators and parents in Franklin
County, Vermont. Although focusing on Vermont’s Rock
River Valley, the archeological themes discussed are relevant across the state, nation, and globe.
Educators can apply two overall
assessments of student progress after
completion of the entire curriculum
unit or selected sections. One unit
curriculum assessment is quantitative
and the other is qualitative. Appendix
One contains a short questionnaire that
can be given to students at the beginning and end of unit
completion to assess comprehension of focusing questions outlined in Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past.
Central Focusing Question
The Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past curriculum unit
poses two overarching questions:
Why are Vermont’s archeological sites, such as those in
the Rock River Valley, important resources that should be
stewarded for the future?
What are the four steps, or scientific method, archeologists use to investigate threatened sites?
x
USING THE EDUCATOR’S GUIDE AND POSTER
Students should also maintain a portfolio of work that the
educator can use as the second part of a unit assessment
(see Table 3). Student portfolios are useful to judge overall student comprehension and individual improvement.
Educators should collect student work as exemplars.
EDUCATOR’S GUIDE ORGANIZATION
The Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past educator’s
guide accompanies the poster. The guide contains an
introduction, sections on use and organization of these
mulit-media materials, eight learning sections, appendices, glossary, index, and tear-out comment card.
Learning Section Introduction
The Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past curriculum unit
is divided into eight learning sections. Section One, Time
Flows Through Vermont’s Rock River Valley, introduces
archeology and basic concepts of time important to the
study of the past2. Section Two, If a River Could Speak,
narrates how archeologists study continuity or change
through time using cultural characteristics. In Section
Three, Archeological Detectives, students decipher the
mystery of clue formation and alteration at rare, endangered archeological sites. Scientific Explorers, in Section
Four, maps the close relationship between geography, nat-
ural resources, and cultural resources and delves into
archival research as the first step of the scientific archeological method. Section Five, Earth’s Archeology Library,
discusses the important contributions our irreplaceable
sites can make. Section Six, Archeologists Wear White Lab
Coats Too! documents the third step of the scientific
method with movie imagery. Can We Preserve All
Archeological Sites? in Section Seven rationally discusses
the cultural resource management (CRM) approach to
solving pressure on archeological resources through public consensus and focus on significant sites. Section Eight,
Protecting the Past, sets archeological reporting and longterm stewardship in historical perspective, highlighting
the need for public involvement.
Each successive section builds on information presented
in previous sections. However, it is not necessary to complete sections sequentially, pick and choose the section
that meet your educational need.
TABLE 1. Recommended Section Combinations
ABILITY, TOPIC,
OR STANDARD
STUDENT
COMBINATION
THEME
SECTIONS
Elementary, standard
What is time?
One, Six
Topic, standard
Archeology & the scientific method
Three, Four, Five, Six
Topic
Humans, the environment, and limited resources
Two, Three, Four, Seven, Eight
Topic
Stewardship: save the past for the future
Three, Five, Seven, Eight
Topic
Help report sites to the public
Five, Seven, Eight
Very limited time
Archeological sites today
Eight, first cover Three if time allows
Elementary
Introductory Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past
One, Two, Three, Four
Secondary
Advanced Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past
Four, Five, Seven, Eight
As noted in the table, some combinations may be more suitable for younger elementary students, and others may lend
themselves to older secondary or advanced students.
2
Archeologists and most historians use the term period to refer to continuous intervals of Vermont’s past. In this educator’s guide the
authors have substituted the word era for period in student lessons to be consistent with Vermont’s Framework of Standards and
Learning Opportunities. See Table 4. For a discussion of the term Precontact versus Prehistoric, refer to the glossary.
EDUCATOR’S GUIDE ORGANIZATION
xi
Learning Section Standards
3
Table 2 presents standards and reference titles associated with specific learning sections and activities. Each learning
section integrates at least one selected activity that helps students fulfill the listed standards.
TABLE 2. Vermont’s Framework of Standards
SECTION
ACTIVITY
STANDARD(S)
1A
ADDITIONAL STANDARD(S)
1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 2.7, 7.1e, 7.1f
6.4aa
Historical Connections
One
1B
6.4dd
1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.20, 3.10, 6.6c, 7.1ii
2A
6.4b
1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.20, 4.3, 4.5aa, 5.1,
7.1e, 7.1f
Historical Connections
Two
2B
6.4c
3A
2.6
3B
6.6a, 6.6b
7.1e,7.1f, 7.1h, 7.1dd, 7.3
4A
6.7d, 6.7e, 6.7aa,
6.7bb, 6.7dd
1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 7.1e, 7.1f, 7.3
4B
6.7e
4C
6.7cc
5A
3.15, 6.15b, 6.16f,
7.4, 7.5, 7.15ee
5B
7.1a-i, 7.1aa-ii,
7.7bb, 7.7dd
6
Seven
Eight
1.1, 1.6, 1.8, 7.1e
Reasoning & Problem Solving:
Application; Being a Historian
Three
Four
Geographical Knowledge
Six
1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 6.16f, 7.1e, 7.1f, 7.1h,
7.1cc, 7.1dd, 7.1gg, 7.3
6.6, 7.1, 7.3
6.6, 7.1, 7.3
Knowledge of Economic
Principals; Impact of Economic
Systems; History of Science,
Mathematics, and Technology;
Roles and Responsibilities;
Theories, Systems, and Forces;
Scientific Method; Geometric and
Measurement Concepts
1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.13, 1.15, 2.1, 6.17,
7.1, 7.2
7.2a-g, 7.2aa-ff,
7.16cc
Investigation; Natural Resources
7.16
7
3.10, 3.11, 3.12,
3.13, 4.1a-b, 4.2a,
7.19a-b, 7.19aa-bb
Teamwork; Interactions; Conflict
Resolution; Roles and
Responsibilities; Service;
Democratic Process; Designing
Solutions
7.18
8
3.9
Environment
1.5, 1.6, 1.8
Five
3
REFERENCE TITLE(S)
1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.13, 1.15, 2.1, 7.2,
7.5, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 7.16
Educational curriculum standards information in this guide and accompanying poster are subject to change without notice. Neither
Vermont Gas nor GEOARCH, Inc. are responsible for notifying educators of curriculum changes or updating the existing text to satisfy new educational requirements.
xii
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
Learning Section Assessment
Table 3 summarizes student assessment. The activity,
standards, student products, and type of scoring guide are
listed by Learning Sections. Student products, for example, can include selected responses such as true/false,
short answers, physical products such as a map, or performances such as a laboratory investigation. Several
types of scoring guides allow student assessment: an
answer key (see Section Organization), a checklist, a generalized rubric/exemplar (Appendix Two), a task-specific
rubric (Appendix Two), and teacher observation sheet
(not provided).
The lesson text is immediately followed by at least one
activity, standards, estimated activity length, required
materials, and assignment. Short-answer or other questions may be part of the assignment. A distinctive
Abenaki border design identifies the activities that educators may photocopy and distribute to students.
Other Appendices, Glossary, and Index
Learning Section Completion Time
It is estimated that completion of all eight Rock River
Valley: Pathway to the Past learning sections will require
5-20 weeks. The length of the entire unit or individual
activities may be reduced if the educator and students are
familiar with given standards and archeological concepts.
Most introductory activities require one to two class periods. Intermediate learning or enabling activities generally
take two or more class periods. More time must be devoted to advanced tasks. On average, completion of each section will require 1-2 weeks, or 5-10 class periods.
The appendices contain supporting materials. Appendix
Five covers Frequently Asked Questions, or FAQs as they
are known on the internet. A glossary near the end of the
educator’s guide further defines the vocabulary words listed from each section. The glossary defines a number of
archeology, archeological stewardship, and educational
terms as they are used in this guide. It is by no means
exhaustive. Please refer to annotated recommended
resources for further study.
Learning Section Organization
Learning sections
contain a title, a subtitle, an objective,
focusing question(s),
vocabulary list, lesson
text, at least one
activity, standards, an
estimate of activity
length, materials
required for each
activity, assignment,
and assessment.
Rubrics that score
learning section activities are located in
Appendix Two.
Section
Or ganization
• Title
• Subtitle
• Objective
• Focusing Question(s)
• Vocubulary List
• Lesson
• Activity (ies)
• Standards (for each Activity)
• Length (of each Activity)
• Materials (for each Activity)
• Assignment
• Assessment
Each learning section’s title page, objec• Rubrics (Appendix Two)
tive, focusing questions, and vocabulary
are grouped together for the educator to photocopy or
otherwise provide to the students. Focusing questions
guide students and educators to specific standards-based
concepts outlined in the section. A vocabulary list contains key words students should be familiar with to satisfactorily finish the section’s activities.
EDUCATOR’S GUIDE ORGANIZATION
xiii
xiv
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
7.1a-i, 7.1aa-ii,
7.7bb, 7.7dd
7.2a-g, 7.2aa-ff,
7.16cc
3.10, 3.11, 3.12,
3.13, 4.1a-b, 4.2a,
7.19a-b, 7.19aa-bb
3.9
6
7
8
Six
Seven
Eight
verbal
response,
discussion
verbal
response,
discussion
✓
✓
✓
archeological report, site
forms, management plan
development plan with permit conditions and map
town meeting
forum
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
list of questions, data colleclaboratory
tion plan, artifact reconstrucinvestigation
tion, management plan
✓
✓
✓
TEACHER
GENERALIZED TASKOBSERVATION/
RUBRIC/
SPECIFIC
OBSERVATION
EXEMPLAR
RUBRIC
SHEET
✓
oral
presentation
oral
presentation
oral
presentation
oral
presentation
oral
presentation
PERFORMANCE
ANSWER CHECK
LIST
KEY
WHAT THE STUDENT PRODUCES
oral
presentation
classroom
expedition notebook
verbal
response,
discussion
6.15b, 6.16f, 7.4,
7.5, 7.15ee
5A
sensitivity map
hypothesis
4C
6.7cc
6.7e
4B
list of potential sites
diagram
written report, diary, or letter
table
timeline
PRODUCT
CONSTRUCTED RESPONSES
verbal
response
fill in the
blank
6.7d, 6.7e, 6.7aa,
6.7bb, 6.7dd
4A
true/false
verbal
response
verbal
response
verbal, or
written
response
SHORT
ANSWER
6.6a, 6.6b
2.6
3A
SELECTED
RESPONSE
3B
6.4c
6.4b
2B
2A
6.4dd
6.4aa
1A
1B
STANDARDS
ASSESSMENT
ACTIVITY
5B
Five
Four
Three
Two
One
SECTION
WHAT THE STUDENT PRODUCES
TABLE 3. Student Assessment
RECOMMENDED RESOURCES
educational curriculum development
archeology curriculum development
Core Connections Technology Group. 1998. Standards-IntoAction: A Professional Development Tool Kit for Standards-Based
Education. Vermont: Core Connections Technology Group,
Vermont/IBM Reinventing Education Partnership, The Vermont
Department of Education, The Vermont Institute for Science,
Math, and Technology, in coordination with the WEB Project and
the Vermont Middle Grades Initiative.
Annotation: An excellent introduction to Vermont's Framework of
Standards and Learning Opportunities.
Education Resource Forum. 1991. Classroom Sources for
Archaeology Education: A Resource Guide. Tallahassee, Florida:
Education Resource Forum. Prepared for distribution at Visions &
Voices National Council for the Social Studies, 71st Annual
Meeting and Exhibit Show, November 22-25, 1991, Washington,
D. C.
Annotation: Lists more than 100 publications and other materials
about archeology. Available through the Society for American
Archaeology.
Formal Education Subcommittee. 1995. Archaeology in the
Classroom: Guidelines for the Evaluation of Archaeology Education
Materials. Washington, D.C.: Formal Education Subcommittee,
Public Education Committee, Society for American Archaeology.
Annotation: Lists essential concepts needed for preparing good
archeology curriculum.
Formal Education Subcommittee Workbook Task Group. 1994.
Teaching Archaeology: A Sampler for Grades 3 to 12. Washington,
D.C.: Formal Education Subcommittee Workbook Task Group,
Public Education Committee, Society for American Archaeology.
Harris, D., J. Carr, T. Flynn, M. Petit, and S. Rigney. 1996. How to
Use Standards in the Classroom. Alexandria, Virginia: ASCD.
Annotation: May be obtained by calling (703) 549-9110.
Marzano, R. J. and J. S. Kendall. 1996. A Comprehensive Guide to
Designing Standards-Based Districts, Schools, and Classrooms.
Alexandria, Virginia: ASCD.
Annotation: May be obtained by calling (703) 549-9110.
Mitchell, R. and M. Willis. 1995. Learning in Overdrive: Designing
Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment from Standards. Boulder,
Colorado: North American Press.
Annotation: An excellent introduction to developing standardsbased curriculum. May be obtained by calling 1 (800) 992-2908.
Vee-One Information Resources for Vermont Educators. 2000.
Montpelier, Vermont: Vermont Department of Education. Online.
Available HTTP: http://www.floodbrook.k12.vt.us/starter.html
Annotation: This web site has a printed version of Vermont's
Framework of Standards and Leaning Opportunities, curriculum
and instructions, assessments, links to other sites, and additional
educational resources.
Vermont Department of Education. 1996. Core Connections: A
How to Guide for Using Vermont's Framework. Montpelier,
Vermont: Vermont Department of Education.
Vermont Department of Education. 1996. Vermont's Framework of
Standards and Leaning Opportunities. Montpelier, Vermont:
Vermont Department of Education.
Vermont Department of Education. 1999. Revised History and
Social Sciences Standards, Vermont's Framework of Standards and
Learning Opportunities. Montpelier, Vermont: Vermont
Department of Education.
Public Education Committee. 1990-1998. Archaeology and Public
Education. Washington, D.C.: Society for American Archaeology.
Annotation: An excellent resource for educators that ran from
1990-1998, but the Society for American Archaeology, Public
Education Committee started a new educational monograph. For
educational resources on the web, see www.saa.org.
archeology and other curriculum examples
Bellerose, Paula and Mary Goodale. 1997. Coming to America.
Middlebury, Vermont: Middlebury Union High School.
Annotation: A good example of an eighth grade English/Social
Studies curriculum using Vermont's Framework of Standards and
Learning Opportunities.
Charles, Sheila, Lynne DeBeer, Pamela Lewis, and Pamela
Monder. 1998. From Wilderness to Fortress: Exploring the
History of a Revolutionary War Site, A Resource Guide for Mount
Independence State Historic Site, Orwell, Vermont. Montpelier,
Vermont: Vermont Division for Historic Preservation.
Annotation: Teacher’s guide and optional traveling kit featuring
fun, activity-based archeology and history of a Revolutionary War
site to teach basic aspects of educational curriculum. Lacks
assessment and rubrics linked to Vermont's Framework of
Standards and Learning Opportunities.
Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. n.d. Discovering the Past
Through Archaeology. Williamsburg, Virginia: The Colonial
Williamsburg Foundation.
Annotation: An excellent teacher’s guide with an accompanying
resource kit that explores archeological concepts focusing on
excavation and laboratory analysis. Not standards-based. Lacks
explanation of archeological preservation, as well as educational
assessment and rubrics.
Darst, Stephanie and David Pollack, eds. 1994. Native Peoples,
Continuing Lifeways: The Native American Cultural Project, 1994
Kentucky State Fair, Teacher Resource Packet. Frankfort, Kentucky:
EDUCATOR’S GUIDE ORGANIZATION
xv
Kentucky Heritage Council.
Annotation: Example of a standards-based, archeology curriculum from Kentucky. Lacks assessment and rubrics.
Davine, Ellie and Bill Petrics. 1997. Vermont Geography - A Unit
of Study Based on Vermont's Framework of Standards and Learning
Opportunities. Brandon, Vermont: Otter Valley Union High
School.
Annotation: State Exemplar for Vermont's Framework of Standards
and Learning Opportunities.
Demarest, Amy B., ed. 1997. This Lake Alive!: An Interdisciplinary
Handbook for Teaching and Learning about the Lake Champlain
Basin. Shemburne, Vermont: Shelburne Farms.
Annotation: A comprehensive, activity-based educator's guide
with sections on nautical archeology, mathematics, geography,
and laguage arts. One section describes types of assessments
teachers could use to evaluate student performance, but does not
provide links to specific Vermont's Framework of Standards and
Learning Opportunities standard, assessment, or rubrics for individual activities.
Franklin Northwest Supervisory Union: Title IV Indian
Education Program, ed. 1988. Finding One's Way: The Story of an
Abenaki Child, A Teacher's Manual. Swanton, Vermont: Franklin
Northwest Supervisory Union: Title IV Indian Education
Program.
Annotation: Educator’s guide with accompanying student booklet.
Guyette, Elise A. 1986. Vermont: A Cultural Patchwork.
Peterborough, New Hampshire: Cobblestone Publishing, Inc.
Annotation: One of the best educator’s guides for exploring
Vermont’s history. Not standards-based.
Landes, Robin S. and Joanna T. Moyar. 1996. Archeologists at
Work: A Teacher's Guide to Classroom Archaeology. Alexandria
Archaeology Publications. Alexandria, Virginia: Alexandria
Archaeology, Office of Historic Alexandria.
Annotation: Excellent educator’s guide about archeology, from
the city of Alexandria’s outstanding public program. Not standards-based.
Maine Indian Program. 1989. The Wabanakis of Maine and the
Maritimes: A Resource Book about Penobscot, Passamaquoddy,
Maliseet, Micmac and Abenaki Indians, with Lesson Plans for
Grades 4 Through 8. Bath, Maine: Maine Indian Program.
Annotation: Although designed for Maine, this educator's guide
provides well researched material from which teachers can develop Vermont's Framework of Standards-based classroom curriculum on aspects of Western Abenaki history and culture. However,
it is not standards based.
McNutt, Nan. 1988. Project Archeology: Saving Traditions.
Longmont, Colorado: Sopris West, Inc.
Annotation: One of the leading examples of an educator’s guide
that uses archeology to teach basic educational standards, such as
social studies, science, mathematics, language skills, and problem
solving. Emphasizes that archeological sites are non-renewable
resources. Great activities which result from years of a successful,
state-wide archeological literacy program, called PAST.
Parren, Lauren Kelley. 1987. A Teacher's Guide to 12,000 Years of
Vermont's Past. Essex Junction, Vermont: Discovery Museum.
Annotation: Provides a slightly dated, activity-based archeology
curriculum. Teacher's guide is accompanied by a resource kit, of
which three are available at different locations. Not standardsbased, emphasizes archeological techniques and excavation
rather than historic preservation and critical thinking.
xvi
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
Pearo, Linda, Frederick Wiseman, Madeline Young, and Jeff
Benay. n.d. New Dawn: The Western Abenaki, A Curricular
Framework for the Middle Level. Swanton, Vermont: Franklin
Northwest Supervisory Union Title IX Indian Education
Program.
Annotation: Provides researched material from which teachers
can develop Vermont's Framework of Standards-based classroom
curriculum on aspects of Western Abenaki history and culture.
Lacks assessment and rubrics.
Sharrow, Gregory, ed. 1992. Many Cultures, One People: A
Multicultural Handbook about Vermont for Teachers. Middlebury,
Vermont: The Vermont Folklife Center.
Annotation: Excellent educator’s guide featuring Vermont's multicultural heritage. Not standards-based.
Sharrow, Gregory. 1996. Measured Furrows: Vermont's Farming
History, a Teacher's Guide. Colchester, Vermont: Vermont ETV and
Vermont Folklife Center.
Annotation: One of the best educator’s guide on agricultural history, comes with an accompanying video. Extensive bibliography.
Not standards-based.
Smith, Shelley, Jeanne Moe, Kelly Letts, and Danielle Paterson.
1994. The Intriguing Past, Fundamentals of Archaeology: A
Teacher's Guide for Fourth Through Seventh Grades. Delores,
Colorado: Heritage Education Program, Bureau of Land
Management, United States Department of the Interior.
Annotation: An excellent, sampler version of Utah’s standardsbased teacher’s guide, Intrigue of the Past: Investigating
Archaeology, and one of the best archeology curriculum around.
Thompson, Caro, ed. 1998. Time Traveler: Teacher's Guide, Stories
from Lake Champlain Brought to Life. Colchester, Vermont:
Vermont Public Television.
Annotation: Well-organized educator's guide about Lake
Champlain with great activities and at least some information
about maritime archeology. Not standards based. This guide is
accompanied by a video.
Vermont Historical Society. 1998. Abenaki in Vermont: A History
Kit for Students & Their Teachers, Teacher's Guide. Montpelier,
Vermont: Vermont Historical Society.
Annotation: Nice Vermont curriculum integrating information
about the Abenaki that could be used to address Vermont's
Framework of Standards and Learning Opportunities. Comes with a
history kit. Lacks rubrics and assessments.
Vermont Old Cemetery Association. 1996. Stones and Bones:
Using Tombstones as Textbooks. Townshend, Vermont: Vermont
Old Cemetery Association.
Annotation: Educator’s guide highlighting what can be learned
from Vermont’s historic cemeteries. Not standards-based.
POSTER ORGANIZATION
T
he colorful Rock River Valley: Pathway to
the Past poster accompanies the educator’s guide. The
poster invites students to travel a pathway into the past
through the following major elements: artwork, a brief
project introduction, an essay on Rock River Valley History
that synthesizes some of Franklin County’s historic
themes; four character narratives; a time line; an essay
entitled, What is Archeology?, that introduces a character
called “Arti Fact;” and an illustrated four-step scientific
method. The four steps of the archeological method, narrated by Arti Fact, were intentionally interspersed with
the four character narratives to visually demonstrate the
link between archeology and study of the human past.
tury historic map4 transfers historic scenes onto a twodimensional plan of the Rock River Valley. A colorful
twentieth century orthophotograph inset5 directs the
viewers attention to one unique riverside Highgate farm
boasting this particularly ancient and rich history. The
Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past poster inspires further interest about historic time periods, themes, and
environmental change through four engaging characters.
Can you and your students detect how the historic Saxe
house, former Saxe mill, waterways, roads, and surrounding landscape changed from time period to time period?
Poster Design
Franklin County, Vermont is home to many beautiful and
historic places, including the valley of the Rock River.
This region is best known for its rich ethnic heritage,
diverse agricultural background, innovative transportation history, and thriving early industrial economy. For
Reed Prescott’s realistic oil
painting on the front of the
poster shows one Rock
River locale over a span of
four centuries. The Rock
River, an attractive natural
resource, becomes a
metaphor for flowing time.
The river and transportation
paths along its banks, link
four time periods. Four
vignettes, or story frames,
each introduce a character,
or narrator. The System
Expansion Project yielded
plentiful archeological and historical information about
the four particular time periods, allowing the artist to
capture an instant of time. The characters in the year
1609 of the Contact Period, 1790 of the Euro-American
Settlement Period, 1863 of the Industrial Period, and
2000 of Modern Period pause to let your students learn
about their lives. The four scenes feature past people’s
activities, tools, clothing, ethnic identities, shelters, transportation modes, and environments characteristic of the
selected time periods. A faded, sepia-tone nineteenth-cen-
Rock River Valley History
Educator’s Tour of Historic Rock
River Valley Themes
• Ethnic diversity
• Transportation
• Environmental change
• Early industry
• Agriculture
Historic themes appear throughout the poster and educator’s guide as part of the dress of a character, an event on
the timeline, or example in the text.
The five themes listed above introduce Rock River Valley
archeology and history, but are by no means exhaustive.
These themes serve as an introduction to Franklin
County, Vermont, United States, and global history.
What historic themes of interest to your students can you
add to the list?
4
This map depicting the lower Rock River Valley was modeled on the Beers 1871, Atlas of Franklin and Grand Isle Counties, and the
Jones and Linsley 1863, Map and Profile of the Swanton Branch of the Vermont and Canada Railroad.
5
The small inset is based on a 1977 United States Geological Survey and United States Customs Orthophotograph of the Highgate
Springs Port of Entry.
POSTER ORGANIZATION
xvii
thousands of years, Native Americans have continuously
resided in Franklin County. They lived along its flourishing waterways, maintained sacred burial grounds, and
adapted to many environmental changes. The Reagen Site
in Highgate holds evidence of the very first Vermonters,
the Paleoindians. Today, Abenaki continue to be a vibrant
part of Vermont’s communities. Like the Abenaki, early
European colonists from France, the Netherlands, Great
Britain and other places appreciated Franklin County’s
bountiful natural resources. Water was among the most
important of these. The first water-powered grist mill in
the county was sited in the Rock River Valley. Since then,
Franklin County’s agricultural economy has taken diverse
turns—from ragged early clearings to a broad range of
subsistence farms, from merino sheep to maple syrup,
from purebred livestock to becoming New England’s dairy
belt.
The first paths traveled by ancient Native Americans,
Abenaki and early Euro-American settlers were Franklin
County’s waterways. Since then, Franklin County has witnessed transportation innovations from plank roads to
interstate highways and airplanes. However, the railroad’s
heyday changed the face of the county forever. French
Canadian immigrants who previously trickled into New
England now poured over the border in waves, looking
for new opportunities. Railroads enabled expansion of
Franklin County’s agricultural economy. The rails soon
hummed with registered animals and dairy products
headed to larger city markets. Intensive logging and agriculture cleared vast panoramas. Railroads also allowed the
expansion of Franklin County’s quarried stone industry.
The county is famous for calcareous bedrock that formed
in the oceans of yesteryear. Lime, limestone and marble
wrested from diverse bedrock exposures traveled afar.
Swanton Red stone even decorates buildings in our
nation’s capitol, Washington D.C. Vermont Gas explored
the archeology and history of the Rock River Valley, a
microcosm of Franklin County, during its recent development project. Along its banks, you will meet Native
American Abenaki, early settlers, railroad construction
crews, and modern residents. Welcome to the historic
Rock River Valley.
The Characters
The authors carefully chose four Rock River Valley characters from four selected time periods that illustrate common Franklin County and Vermont history themes, and
address educational standards. Lively first-person
accounts6 invite students to identify with characters.
Stories narrated by Shy One, Catherine Saxe, Pierre
LaBarre, and John King highlight specific themes in Rock
River Valley history. Three of the main characters are representational: Shy One, Pierre LaBarre, and John King.
Catherine Saxe is an actual historic figure. Some facts are
dramatized to stimulate interest in local history and archeological stewardship. With a few exceptions, the narrator’s
culture, events, and activities portrayed are realistic.
Shy One7 represents a 13-year
old Abenaki girl whose character should appeal to more
timid children. On the back of
the Rock River Valley: Pathway
to the Past poster, she
describes a scene on the
poster front characteristic of a
seasonal Abenaki camp on the
eve of the Contact Period. Shy
One has just traveled here by
paddling a dugout on Rock
River’s waterways or walking overland along its bank’s
pathways. The scene on the poster front gives students a
flavor of the rich and lengthy Native American heritage
that preceded Euro-American settlement by thousands of
years. Cultural characteristics such as clothing, wigwam
shelters, dugout canoe, and stone tools demonstrate that
Shy One’s Abenaki family group had little or no direct
contact with Europeans. Paleobiological and ethnographic
data about fish migration patterns and artifacts in the
Rock River Valley indicates fish exploitation and nut
gathering likely occurred in this area during the
Precontact Period. Vermont Gas consulting archeologists
identified a significant, Archaic Period through Woodland
Period, multi-component site called the Saxe Brook North
Site (VT-FR-234). Located beside the Rock River, it yielded fire hearths and other archeological features. Family
papers and Abenaki oral history confirm that Native
Americans continued to camp on the Saxe farmstead,
probably along the small Rock River tributary that powered Saxe’s mill. In 1609, the environment surrounding
Shy One’s Rock River camp shows years of seasonal use,
such as patchy openings for the camp and burning of
understory vegetation for wildlife maintenance. Shy One’s
mother, in conversation, foreshadows the many changes
European Contact will bring.
6
Any similarity of historic characters in the Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past storyline to individuals living today is purely unintentional.
7
Algonquian-speaking Native Americans such as Vermont’s Western Abenaki during the Contact Period were most typically named
for physical (e.g., gray locks) rather than emotional characteristics. Despite contacting Abenaki linguists in Vermont and Quebec,
the name Shy One could not be literally translated before completion of the Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past. The name Beaver
Spirit Power Woman, originating from author Kathleen E. Callum’s family genealogy, refers to a real individual who lived farther
north of the Rock River Valley in the 1670s with a French interpreter to the St. Francis Abenaki community.
xviii
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
Catherine Saxe’s death at the
age of 47 in 1791, only a year
after the time frame of the
poster vignette, marks the
first recorded death of a EuroAmerican immigrant in
Highgate. The life of colonial
women, especially “goodwives,” epitomized both considerable burden and awesome power. Historic documents cite Catherine’s renown
as a haus frau and archival research suggests her important family role. The youngest child and only daughter,
Hannah Saxe, likely stepped into the role vacated by her
late mother. Did John Saxe or his sons run the household
as well as farmstead until Hannah was old enough? By
1790, early Euro-American settlers like the Saxe family
had opened forest clearings with metal axes, fire, and
oxen-assisted stump removal. Euro-Americans often
appropriated meadows historically maintained by Native
Americans, to claim “legal” title to land from colonizing
French, New Hampshire, or New York government
authorities. Opposing Native American and European
landuse strategies sometimes brought tension, other times
new opportunities. The Saxes and Abenaki of the Rock
River Valley apparently maintained a dialog through
trade.
German immigrants Catherine and John Saxe, moved in
1786 to the Rock River Valley seeking Canadian land fit
for a loyal British subject. They were accompanied by
their six older children (John, George, William, Matthew,
Godfrey and Peter), two of their three youngest children
(Jacob, Conrad), and a man-servant. Local histories suggest their subsistence farm lifestyle began with a handful
of free-roaming domestic animals, a variety of grains, a
fenced kitchen garden, and perhaps some fruit trees. They
established a relatively large farmstead for the time period, built a log house, and ultimately a plank or frame
house. The Saxe family built the first grist mill in
Franklin County of logs and processed grain from as far
away as Grand Isle. Devout Lutherans, the Saxes held
many town offices, and their second-floor ballroom
became a village center. The mill became both focus of
community life and transportation crossroads in the Rock
River Valley. In addition to river travel, roads sprang up
paralleling the river, with a crossroad connecting to Saxe’s
Mill. Today the grist mill ruins (Saxe Farmstead and Mill,
VT-FR-325) are visible to archeologists and others beside
the crossroad, now called St. Armand Road. Oral history
from the present landowner places an old grist mill stone
at the doorstep of a ca. 1800 historic structure once occupied by Saxe family descendents. The Saxe family is perhaps best known for Vermont’s nineteenth-century poet
laureate John Godfrey Saxe (1816-1887), son of Peter
Saxe. A plaque on a stone monument shown on the
Modern Period vignette commemorates John Godfrey
Saxe. However, this monument overlooks the significance
of Franklin County’s first water-powered grist mill and its
contribution to the development of an important transportation node in the Rock River Valley.
Pierre LaBarre8, or Peter Laber
in English, represents an
important aspect of Vermont’s
industrial period expansion,
French-Canadian immigrants.
Several waves of French
colonists, and later FrenchCanadians, settled in
Vermont. By 1863, much of
the Québec’s rich agricultural
land in the Champlain Valley
was expensive, exhausted,
subdivided among large families, and blighted by insect
pests. The politically dominant English-speaking, or
Anglophone, residents of Québec were antagonistic and
slowly disenfranchised many Francophones. Temporary
jobs in New England’s textile mills, logging and mining
camps, railroad construction, and agriculture offered economic opportunities. The nineteenth-century FrenchCanadian immigrant labor force occupied jobs abandoned
by Vermonters moving west to new lands, as well as new
opportunities founded in the Industrial Period. Historic
documents tell the story of Franklin County residents,
French-Canadian, Irish, and other immigrant laborers
who worked on the Vermont & Canada Railroad (VT-FR316). Railroads were a new transportation technology,
built through experimentation that sometimes damaged
property or cost lives. Archeological fieldwork of the
Vermont & Canada Railroad (VT-FR-316) unearthed
accurate details of stone culvert and stringer bridge9 construction. Laboratory analysis clarified how stringer
bridge planks were bolted together. As a successful new
technology, railroads ultimately remodeled landscapes,
moved village centers, and altered every aspect of
Vermont’s culture. Archival research and archeological
investigation indicates that by the 1860s prosperous
Saxe’s Mills boasted residences, barns and outbuildings, a
post office, saw mill, perhaps a marble mill, a potashery,
and other buildings. When Pierre looks up from shovel-
8
The surname Laber (LaBarre) is derived from author Kathleen E. Callum’s family genealogy. Archeologist Kathleen Callum has
ancestors, as many of your students may, that came from Québec or elsewhere to work on Vermont’s railroads.
9
A stringer bridge is a small wooden bridge, expediently thrown together during construction, that spans small streams such as the
one at Saxe Brook. Although expedient, stringer bridges required high maintenance and were quickly replaced by inserting a culvert
and infilling existing bridge timbers.
POSTER ORGANIZATION
xix
ing pea gravel onto the railroad bed, he views roughly
60% devegetated hillsides, grazed by domesticated purebred animals, and owned by residents of the busy village
of Saxe’s Mills.
In the year 2000, a progressive
student named John King10
participates in an archeological
investigation on his family’s
farm. The King family lives in
the lone farmhouse left standing at Saxe’s Mills, surrounded
by relics from other time periods. During the twenty-first
century, traditional family
farms like the King’s are disappearing fast. Some smaller
farms have evolved into large agribusinesses. Forest has
reclaimed much of Vermont’s countryside, and many rural
places are increasingly urbanized. Newer Rock River
Valley pathways like the Vermont & Canada Railroad
(VT-FR-316) and then Interstate Highway 89 place Saxe’s
Mills further and further from commonly traveled corridors. Once prominent farmsteads and villages in the Rock
River Valley now seem located in remote places. A section
of abandoned road paralleling the Rock River reverts to
grass, woods, and farm fields. Industrial Period buildings
at Saxe’s Mills, such as the grist mill and post office, have
decayed long ago and been transformed into cellar holes.
Saxe Brook is just a trickle, marked by wetland grasses.
Through archeological site identification survey, John
makes a tangible connection between artifacts he and
Vermont Gas consulting archeologists find and his grandfather’s Abenaki and French-Canadian oral history.
John views the four-step archeological method as a
process vital to preserving his unique heritage, as well as
the heritage of other Vermonters. The value of John’s distinct cultural identity and history is affirmed when
Vermont Gas ultimately decides to avoid important archeological sites on his family’s farm. John’s archeology experience is a catalyst that inspires him to steward significant
sites on his family’s property for the future11. The front of
the poster shows John King sharing his information about
the important sites on his family’s property with friends
during an event like Vermont Archaeology Week. The
pace of technological change has quickened but agriculture still plays a dominant role in Franklin County.
Landuse legislation like Act 250 was prompted by
increased growth and major changes to Vermont’s landscape such as construction of Interstate Highway 89, pictured in the vignette’s background. In the vignette, John
King has successfully encouraged his local community
and the Vermont Division for Historic Preservation to
erect an official state historic marker commemorating
Saxe’s Mills, near the existing monument to poet John
Godfrey Saxe.
Time Line
The Rock River Valley History time line focuses on significant Precontact Era and Historic Era events12 and themes
in northeastern North America and northwestern
Vermont. Environmental change, ethnicity, agriculture,
and industry themes are repeated in the Rock River Valley:
Pathway to the Past poster art and text. The poster time
line was intentionally drawn with no world eras or periods, and draws from global examples. This way educators
can choose which world culture(s) they want their class
to focus on. Depending on educator’s goals, these materials will inspire students to learn more about large geographic areas like Central, America, South America,
Africa, Middle East, Europe, Asia, Australia, or other
locations.
The two poster time line eras are subdivided into time
periods. Cultural eras and periods described for northeastern North America and northwestern Vermont are
dramatically different than those for northwestern, southwestern, and southeastern North America. World eras and
periods are even more diverse. Dates marking Precontact
Era events are presented in radiocarbon years and are not
converted to common calendar years. Historic Era events
are shown in standard calendar years. Corresponding
world, and national events and themes are shown along
the left side of the time line. For example, the
Revolutionary War on the left of the time line marks the
beginning of the Euro-American Settlement Period in
northeastern North American and northwestern Vermont.
What is Archeology?
Archeology is the study of past people through clues like
sites, features, and artifacts. Sites are places where past
people lived, worked, or traveled. Features describe large
remains, or evidence of specific human activities. Small
items and fragments are called artifacts.
10
For purposes of the storyline, we have changed the name of the actual current landowner, Fernand Gagne. The surname King and
first name Marie Jeannette are based on author Kathleen E. Callum’s family genealogy.
11
The Native American Saxe Brook North Site (VT-FR-234), the Saxe Farmstead and Mill (VT-FR-325), and the Vermont and Canada
Railroad (VT-FR-316) are actual historic properties currently stewarded by Fernand Gagne, Dennis Nolan, Vermont Gas, and other
Highgate area landowners.
12
Like all time lines, there may be some discrepancy in associated dates, depending on which authority was cited.
xx
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
Educator’s Tour of Ar cheology
• The guide defines archeology and introduces concepts
important to archeologists
• Each section addresses one or two major concepts,
including: time, culture, geography (spatial distribution), and processes that transform sites
• Vermont Gas encourages stewardship of unique, nonrenewable resources through example
Our nation’s sites are unique, non-renewable resources.
Vermont’s rich and ancient heritage is being lost at an
increasingly alarming rate due to natural and human
causes. Even archeological excavation, or digging a site,
destroys it forever. Vermont Gas preserves our past for
the future by avoiding sites through early landuse planning. Vermont Gas created this poster and accompanying
educator’s guide using information from dozens of archeological sites. Consulting archeologists identified, evaluated, or avoided these sites before the pipeline was constructed. This information helps us understand the past,
gives Vermonters a sense of identity, and provides an
important base for future tourism.
Scientific Archeological Method
The four-step scientific archeological method is introduced by the character, Arti Fact13. Vermont Gas consulting archeologists condensed the standard approach to
archeological investigation and the scientific method of
inquiry into four critical steps (Table 4). In other words,
we have combined archeological process (e.g., archival
research) with cognitive inquiry (e.g., observation and
formulating questions and hypotheses) to address standards. For convenience, we have termed this the scientific
archeological method—it is an archeological process
which incorporates scientific method. In reality, archeologists from business, academic, and non-profit sectors may
repeatedly only engage in parts of the archeological
process, though perhaps not ordered as we presented
them. The four-step scientific archeological method is
identified by numbers (e.g., 1 ) on the Rock River Valley:
Pathway to the Past poster and where introduced in the
educator’s guide lessons.
TABLE 4. Scientific Archeological Method
13
INVESTIGATIVE PROCESS
SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY
EDUCATOR’S GUIDE SECTION
Archival Research
Observation and forming questions or hypotheses
4
Fieldwork
Testing and refining hypotheses to construct
theory and accumulate substantive evidence
5
Laboratory Analysis
Testing and refining hypotheses to construct theory
and accumulate substantive evidence
6
Public Reporting
Reporting on theory or general law
8
The name Arti Fact, selected by the advisory committee, is an intentional play on words. Archeologists rely on artifacts and their
context to provide facts about the unwritten past.
POSTER ORGANIZATION
xxi
Scientific, cognitive inquiry, such as formulating hypotheses, may reoccur throughout archival research, fieldwork,
laboratory analysis, and reporting. Some archeologists
even do their best thinking at the dinner table, a kind of
public reporting!
Follow Arti Fact and the archeologists as they travel
along the Rock River’s pathway to the past. Help investigate threatened sites through a process of 1 archival
research, 2 careful fieldwork, 3 laboratory analysis,
and 4 public reporting.
DIGGING INTO ARCHIVES
1
An archeologist starts work by doing research to predict where
sites might be found and how to avoid disturbing them.
ASSEMBLING
3
xxii
THE
2
PAST
Artifacts like this bolt help archeologists reconstruct
what a railroad stringer bridge really looks like!
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
CAREFUL FIELDWORK
TO THE
PAST
Archeologists dig test pits, measure the three-dimensional
location of all features and artifacts in situ (in place), and
screen sediments for other finds.
INTERPRETING FINDINGS
4
Archeologists accurately report on their work and describe findings to the public because excavation destroys a site forever.
RECOMMENDED RESOURCES
more about Rock River Valley poster characters
and sites
Sloma, Robert A. and Kathleen E. Callum, with contributions by
Jacquie M. Payette, Peter H. Morrison, Gerald B. Fox, Sheila
Charles, Robert J. Hasenstab, 2001. Phase I Archeological Site
Identification Survey of the Proposed Route 1 Vermont Gas
Systems, Inc., Systems Expansion Project, Highgate, Franklin
County, Vermont. Unpublished Contract Report by GEOARCH,
Inc., 594 Indian Trail Leicester, Vermont 05733. Submitted to
Vermont Gas Systems, Inc., P.O. Box 467, Burlington, Vermont
05402-0467.
Ledoux, Rodney R., ed. 1988. The History of Swanton, Vermont.
Swanton, Vermont: The Swanton Historical Society, Inc.
Annotation: Mentions local Native American sites of importance
as well as a detailed section on lime industry and railroads.
Linsley, D.C. 1863. Specifications for the Vermont and Canada
Railway. Burlington, Vermont: W. H. & C. A. Hoyt & Co. Jim
Murphy collection. Cited with the permission of Jim Murphy.
Munsell, Lottie. 1936. John G. Saxe and “Little Jerry the Miller”
The Vermonter 41, no. 4, December: 247-249.
Rawson, Deborah. 1989. Without a Farmhouse Near: The Story of
Jericho and Underhill, Two Traditional Vermont Communities in
Transition—from Dairy Farms to the Suburbs. New York, New
York: Available Press, Ballantine Books.
Saxe, John Godfrey. 1892. The Poetical Works of John Godfrey
Saxe. New York, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Annotation: This volume contains the poem Little Jerry, the
Miller which allegedly features the Saxe mill in Highgate,
Vermont. It is unclear who drew the accompanying illustration,
or if it accurately portrays the mill.
Saxe, John Godfrey, ed. 1929. Genealogy of the Saxe Family.
Annotation: Compiled by Hannah Saxe Drury when she was 81,
for her grandson Horace Eugene Allen. John Godfrey Saxe edited and added to the text in July and December 1929, with the
help of several family members.
Saxe, Mary Sollace. 1901. A Vermont Bard. The Vermonter 7, no.
5, December: 422-427.
Skeels, Amos. 1871. Highgate: Introduction to the History of
Highgate. In Vermont Historical Gazetteer: A Magazine,
Embracing, a History of Each Town, Civil, Ecclesiastical,
Biographical and Military, Volume 2 of 3, ed. Abby Maria
Hemenway, pages 254-269. Burlington, Vermont: Miss A. M.
Hemenway.
Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher. 1982. Good Wives: Image and Reality in
the Lives of Women in Northern New England, 1650-1750. New
York, New York: Vintage Books, A Division of Random House,
Inc.
POSTER ORGANIZATION
xxiii
xxiv
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
SECTION ONE:
TIME
FLOWS THROUGH VERMONT’S
ROCK RIVER VALLEY
Time, Time Lines, Eras, and Periods
Objective:
T
his section introduces students to the concept of time (past, present and
future), eras, and periods. Students accurately identify historical and modern environments,
subsistence strategies, ethnicity, building styles, modes of transportation, and artifacts.
Historical eras and periods are properly sequenced by students using narratives, historic maps,
and local histories.
Focusing Questions:
How do modern Americans view time?
Do all cultures view time similarly?
Vocabulary List:
A.D.
Historic Era
archeology
(also spelled archaeology)
linear
B.C.
B.C.E.
B.P.
calendar
C.E
clock
cyclical
dating system
era
lunar
oral history
period
Precontact Era
season (adj.- seasonal)
site, archeological
solar
time
time line
time scale
SECTION ONE: TIME FLOWS THROUGH VERMONT’S ROCK RIVER VALLEY
1
SECTION ONE:
1.1
LESSON
D I D Y O U K N O W. . .
1.1 Vermont’s archeological sites reach 11,500 years into
the past
time flows through Vermont’s Rock
River Valley
1.2 Archeology adds time depth to Vermont history
1.3 People organize time in cyclical or linear ways
For a long time, the Rock River has flowed through its
valley. Here is a special region where we can retrace the
passage of time. The science of archeology allows us to
travel back into the distant past. Archeologists trace long
stretches of time, not as vast as geologists but more than
historians. Places in the Rock River Valley that contain
unique information about Vermont’s human past are
called archeological sites. Comparing how different cul-
1.4 Seasons (solar and lunar), clocks, and calendars help
measure time cycles
1.5 Calendars, time lines, and time scales represent linear
time
1.6 Linear time lines and scales can be labeled and divided
variously
1.7 Different dating systems (e.g., A.D., B.C.) mark exact
moments in time14
Vermont’s archeological sites span well over, “three centuries of history and roughly 11,500 years of prehistory.
For approximately 97% of this past, archaeological sites
provide the only source of information for reconstructing
a complex and exciting story of peoples’ lives...”
tures and scientists track time helps us understand how
long the Rock River has flowed through its valley.
There are a lot of ways to organize time: cyclical versus
linear; clocks and calendars; time lines and time scales.
Historic time lines and scales can be variously labeled
(sequenced) or divided (transitions) depending on what
– Vermont Division for Historic Preservation (1991:1-1)
Vermont Historic Preservation Plan: Native American
Prehistory
14
Occasionally c.a. is written as an abbreviation to indicate chronological age. Or ca. is written as an abbreviation of circa, meaning
about. We have chosen to use both abbreviations on the Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past poster for several reasons. During the
Precontact period we talk about broad trends and use c.a. to indicate that age is not definite because we have so few sites precisely
dated, but age largely follows callendrical years. In other instances we discuss specific events whose dates may vary. For example
we use ca. for the Seven Years War date range, because this event was perceived differently in North American and differently in
Europe.
P R E C O N TA C T E R A
Jesuits establish mission on Isle La Motte
1642
Samuel De Champlain enters lake
1609
1620
First stage coaches appear
in Europe
British and Portuguese sailors
reach Labrador, Canada
1501
Earliest evidence of corn and beans
grown in Vermont
c.a.1100
c.a. 800
Norse explorers settle L’Anse aux Meadows in
Newfoundland, Canada
Increased Abenaki presence
at Missisquoi
c.a. 900
Romans invent waterwheel
c.a. 1000
First documented use of the
Boucher Cemetery in Swanton
c.a. 3,500
c.a. 4000
Over 100 species of large mammals become extinct
c.a. 7,000
Sumerians use wheeled carts
drawn by donkeys or oxen
Most recent remains of mastodon in the Northeast
c.a. 7,200
John’s Bridge Site occupied
Reagen Site occupied in Highgate
c.a. 8,000c.a. 7,200
c.a. 6,000
Farming gradually develops in Central America
Modern Lake Champlain forms
c.a. 8,000
c.a.6170 ±237
Rivers cut down as land rebounds
from the weight of melted glaciers
End of the Champlain Sea
Paleo Indians probably in Vermont
c.a. 9,300
c.a. 8,200
Seawater entering Vermont creates Champlain Sea
c.a. 10,000
c.a. 8,200
Agriculture invented in the
Middle East
Melting glaciers form Lake Vermont
c.a. 10,750
c.a. 9000
Earliest evidence of horticulture in the Middle East
Vermont last dominated by glacial ice
c.a. 11,000
PAST
c.a. 12,000
TO THE
Domestication of animals
begins
Earliest evidence of
c.a.2,000,000
stone tools
NORTHEASTERN NORTH AMERICA
& NORTHWESTERN VERMONT
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
WORLD
ROCK RIVER VALLEY HISTORY TIME LINE
2
WOODLAND PERIOD
900 B.C. – 1609 A.D.
Earliest evidence of Native Americans
in the Rock River Valley
ARCHAIC PERIOD
7000-900 B.C.
PALEO INDIAN PERIOD 9500-7000 B.C.
topic is emphasized. Throughout the centuries, people
have devised many dating systems to mark specific events
in time.
1.2
us about their lives. Through archeology they can! Other
than artifacts from archeological sites, art objects featuring lifeways prior to Samuel de Champlain’s arrival are
also scarce. Archeology adds a new dimension to our
understanding of ordinary people from all eras whose
lives were rarely recorded in history books, living memories, and art.
archeology adds time depth
The study of archeology
ae or e
(also spelled archaeology)
Some
people
write
adds tremendous time depth
archeology
instead
of
to our ability to interpret
archaeology.
Spelling
Vermont’s past. Archeology
with either is correct!
is the scientific study of past
Words like these in the
human lives through the
English language origianalysis of environmental
nally contained the æ
data, building remains, fealigature, from Classical
tures, artifacts, and other
Latin. Now many peoclues. Written history, oral
ple drop the “a” (ie.,
history or people’s memoesthetic vs aesthetic).
ries, art objects, and archeology are all different ways of
stepping back into time. Many people turn to written history when they want to study our past. In Vermont, written history only began in 1609, when Samuel de
Champlain sailed down the lake that now bears his name.
While Vermont’s earliest Native Americans maintained a
rich oral history, their traditions did not include written
languages. Conflict and disease following European contact reduced Native American populations and dramatically fragmented surviving oral traditions. Imagine if 400
generations of Native American grandmothers could tell
1.3
Cyclical versus Linear Time
To study the Rock River Valley and other historic places,
we need to comprehend how time flows, or how different
people organize time. People keep track of cyclical and
linear time.
Time—a nonspatial continuum in which events occur
in apparently irreversible succession from the past
through the present to the future.
– William Morris (1973:1346) American Heritage
Dictionary of the English Language
1.4
time cycles: seasons, clocks, and
calendars
Cultures in tune with the land, rhythms of natural
resources, and the cosmos (universe), often emphasize
the cyclical or seasonal nature of time. Seasonal cycles
arise from solar (sun) and lunar (moon) movements. The
HISTORIC ERA
Act 250 passed / first Vermont Green-Up Day
Abenaki cultural revival begins
Abenaki Tribal Museum and
Cultural Center established
Franklin County still hub
of argiculture and maple
syrup production
1970
1975
1999
2000
Interstate 89 constructed through Franklin County
Natural Gas fuel first transported to Franklin &
Chittenden Counties
1965
Railroad line discontinued through Highgate
1964-67
Missisquoi National Wildlife Refuge established
1955
1961
Yuri Gagarin first person
in space
Rural electrification in Vermont
1942
MODERN PERIOD 1935 A.D. – PRESENT
1935
Fenian General Spears leaves Franklin to
invade Canada
1866
Wright Brothers first
successful flight
1903
Vermont & Canada Railroad
runs through Highgate
1864
First railroad line finished through Vermont
1849
1861-65
United States Civil War
Peak of Merino sheep farming
in Vermont
1840
1837-38
Champlain Canal opened
1823
Papineau Rebellion in
Lower Canada
Republic of Vermont joins
the United States
1791
First public railroad opened
Saxe family builds first grist mill
in Franklin County
1786
1812
Republic of Vermont founded
INDUSTRIAL PERIOD 1823 A.D. –1935 A.D.
War of 1812
Revolutionary War
1775-83
New York Governor Dunmore issues a grant for
the town of Plattsburgh, includes part of Highgate
and Swanton
1771
New Hampshire Governor Benning Wentworth
issues Highgate town charter
1763
1763
Treaty of Paris, English
assume rule of Canada
from French
Seven Years War ca.1754-60/63
King George’s War
René-Nicholas Levasseur granted Highgate,
Swanton, and St. Armand, Quebec
1748
Second Mission established at Missisquoi
1743
1744-48
Earliest documented smallpox outbreak at
Missisquoi, but disease already rampant
1730
Grey Locke’s or Dummer’s War
First Mission established at Missisquoi
King Louis XV of France issues first royal land
grants
1676
1688
Fort Saint Anne abandoned
1674
1723-27
French build Fort Saint Anne
on Isle LaMotte
1666
1777
EURO-AMERICAN
SETTLEMENT PERIOD
1775 A.D. – 1823 A.D.
CONTACT PERIOD 1609 A.D. – 1775 A.D.
SECTION ONE: TIME FLOWS THROUGH VERMONT’S ROCK RIVER VALLEY
3
Western Abenaki of Vermont, for instance, named intervals in their seasonal round after whatever bounty nature
offered that month. For example, Abenaki called the
spring time for sowing or planting, kikhadin. In Central
America, the Maya maintained three calendars, two of
which were based on cyclical celestial movements. The
Tzolkin was the Mayan sacred calendar and the Haab
recorded seasons. In Brazil, the Tukano Indians watched
the position of stars like the constellation Pleiades to
determine crop planting season. In Finland and Norway,
Laplanders followed seasonal reindeer migrations. Many
early cultures first measured the passage of time with candles, sand, water, weights, or simple sundials.
characteristics: themes, illustrations, segments of time,
dating systems, and key events.
Time lines typically illustrate one or more themes. For
example, the poster time line dates the movement of different ethnic groups into the region, changes in agriculture, modes of transportation, and new industrial developments. A time line may be illustrated with pictures,
photographs, or even text. The Rock River Valley: Pathway
to the Past poster time line shows what environments, or
lifeforms, and artifacts are characteristic of each interval
of time.
1.5.3
Modern calendars first arranged time into days, weeks,
months, and years, based on seasons. Further improvements in time measurement were connected to early
mechanical time keeping devices, or clocks. China is
attributed with inventing the earliest mechanical clock.
Clocks didn’t appear in Europe until the fourteenth century, and gained popularity there as navigational aids during the eighteenth century.
1.5
linear time: calendars, time lines, and
time scales
1.5.1
calendars
Calendars help us track the linear flow of time, as well as
cyclical seasons. The Maya’s third calendar documented
years since the beginning of time in a “long count.” Our
modern calendar springs from early time keeping systems
that originated in the Middle East. Sumerians kept the
first calendars on clay tablets to measure the ebb and flow
of years. Later calendars were developed by the
Babylonians, Egyptians, Hebrews, Romans, and Moslems.
time scales
PALEOINDIANS
The earth is at least
CONTINENTAL
4,500 million years
GLACIATION
old, a span of time
almost too immense
to comprehend.
Geologists and others
HUMANS
looking at long
EVOLVED
stretches of linear
time mathematically
divide time lines into time scales. In geology, each time
scale division is separated by a significant event such as
the rise of a mountain range, extinction, or development
of a new species. For example, people evolved approximately 1.5-2.0 million years ago at the beginning of the
Quaternary Period. The geological time scale represents
even this large chunk of time as only a minute fraction of
the earth’s past.
If the geological time scale was a clock that started ticking 4.5 billion years ago, humans evolved at about 19 seconds before midnight, continental glaciation occurred 9.6
seconds ago, and Paleoindians arrived in Vermont 0.01
seconds before midnight, just as the last ice melted away.
Modern people with their airplanes, computers, and biologically engineered corn, can hardly be seen on the geological clock or time scale.
The calendar we use today is easily traced to the Roman’s
ten-month lunar calendar. Julius Caesar, emperor of
Rome, made some improvements to the Roman calendar
after he returned from Egypt. Historians call this the
Julian calendar. In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII further
revised the Julian calendar to the one we still use today.
1.6
The Gregorian calendar features uneven months and an
odd number of weeks in each month. To address these
deficiencies, calendar enthusiast Elizabeth Achelis proposed a World Calendar in 1930, later endorsed by the
United Nations. The World Calendar has not been widely
adopted and much of the earth’s population still marks
days off on the Gregorian Calendar.
Linear time lines and time scales are often labeled and
divided into intervals or segments. The labels (sequences)
and divisions (transitions) from one interval to another
may vary depending on what topic is emphasized. The
Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past poster, for example,
labels two divisions of time used by archeologists:
Precontact and Historic.
1.5.2
The Precontact Era on the poster outlines Native
American occupation in North America before the arrival
of Europeans. The poster shows the Precontact Era subdivided into the following sequence of time periods:
Paleoindian, Archaic, and Woodland.
time lines
Linear time lines are a handy way of visualizing vast
lengths of time. Time lines like the one on the Rock River
Valley: Pathway to the Past poster usually share certain
4
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
historical sequences and transitions
TABLE 5. Rock River Archeology versus Standard Time Lines
CHARACTER
ROCK RIVER ARCHEOLOGY
VERMONT STANDARDS
TIMELINE
Shy One
Contact Period
Pre-Contact to 1608 Era
Catherine Saxe
Euro-American Settlement Period
Revolutionary/New Era (1775-1791)
Pierre LaBarre
Industrial Period
Agricultural, Industrial,
Social Transition Era (1791-1860)
John King
Modern Period
Modern Era (1930-Present)
The Historic Era, or advent of written language, describes
time in North America after the arrival of Europeans.
Although most archeologists label these the periods, we
use the term era to be consistent with Vermont’s
Framework of Standards and Learning Opportunities.
Just as segments of long rivers often have different names,
there are various ways of classifying time intervals.
Sometimes the terms era, age, and period are synonymous. That is, they mark continuous intervals exhibiting
common characteristics. Alternatively, experts from history, archeology, geology or other scientific fields may
define these terms to mean specific types of time divisions. For example, Vermont’s archeologists use period to
mean an interval of time with common characteristics
while Vermont’s educators define period as a time of rapid
change. Table 5 shows how the poster time line compares
to the time line recommended in the Vermont’s Framework
of Standards and Learning Opportunities.
Geologists subdivide their time line into broad eras,
shorter periods, and even smaller epochs—each has a
specific geological meaning.
Whether archeological or geological, most time sequences
have boundaries. The transition or change from one era
or period to another on any time line may be marked by
an event or events or merely described as a time period of
rapid change. On the poster, for instance, the arrival of
Samuel de Champlain in 1609 is an event that marks a
transition from the Woodland Period to the Contact
Period. We’re in a time period of rapid technological
change now, driven by computers and the internet!
1.7
TIMELINE
Dates associated with the Gregorian calendar are commonly written B.C. for Before Christ and A.D. for anno
Domini which translates from Latin as “In the year of our
Lord.” More recently, we have begun to use B.C.E. for
Before the Common Era and C.E. for Common Era, in
place of B.C. and A.D. Some people consider B.C.E. and
C.E., less Eurocentric than B.C. and A.D., especially
when discussing cultures that existed in North America
almost 10,000 years prior to European contact. Therefore,
some archeologists identify the beginning of the
Paleoindian period as 9500 B.C. before the common era
according to the Gregorian calendar, or simply 9500
B.C.E. Archeologists also measure time using radioactive
Carbon-14. They apply these measurements to find the
age of once living tissue such as wood. When using
radiocarbon years, archeologists describe time in B.P., or
years before present (1950, corresponding to the date
when this method was invented). Radiocarbon years cannot be directly equated with calendar years until they are
converted.
Dating systems and other ways to organize time allow
Vermont’s archeologists to chart the river of time. The
Paleoindian Period began in Vermont around 11,500 B.P
or 9500 B.C., following the end of the last ice age.
Vermont’s Rock River cut its present course about 8200
B.C. Evidence from archeological sites suggest that its
banks became a travel corridor and home for Archaic
Period people at least 6000 years ago or 4000 B.C.
Woodland Period Abenaki may have grown corn along
the Missisquoi and Rock Rivers after 1100 A.D.
Governors in New Hampshire and New York argued land
claims for European immigrants along the Rock River
Dating Systems
Dating systems are used to mark an exact moment or
event in time. The Blackfoot Indians on the Plains
describe time before Europeans introduced horses as “dog
days,” because their culture was less mobile when they
used dogs to carry their belongings. Perhaps if their language and dating system were written today, they would
abbreviate time as B.H., Before Horse, or A.D. After Dog.
Different dating system abbreviations mark other important cultural events, such as the birth of Christ or development of radiocarbon dating.
Abbreviations indicate which type of dating system marks
specific events.
SECTION ONE: TIME FLOWS THROUGH VERMONT’S ROCK RIVER VALLEY
5
during the Contact Period between 1763 and 1771 A.D.
The first grist mill in Franklin County was built on a
small Rock River tributary stream in 1786 A.D during the
Euro-American Settlement Period. The Vermont &
Canada Railroad (VT-FR-316) was finished in 1864 during the Industrial Period. The state of Vermont constructed Interstate Highway 89 through the Rock River Valley,
from 1964-1967 A.D. during the Modern Period. The
interstate highway also leads to the Abenaki Tribal
Museum and Cultural Center where you can learn more
about archeology and the river of time.
6
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
SECTION ONE:
ACTIVITY 1A
Standard: 6.4aa
Length: one class period
Materials: poster
Assignment:
View the front of the Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past poster. Examine the time line on
the back and read the character narratives. Listen to the Lesson or read the photocopy provided by your teacher. Answer the following questions orally or in writing. You should understand how time is organized. You should also be able to recognize different systems of dating
events.
Questions:
1. Who are the four main Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past poster characters?
2. What time periods do the four poster characters represent?
3. Does the poster primarily show time as linear or cyclical?
4. Name one of two poster characters who refer to cyclical time.
5. How do they refer to cyclical time?
6. What parts of the Rock River Valley History Time Line characterize it as a time line?
7. What do the initials B.C. and A.D. stand for in the Gregorian calendar?
8. List at least two other dating system abbreviations.
SECTION ONE: TIME FLOWS THROUGH VERMONT’S ROCK RIVER VALLEY
7
SECTION ONE:
ACTIVITY 1B
Standard: 6.4 dd
Length: one class period
Materials: poster paper
markers and/or colored pencils
photocopy excerpts from primary and secondary local histories
local history (see below).
Assignment:
Listen to the Lesson or read the photocopy provided by your teacher. Class divides into small
groups (3-4). Develop a time line of your own community, using primary and secondary local
histories (e.g., Hemenway, Child’s, Beers). The time line should contain the following checklist
of characteristics outlined in Question 6 of Activity 1A :
Checklist:
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
intervals of time (e.g., eras and periods)
a dating system (e.g., A.D.)
characteristic theme(s)
dates of key events
text, illustrations, or photographs
For example, your time line should consist of a sequence of historical eras or periods, dates,
and key events. Focus on one theme. You could illustrate how one of the following cultural or
technological characteristics have changed through time: modes of transportation, buildings,
clothing style, subsistence or foodways. Key events should include local community, state,
national, and worldwide dates related to your selected time line theme.
8
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
SECTION ONE:
ANSWERS
Activity 1A Answers:
1. Shy One; Catherine Saxe; Pierre LaBarre; and John King.
2. Contact Period; Euro-American Settlement Period; Industrial Period; and Modern Period.
3. Linear.
4. Shy One and/or Catherine Saxe.
5. Shy One refers to a “seasonal round” typical of hunting and gathering groups such as
Vermont’s Abenaki. Catherine Saxes mentions Abenaki visiting the farm seasonally, and also
her sons farming and hunting on a seasonal basis.
6. Time eras and periods; a dating system (e.g., A.D.); characteristic theme(s); dates of key
events related to four Rock River Valley themes; illustrations of artifacts and animals/environments related to the themes.
7. Before Christ and anno Domini (In the year of our Lord).
8. In the Common Era (C.E.) and Before the Common Era (B.C.E.). Archeological B.P. or
Before Present. Geological Era, Period, and Epoch.
Activity 1A Assessment:
Use rubric 1A and the answer key provided to record student responses to questions 1-4.
Observe individual student oral presentations to determine if they comprehend how time is
presently organized and recorded, and that different dating systems exist in their own culture
and elsewhere.
Activity 1B Answers:
Checklist:
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
intervals of time (e.g., eras and periods)
a dating system (e.g., A.D.)
characteristic theme(s)
dates of key events
text, illustrations, or photographs
Activity 1B Assessment:
Use rubric 1B and checklist provided to review student time lines. Observe student interaction
in each group and assess each person’s contributions. Record your observations.
SECTION ONE: TIME FLOWS THROUGH VERMONT’S ROCK RIVER VALLEY
9
SECTION ONE:
RECOMMENDED
RESOURCES
time
Canadian History Timeline, A.D. 1000-1984.
Annotation: This internet time line is adapted from Atlantic
Canadian History class assignments, Mount Allison University,
1991-93, and Notable dates in Canadian History, The Canadian
World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1989 (Toronto: Global Press,
1988), pp. 21-27. Online at:
http://rowlf.cc.wwu.edu:8080/~jay/pages/docs/timeline.html
Chisholm, Jane. 1987. World History Dates. The Usborne
Illustrated World History. Scotland, United Kingdom: Usborne
Publishing, Ltd.
Ewers, John C. 1958. The Blackfeet: Raiders on the Northwestern
Plains. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma.
Goudsmit, Samuel A., Robert Claiboune, Renè Dubos, Henry
Margenau, and C. P. Snow. 1966. Time. Edited by Martin Mann.
Life Science Library. New York, New York: Time Inc.
Nothiger, Andreas. 2000. World History: 3,000 years of world history timelines. Online at: http://hyperhistory.com/index.html.
Annotation: This webpage shows a sample of the original World
History Chart and links to the award winning project
HyperHistory Online. Hyperhistory covers the major epochs of
world history during the last 3000 years. An abbreviated timeline beyond 1000 BC and from there to Prehistory can be
accessed from the bottom of the History Index.
Panati, Charles. 1987. Extraordinary Origins of Everyday Things.
New York, New York: Harper & Row Publishers.
Annotation: Chapter 3, pages 45-75 are about our modern calendar.
Schele, Linda and David Freidel. 1990. A Forest of Kings: The
Untold Story of the Ancient Maya. New York, New York: William
Morrow & Company, Inc.
Annotation: Contains a concise explanation of the Maya calendar and its origins.
Gould, Stephen Jay. 1987. Time’s Arrow, Time’s Cycle: Myth and
Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time. The JerusalemHarvard Lectures. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard
University Press.
Taylor, Christy. 2000. American History Timeline.
Annotation: A very impressive time line and links to other time
lines by a talented teenager from Smoky Lake, Alberta, Canada.
Online at:
http://www.smokylake.com/Christy/history/america.htm.
Ledoux, Rodney R., ed. 1988. The History of Swanton, Vermont.
Swanton, Vermont: The Swanton Historical Society, Inc.
Annotation: Introduces Swanton’s history with a regional time
line applicable to Franklin County. An, Interactive Outline of the
History of Swanton time line based on Rodney Ledoux’s book is
online at: http://www.rootsweb.com/~vtfrankl/swan-tl.htm.
Turvey, Peter. 1992. Inventions: Inventors and Ingenious Ideas.
Edited by David Salariya. Timelines. New York, New York:
Franklin Watts.
Annotation: Surveys inventions throughout history in relation
to the needs, skills, and technologies ot the people living at particular times, presented as a time line.
Maestro, Betsy. 1999. The Story of Clocks and Calendars: Marking
a Millennium. New York, New York: Lothrop, Lee & Shepard
Books.
Williams, Ethel W. 1969. Know Your Ancestors: A Guide to
Genealogical Research. Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle
Company.
Annotation: Chapter 3, pages 34-36 are about our modern calendar.
Morris, William, ed. 1973. The American Heritage Dictionary of
the English Language. New York, New York: American Heritage
Publishing Co., Inc. and Houghton Mifflin Company.
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). 1997. A
NIST Physics Laboratory presentation: A Walk Through Time, The
Evolution of Time Measurement. Online at:
http://physics.nist.gov/GenInt/Time/time.html.
Annotation: One of the best sites on time and time measurement.
National Park Service. 1999. Public Archeology in the United
States. December 16, 8:53.
Annotation: A detailed internet time line of American archeology history and law. Online at: http://www.cr.nps.gov/add/timeline/timeline.htm.
10
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
Wolkomir, Joyce Rogers, Tom Slayton, Linda Dean Paradee, and
John Lazenby. 1990. Turning Points: Events that Shaped
Vermont. Vermont Life 45, no. 2: 2-13.
Annotation: Particularly helpful to delineate key Vermont
events.
introductory pathways to the past
Dixon, Dougal. 1992. The Practical Geologist. A Fireside Book,
Simon & Schuster, Inc., New York, New York.
Annotation: Colorful, factual, and easy to read introduction to
earth history.
Fagan, Brian M., ed. 1996. The Oxford Companion to Archaeology.
Oxford University Press, New York, New York.
Annotation: Encyclopedic approach to archeology, includes time
lines for different regions of the world in the back of the book.
Kammen, Carol. 1986. On Doing Local History: Reflections on
What Local Historians Do, Why, and What it Means. Walnut
Creek, California: AltaMira Press.
Annotation: A good introductory methodology explaining the
reasons for studying human history at a local level. Largely
addresses written history, with mention of architecture and
antique objects, but not archeology!.
Mansfield, Howard. 1995. In the Memory House. Fulcrum
Publishing, Golden, Colorado.
Annotation: A very well-written description about what we can
learn from historic people, objects, and antiques.
McIntosh, Jane. 1999. The Practical Archaeologist: How We Know
What We Know About the Past. New York, New York: Checkmark
Books.
Annotation: Colorful, factual, and easy to read introduction to
archeology methods and contributions.
Yow, Valerie Raleigh. 1994. Recording Oral History: A Practical
Guide for Social Scientists. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE
Publications, Inc.
Division for Historic Preservation.
Annotation: An excellent introduction to Vermont’s diverse
archeological sites that add time depth to our public heritage.
Van Diver, Bradford B. 1987. Roadside Geology of Vermont and
New Hampshire. Edited by David Alt and Donald Hyndman.
Roadside Geology. Missoula, Montana: Mountain Press.
Annotation: This introduction to Vermont and New Hampshire’s
geology starts with a chronological overview of geological
events, includes a time scale.
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation. 1991. Vermont
Historic Preservation Plan: Native American Prehistory.
Manuscript prepared by the University of Vermont, Consulting
Archaeology Program for the Vermont Division for Historic
Preservation, Department of Housing and Community Affairs,
Agency of Commerce and Community Development.
Annotation: A condensed version of this publication is presented by Peter Thomas as an article in The Journal of Vermont
Archaeology, volume 1. This recent, thorough article describes
what is known about the archeology of Vermont’s Precontact
periods chronologically.
other sources for creating local time lines
approaches to understanding Vermont’s past: essential
resources
Aldrich, Lewis Cass, ed. 1891. History of Franklin and Grand Isle
Counties, Vermont. Syracuse, New York: D. Mason & Co.
Haviland, William A. and Marjory W. Power. 1994. The Original
Vermonters: Native Inhabitants, Past and Present. Hanover, New
Hampshire: University Press of New England.
Annotation: Vermont’s landmark text synthesizing Native
American archeology from early times to the present, a must for
every bookshelf!
Beers, Frederick W. 1871. Atlas of Franklin and Grand Isle
Counties, Vermont: From Actual Surveys by and under the
Direction of F. W. Beers. New York: F. W. Beers & Co.
Annotation: Very detailed historic maps. Residential and commercial buildings depicted with owners/occupants initials. Be
careful, although these maps are detailed, they are not as accurate as modern maps.
Johnson, Charles W. 1998. The Nature of Vermont: Introduction
and Guide to a New England Environment, New and Expanded.
Hanover, New Hampshire: University Press Of New England.
Annotation: Fosters an understanding of Vermont’s changing
environment through time.
Ledoux, Rodney R., ed. 1988. The History of Swanton, Vermont.
Swanton, Vermont: The Swanton Historical Society, Inc.
Annotation: An example of a local town history, illustrating
county and state-wide trends over time.
Meeks, Harold, A. 1986a. Time and Change in Vermont: A Human
Geography. Chester, Connecticut: Globe Pequot Press.
Annotation: An essential geographic approach to studying
Vermont’s human past, very readable.
Peebles, Giovanna. 1989. A Rich and Ancient Heritage.
Montpelier, Vermont: Unpublished Pamphlet by the Vermont
Child, Hamilton, ed. 1883. Gazetteer and Business Directory of
Franklin and Grand Isle Counties, Vermont for 1882-83. Syracuse,
New York: The Journal Office.
Hemenway, Abby Maria, ed. 1871. The Vermont Historical
Gazetteer: A Magazine, Embracing a History of Each Town, Civil,
Ecclesiastical, Biographical and Military. Volume 2 of 3. Edited
by Abby Maria Hemenway. The Vermont Historical Gazetteer.
Burlington, Vermont: Miss A. M. Hemenway.
Annotation: Contains town histories of Franklin, Grand Isle,
Lamoille, and Orange Counties.
Houghton, George F. 1871. Franklin County, Introductory
Chapter. In Vermont Historical Gazetteer: A Magazine, Embracing,
a History of Each Town, Civil, Ecclesiastical, Biographical and
Military, Volume 2 of 3, ed. Abby Maria Hemenway, pages 89103. Burlington, Vermont: Miss A. M. Hemenway.
SECTION ONE: TIME FLOWS THROUGH VERMONT’S ROCK RIVER VALLEY
11
12
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
SECTION TWO:
IF A RIVER COULD SPEAK
Continuity and Change
Objective:
T
his section introduces students to Precontact and Historic Era continuity
using ethnicity, environment, subsistence, modes of transportation, building style, and material objects. Students identify different periods by distinguishing changes in environmental and
cultural characteristics, dates, and events. Archeological sites are presented to students as containing valuable evidence of continuity and change.
Focusing Questions:
What characteristics distinguish different time periods?
Vocabulary List:
activity, human (pl.– activities)
foodway
Archaic Period
landform
artifact
lifeform
change
Paleoindian Period
continuity
structure
cultural characteristics
subsistence
culture
transportation
environment
Western Abenaki
ethnicity
Woodland Period
SECTION TWO: IF A RIVER COULD SPEAK
13
SECTION TWO:
2.1
LESSON
D I D Y O U K N O W. . .
2.1 Archeologists in Vermont interpret past peoples’ stories
from site data
if a river could speak
If a river could speak, what stories would it tell?
Archeology is one of the few ways we can most clearly
hear voices from the distant past. Every unique archeological site discovery can change our perception of history. Archeologists use cultural characteristics to study continuity and change of past peoples. An overview of the
Paleoindian Period illustrates how archeological sites contain rich and varied data about human history: where
people lived, what people did, how they traveled, and
why their culture changed. Scientific archeology is a
method of interpreting otherwise mute voices from each
unique site.
2.2
new site discoveries, new stories
Every site in Vermont contains a unique treasure trove of
knowledge about past peoples. While techniques stay the
same, archeological knowledge, like history, constantly
evolves. Each site discovery can tell a new story about the
past. For example, the Rock River Valley History Time Line
marks 1100 A.D. as the earliest evidence of cultivated
corn and beans in Vermont. Finding an earlier agricultural archeological site could inspire revision of existing
Vermont history text books and time lines. Archeologists
never know what fascinating stories they will reveal at
Vermont’s diverse Precontact and Historic Era sites.
2.3
2.3 Archeologists study continuity and change using cultural characteristics
2.4 The Paleoindian period can be used to illustrate continuity and change
2.5 Examining Rock River Valley history will help you
understand your community’s diverse history
facts, studied by archeologists. The term human activity
refers to archeological evidence of things past people did,
such as seeking food, building shelter, making clothes,
conducting religious ceremonies, playing, and other pastimes.
Archeologists group intervals of continuity into units of
time called periods (or eras, or ages) when people share
one or more cultural characteristics. Cultural periods are
labeled with simple descriptive words like Industrial or
more complex scientific expressions like Archaic. On the
Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past poster, the voice of
Shy One describes life in the early Contact Period. Her
page of history emphasizes Missisquoi Abenaki language,
ethnicity, environment, mode of transportation, subsistence and foodways, clothing, material goods, and other
activities.
culture, continuity, and change
Archeologists study the continuity and change of characteristics that define a culture. There are two techniques
for studying the continuity and change of people who are
no longer living. Archeologists can closely examine a
group of people at a specific moment in time by looking
at cultural characteristics from one or more sites.
Alternatively, archeologists trace what happened to the
culture of people over long stretches of time. Artifacts,
features, and buildings are tangible cultural characteristics at sites.
Every group of people has an identity and a desire to
communicate. Archeologists call these cultural characteristics ethnicity and language. People need a place to live.
Therefore archeologists focus on environments where
people live, or the landforms and lifeforms (plants and
animals) of particular places. Groups of people travel
using modes of transportation. They eat specific foods in
a certain way, which archeologists call subsistence and
foodways. People require shelter, so archeologists investigate structures and building styles. People wear characteristic clothing, which archeologists scrutinize. Tools
people make are only one of the material goods, or arti-
14
2.2 New site discoveries can change time lines and text
books
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
Cultural Characteristics
• Language or ethnicity
• Environment
• Modes of Transportation
• Foodways or Subsistence
• Building Styles
• Clothing
• Material Goods or Artifacts
• Other Activities
The introduction of any new technology or knowledge
can have global consequences. On the poster, Shy One
hints at how the contact between the French and Iroquois
might change the lives of the Missisquoi Abenaki.
Archeologists investigate past change by comparing one
or more cultural characteristics of different time periods.
This process helps archeologists write history books
about long stretches of time, time lines, or posters like
Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past. For example, one
of the themes on the poster is transportation. The time
line lists some important events related to transportation
within the Rock River valley and across the globe. The
four character narratives illustrate technological changes
in Rock River Valley transportation modes from dugout
canoe in Shy One’s time period, oxen in Catherine Saxe’s,
Kuai
(hello, pronounced kweye’)! I am Shy One.
My family and I are Masipskoiak (Missisquoi Abenaki).
We share the name of our permanent village Masipskoiodanak (Flint River village). Yesterday, we traveled
from summer camp in the mountains to autumn camp
here on the Senitewk (Rock River), where we set up our
wigwômal (houses). The men are fishing for salmon in
the small stream and catching waterfowl from dugout
canoes they cached here last spring. If they are lucky, we
may eat deer or moose. I am gathering hickory nuts with
the women and children while others gut and smoke fish. As we work,
Beaver Spirit Power Woman, my grandmother, tells us stories her grandmother told here. Mother asks Grandmother what she thinks about the new
Blacmônak (French) allies with shiny head coverings and firing sticks who
defeated a Kanienkehaga (Mohawk) band on the other side of Bitawbagok
(Lake Champlain). Grandmother replies that life is much different from
when she was a child. I wonder what the future will bring?
Bonjour (Good day)! Pierre LaBarre is my name,
but the payroll clerk lists me as Peter Laber. My father’s
farm in Shefford, Quebec was small, and my parents had
13 children to feed. At eighteen, my parish priest reluctantly blessed me before I left home to seek work in the
United States. Now I’m shoveling sand and pea gravel
over this stone-box culvert and the tracks we built along
the new Vermont & Canada Railroad. Vite (look sharp),
tell the foreman we need more gravel! They say this new
line will bring economic fortune to Franklin County
farms, lime kilns, marble quarries, and mineral springs. Although I work
hard as a railroad laborer, this job may bring me bad luck. The company pays
for our room and board at various houses in Highgate, but some landlords
and workers are starting to grumble that they haven’t been paid. I hear
rumors that other railroad work gangs are using dynamite. Many Quebecois
and Irish workers have already lost their limbs and lives. Even with the
money I make, I probably won’t afford a ticket for the train ride home.
SECTION TWO: IF A RIVER COULD SPEAK
15
Guten Tag (Good day)! My name is Frau (Mistress)
Catherine Saxe, good wife to John Saxe, the miller. Herr
(Mister) Saxe is trading with the Indians at the edge of
the wilderness, where they camp this time of year. Our
six fine sons are tending to the grist mill, improving the
land, or hunting. The youngest children, Jacob, Conrad,
and Hannah, are a great help to my tired old bones with
household work. As you can see, we are in the middle of
making two barrels of soap, scented with mint from the
kitchen garden. Tomorrow, John will slaughter a pig.
I am well known for my scrapple and German potato salad. We will bring
you some in welcome. We are hard working, charitable, and devout
Lutherans. The Saxe family will be glad to have you as a new neighbor, here
in our frontier settlement.
Hello!
My name is John King. I’ll be your guide on
today’s “Pathway to the Past” historic tour. Archeologists
working for Vermont Gas discovered an Abenaki camp
here on my family’s farm, dating to the Precontact Era.
The archeologists showed me how they researched
archives, laid out fieldwork, analyzed remains from the
Saxe Brook North, and wrote reports. I volunteered to
help screen for artifacts. Grandfather told me stories about
our Abenaki ancestor Marie Jeannette, whose family
fished seasonally on the Rock River into the twentieth
century. An old foundation and this grist stone symbolize the EuroAmerican Settlement Period at the Saxe Farmstead and Mill Site. Catherine
Saxe kept house here until she died at age 47. There were so many important
sites along this proposed pipeline route that Vermont Gas and the archeologists eventually chose another corridor along the former Vermont & Canada
Railroad Site. Next, we’ll look at an early railroad feature called a stringer
bridge, built by immigrant laborers. Archeology brings Franklin County’s
past alive! Here, diverse groups of people witnessed transportation change in
the Rock River Valley from dugout canoe to the interstate. Stewarding these
important archeological sites will provide economic growth in the future.
16
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
railroad in Pierre LaBarre’s, and interstate highway in
John King’s. The Rock River poster shows other historic
themes of importance to Franklin County, such as ethnic
diversity, agriculture, and early industry. Archeological
investigation also tells us more about periods of change
during which an event, or events, ushered in the next
time period.
--------------
----------
CONTINUITY
CHANGE
-------------------
2.4.1 changing environments brought
Paleoindians to Vermont
Let’s illustrate continuity and change characteristic of
Vermont’s earliest inhabitants. A period of great change,
waning of the last continental ice sheet, spurred the
arrival of Paleoindians into Vermont. There is no written
history by the Paleoindians, no linguistic (language) evidence, and virtually no oral history. Almost all the information we have comes from less than a handful of rare,
endangered archeological sites. The Reagen Site in East
Highgate, Vermont is one of these unique sites, discovered high above the Missisquoi River on an abandoned
Champlain Sea beach. During the time of the
Paleoindians, Highgate’s Rock River Valley lay underneath
Champlain Sea waters.
2.4.2 continuity during the Paleoindian
Period
The Paleoindian Period (9500-7000 B.C.) lasted for some
2000 years. That’s 10 times longer than the United States
has been a nation! Let’s examine cultural characteristics
of the Paleoindian Period that signal exceptional longevity or continuity.
2.4.3 who were the Paleoindians?
The term ethnicity describes a group sharing common
ancestry, territory, language, and culture. Archeologists
believe Paleoindians throughout the United States have
similar ethnic origins. Physical anthropologists confirm
Paleoindians shared common ancestors with modern
Asian groups. While there may be some ancestral
Paleoindian lineage, Native American Western Abenaki
who occupied Vermont during the Contact Period, were
more closely related to later waves of Bering land bridge
immigrants.
The similarity of artifacts from Alaska, south to the tip of
Chile, and east to Nova Scotia indicates that Paleoindians
migrated across the Bering land bridge and spread relatively rapidly throughout the New World. Archeological
evidence from Vermont and the surrounding region suggests Paleoindians entered Vermont around 9300 B.C. As
mentioned previously, we know nothing about the language of the Paleoindians in Vermont or elsewhere.
2.4.4 traveling and eating in an arctic environment
Geologists and ecologists have demonstrated that
Paleoindians in this region occupied a far different environment than we do now—arctic tundra like northern
Alaska. In those days, the rivers were choked with sediment to a level high over our heads (you can see the evidence of this where many gravel pits sit high on valley
walls). Modern Lake Champlain once linked with the
ocean and contained salt water. This frigid Champlain Sea
hosted a wide range of aquatic resources including Beluga
whales. The Paleoindians were probably migratory, subsisting on big game such as caribou or even mammoth.
They likely traveled by foot through the Northeast’s broad
sea, lake, or river corridors. They also hunted small arctic
fauna (animals) and gathered flora (plants). The Reagen
Site in Highgate and other sites show that Paleoindians
preferred to camp on high, sandy landforms at the edge of
valley corridors and somewhat distant from today’s rivers.
Years later, sand dunes buried their campsites.
2.4.5 Paleoindian shelter, clothing, tools, and
other activities
Like some modern Inuit tribes in the arctic, Paleoindians
occupied their spare time with many activities after a
large kill. They apparently fashioned structures, made or
exchanged clothing, spears, other tools and socialized.
Unfortunately, we can only guess what their hide, bone,
or wood buildings looked like, because organic remains
do not preserve well in acidic, sandy soil. Likewise, most
elements of Paleoindian clothing also deteriorated. We do
know they needed suitable clothing and gear for their
harsh arctic environment. Characteristic tools from the
Paleoindian period include stone fluted spear projectile
points, spurred scrapers, and tiny flake gravers. Some
items were highly decorated and produced from the very
best raw materials. Archeologists interpret Paleoindian
social patterns and trade from the embellished artifacts
SECTION TWO: IF A RIVER COULD SPEAK
17
and raw materials that were brought to sites over long
distances.
Paleoindian
2.4.6 environmental change ends Paleoindian
Period
Paleo – from the Greek palaios, ancient, palai
long ago +
Near the close of the Paleoindian Period, the climate
became milder. Dense forest developed, rivers eroded
down to their present levels, and increasing numbers of
tools made from local materials marked the beginning of
the Archaic Period (7000-900 B.C.). The Champlain Sea
was isolated from the ocean, forming the ancestral fresh
water Lake Champlain. The Rock River cut its present
course at this time. New knowledge and technological
innovations, as expressed in cultural characteristics,
helped Archaic people adapt to a changed environment.
Archaic and later Woodland Period (900 B.C.–1609 A.D.)
sites provide material evidence of different languages or
ethnicity, environments, modes of transportation, foodways or subsistence, building style, clothing, material
goods or artifacts, and other activities. Archeologists use
these cultural characteristics to help bring the past to life.
The same scientific techniques, revealing similar types of
information, are also applied to sites from the Historic
Era.
Indian – Native American, original inhabitant of
North America
Archeologists date the Reagan Site in East
Highgate, Vermont between 8,000 - 7,200 B.C.
from artifacts alone. This unique site was discovered eroding from a former Champlain Sea beach
high above the Missisquoi River.
Recent Paleoindian site discoveries in Newport,
Vermont and Jefferson, New Hampshire show we
have much to learn about this early time period.
Ar chaic
Archaic – from the Greek arkhaikos, arkhaios
ancient, arkhê beginning, arkhein begin
Through archeology we know Native Americans
used the Rock River Valley as part of their seasonal round by 4000 B.C. Other Archaic Period
camp sites like Johns Bridge have been found
nearby.
Larger Native American villages did not concentrate along the Missisquoi River for another
3,300 years, in the Woodland Period. Vermont’s
Woodland Period is characterized by use of
ceramics (pottery) and large agricultural fields
with cultivated plants like corn, beans and
squash.
Woodland – From Old English, land having the
cover of trees and shrubs.
Woodland
18
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
2.5
scientific archeology speaks for those
who can’t
Unfortunately, rivers can’t speak and tell us stories about
the past. Without scientific archeology, the real treasure
from sites—knowledge—is useless. Scientific archeology
is a method of interpreting otherwise mute voices from
people who lived, worked, or played at each unique site.
Vermont’s archeologists use cultural characteristics to
study periods of continuity and times of change.
Archeologists unearth information about language, ethnicity, environments, modes of transportation, subsistence, building style, clothing, artifacts, and other activities. This information allows them to retell stories about
the Abenaki, early German settlers, French-Canadian
Railroad workers, and different cultures who lived in the
Rock River Valley.
...The Paleoindian projectile point, the Pueblo painted
pot, and the Hopewell mica ornament achieve a meaning
far more than merely one of dollars and cents, of personal
gain. All too often, even archeologists themselves call
such objects just ‘artifacts.’ We have forgotten they are
the voices of the past, voices with an important message
of respect to tell.
– Brian M. Fagan (1994:27) “Perhaps We May Hear
Voices...” in Save the Past for the Future II
Wester n Abenaki
Vermont’s Native Americans have called themselves
Wôbanakiiak (Abenaki), meaning easterners or dawn
land people, for at least 160 years (Foster and Cowan
1998:86). The word Abenaki may originate from
Samuel de Champlain’s Native American Montagnais
guides’ description of natives residing to the east
(Foster and Cowan 1998:220). Vermont’s Native
American communities also identify themselves as
Alnôbak (The People). Today they continue to occupy
traditional territory in modern day Vermont, southeastern Québec, New Hamphire, northern
Massachusetts, and western Maine. Many Abenaki
actively affirm their heritage and support the unprecedented cultural revival that began in Vermont during
the mid 1970s.
Despite a lack of information that could indicate ethnicity, it is reasonable to assume today’s Abenaki are
more closely related to the Archaic, than Paleoindian,
Period populations who inhabited what is now
Franklin County. By the Woodland Period, cultural
affiliation becomes easier to document. Greater numbers of artifacts have survived for archeologists to
examine. Contact and Euro-American Period historic
documents present vivid accounts of Abenaki life,
often illustrated by artwork. There are many art
objects such as petroglyphs, painting, baskets, and
pottery and oral traditions are more comprehensive.
Many of historic themes illustrated by the poster characters and time line are repeated throughout Vermont.
Studying continuity and change at the Rock River Valley’s
archeological sites helps us understand Vermont’s past.
The Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past poster invites
you to explore the many other stories that flow into
Vermont’s river of time.
SECTION TWO: IF A RIVER COULD SPEAK
19
SECTION TWO:
ACTIVITY 2A
Standard: 6.4b
Length: one class period
Materials: poster
Assignment:
Listen to the Lesson or read the photocopy provided by your teacher. Link the four different
scenes on the Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past poster to time periods and events on the
time line. Analyze the four scenes and stories to determine what activities are represented and
how they are characteristic of each time period. How do these characteristics relate to state,
national, or global trends? Individually, or in a group, make a table listing the following cultural characteristics from each time period represented in the poster stories and illustrations:
• language/ethnicity
• landscape or environment
• modes of transportation
• foodways/subsistence
• buildings and other structures/building styles
• clothing
• material goods/artifacts
• other activities
You should also understand the relationship between human activities and archeological sites.
Use the following questions as a guide to stimulate further class discussion.
Questions:
1. What is the language or ethnic origin of each character?
2. What clues can you use to determine the time period and ethnicity represented by each
character?
3. For each time period, can you identify one or more artifacts that indicate specific activities?
What activities are represented?
4. What types of buildings or other structures characterize each time period? What materials
or construction method was used to build them? What is the function of each building or
structure?
5. What modes of transportation characterize each time period?
6. Describe the landscape associated with each site. Is it wooded or open? What types of lifeforms (animals and vegetation) do you see?
7. How have people, activities, buildings, transportation, and landscape changed through
time?
20
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
SECTION TWO:
ACTIVITY 2B
Standard: 6.4c
Length: depends upon task, three to fifteen class periods
Materials: library
family members
community members
Assignment:
Listen to the Lesson or read the photocopy provided by your teacher. Focus on one time period from your own community time line (see Recommended Resources) in order to identify
and assess the impact of new knowledge and inventions. Choose one of the three following
tasks: read a non-fiction or historical fictional work; solicit oral history from older family,
friends, or residents of a local elder care facility; or review primary newspaper accounts. Write
a report (1-2 pp.), mini-diary, or letter that identifies at least one contribution of new knowledge or a new invention. Describe how this knowledge or invention affected cultural characteristics of the time period that you selected in your reading material or oral history.
SECTION TWO: IF A RIVER COULD SPEAK
21
SECTION TWO:
ANSWERS
Activity 2A Answers:
Answers are presented in the following table:
Criteria
Clothing
Language,
Ethnicity
Artifact,
Activity
Building,
Structure
Transport
Landscape/
Lifeform
Contact Period
Animal hide,
shell
decoration
Western
Abenaki
Basket, clay pot,
nuts, nut pestle
and anvil stone,
fishing spear, fish
drying racks, etc.;
fishing, food
preparation
Wigwam
Walking (paths,
trails), dugout
(rivers, lake)
Closed canopy
forest with small
clearing at camp,
butternuts, corn
and bean
agriculture,
wild animals, fish
Euro-American
Settlement
Period
Linen dress,
cloth shirt,
wool pants,
apron, scarf,
etc.
English or
German
Iron pot,
wooden spoon,
etc.; soap making
Log house, log
mill
Walking (paths,
trails, roads),
oxen (roads)
Forest with
clearing at house
and some fields
for crops and
pasture for
domestic animals.
Apples, pig,
oxen, chicken
Industrial Period Bowler hat,
leather boots,
etc.
English or
French
Shovel, railroad
rail, spike and
tie, etc.; railroad
construction,
lime burning
Clapboard house,
log mill, mill
addition, store,
lime kiln
Walking (paths,
trails, roads),
train or wagon
(roads)
Intensive
agriculture,
specialized
livestock, 47%
deforested
landscape. Sheep,
corn
Modern Period
English,
Western
Abenaki, or
French
Historic marker,
roller blades,
etc.; farming,
historic site tour
Clapboard house,
garage addition
to the house,
mill and store
ruins
Walking (paths,
trails, roads),
car, truck (roads),
roller blades,
tractor, plane
Regrowth of
forested areas,
but continued
agriculture. Hay,
maple sugaring
T-shirt, jeans,
roller blades,
etc.
Checklist:
Activity 2A Assessment:
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
Use rubric 2A, the answer key, checklist, and the exemplar provided to record how well students characterized
the four different time periods represented on the Rock
River Valley: Pipeline to the Past poster. Observe student
answers to the questions provided.
language/ethnicity
landscape or environment
modes of transportation
foodways/subsistence
buildings and other structures/
building styles
✔ clothing
✔ material goods/artifacts
✔ other activities
Activity 2B Assessment:
Use rubric 2B to score student written reports, minidiaries, or letters.
22
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
SECTION TWO:
RECOMMENDED
RESOURCES
cultural characteristics:
language, ethnicity, and gender
Axtell, James, ed. 1981. The Indian Peoples of Eastern America: A
Documentary History of the Sexes. New York, New York: Oxford
University Press.
Bassett, T. D. Seymour. 1975. Migration to Vermont, 1761-1836.
Vermont Geographer 2:7-20.
Baxter, James Phinney. 1894. The Pioneers of New France in New
England, with Contemporary Letters and Documents. Albany, New
York: Joel Munsell’s Sons.
Brink, Jeanne A. and Gordon M. Day. 1992. Alnôbaôdwa: A
Western Abenaki Language Guide. Swanton, Vermont: Jeanne A.
Brink, Gordon M. Day, and the Franklin Northwest Supervisory
Union Title V Indian Education Program.
Annotation: This brief introduction to Western Abenaki language is accompanied by an audio-cassette.
Brault, Gerard J. 1986. The French-Canadian Heritage in New
England. Hanover, New Hampshire: The University Press of New
England.
Day, Gordon M. 1995. Volume II, English-Abenaki: Western
Abenaki Dictionary. Mercury Series, Canadian Ethnology Service.
Hull, Quebec: Canadian Museum of Civilization.
Day, Gordon M. 1994. Volume I, Abenaki-English: Western
Abenaki Dictionary. Mercury Series, Canadian Ethnology
Service. Hull, Quebec: Canadian Museum of Civilization.
Day, Gordon M. 1978. Western Abenaki. In Handbook of North
American Indians, Northeast, ed. Bruce G. Trigger, 15:148-159.
Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Fagan, Brian M. 1995. Perhaps We May Hear Voices... In Save
the Past for the Future II: Report of the Working Conference, edited
by Society for American Archaeology, pp. 25-30. Society for
American Archaeology, Washington, D.C.
Ferguson, Leland. 1992. Uncommon Ground: Archaeology and
Early African America 1650-1800. Washington, D.C.:
Smithsonian Institution Press.
Sharrow, Gregory, ed. 1992. Many Cultures, One People: A
Multicultural Handbook about Vermont for Teachers. Middlebury,
Vermont: The Vermont Folklife Center.
Annotation: Excellent educator’s guide featuring Vermont’s multicultural heritage, complete with foodways and other activities.
Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher. 1982. Good Wives: Image and Reality in
the Lives of Women in Northern New England, 1650-1750. New
York, New York: Vintage Books, A Division of Random House,
Inc.
Vermont State Division of the American Association of
University Women. 1980. Those Intriguing Indomitable Vermont
Women. Montpelier, Vermont: Vermont State Division of the
American Association of University Women.
Williams, Barbara, ed. 1981. Breakthrough: Women in
Archaeology. Breakthrough. New York, New York: Walker and
Company.
environment
Albers, Jan. 2000. Hands on the Land: A History of the Vermont
Landscape. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Cronon, William. 1983. Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists,
and the Ecology of New England. New York, New York: Hill and
Wang.
Johnson, Charles W. 1998. The Nature of Vermont: Introduction
and Guide to a New England Environment, New and Expanded.
Hanover, New Hampshire: University Press Of New England.
Klyza, Christopher McGrory and Stephen C. Trombulak. 1999.
The Story of Vermont: A Natural and Cultural History. Hanover,
New Hampshire: Middlebury College Press.
Meeks, Harold, A. 1986a. Time and Change in Vermont: A Human
Geography. Chester, Connecticut: Globe Pequot Press.
Meeks, Harold A. 1986b. Vermont’s Land and Resources.
Shelburne, Vermont: New England Press.
transportation
Perica, Esther. 1997. The American Woman: Her Role During the
Revolutionary War. Monroe, New York: Library Research
Associates.
Bassett, T. D. Seymour. 1982. 500 miles of Trouble and
Excitement: Vermont Railroads, 1848-1861. In In A State of
Nature: Readings in Vermont History, edited by H. Nicholas III
Muller and Samuel B. Hand, pp. 160-173. Vermont Historical
Society, Montpelier, Vermont.
Piersen, William D. 1988. Black Yankees: The Development of An
Afro-American Subculture in Eighteenth-Century New England.
University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst, Massachusetts.
Belasco, Warren James. 1981. Americans on the Road: From
Autocamp to Motel, 1910-1945. The MIT Press, Cambridge,
Massachusetts.
SECTION TWO: IF A RIVER COULD SPEAK
23
Gidmark, David. 1994. Building a Birchbark Canoe: The
Algonquin Wâbanäki Tcîmân. Stackpole Books, Mechanicsburg,
Pennsylvania.
Godfrey, Captain Fred G. 1994. The Champlain Canal: Mules to
Tugboats. Munore, New York: LRA, Inc.
evidence of Dutch field patterns in Vermont.
Visser, Thomas Durant. 1997. Field Guide to New England Barns
and Farm Buildings. Hanover, New Hampshire: University Press
of New England.
Annotation: A typology of endangered historic barns and farm
buildings that still stand in Vermont.
Mackenzie, Katherine. 1996. Indian Ways to Stagecoach Days:
New Hampshire, Vermont, Quebec. Pigwidgeon Press, Ayer’s Cliff,
Quebec.
clothing
foodways or subsistence
Kalman, Bobbie. 1995. 18th Century Clothing. Edited by David
Schimpky and N-Lynne Paterson. Historic Communities. New
York, New York: Crabtree Publishing Company.
Benes, Peter, ed. 1984. Foodways of the Northeast. Edited by
Peter Benes. The Dublin Seminar for New England Folklife
Annual Proceedings. Boston, Massachusetts: Boston University.
Hines, Mary Ann, Gordon Marshall, and William Woys Weaver.
1987. The Larder Invaded: Reflections on Three Centuries of
Philadelphia Food and Drink. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: The
Library Company of Philadelphia and the Historical Society of
Pennsylvania.
Annotation: A well-researched description of foodways, from
which archeologists can interpret major changes in Vermont
subsistence patterns. Includes a reference and recipe for scrapple made by northern Germans or Pennsylvania Dutch.
Kellar, Jane Carpenter, Ellen Miller, and Paul Stambach, eds.
1987. On the Score of Hospitality: Selected Receipts of a Van
Rensselaer Family, Albany, New York, 1785-1835. Albany, New
York: Historic Cherry Hill.
Landers, Lorraine. 1999. With Gratitude for Food: A Cookbook
Produced by the Dawnland Center. Dawnland Center, Montpelier,
Vermont.
Lawrence, James M. and Rux Martin. 1993. Sweet Maple: Life,
Lore & Recipes from the Sugarbush. Shelburne and Montpelier,
Vermont: Chapters Publishing Limited and Vermont Life
Magazine.
building styles
Hubka, Thomas C. 1984. Big House, Little House Back House,
Barn: The Connected Farm Buildings of New England. University
Press of New England, Hanover, New Hampshire.
Johnson, Curtis B. 1988. The Historic Architecture of Rutland
County. Montpelier, Vermont: Vermont Division for Historic
Preservation.
Annotation: One of two county books that synthesize individual
site forms in Montpelier. With enhanced public support, architectural descriptions of specific Franklin County buildings
could someday be similarly compiled!
Laframboise, Yves. 1975. L’architecture traditionnelle au Québec:
La maison aux 17e et 18e siécles. Les Éditions des L’Homme, Ltée,
Montréal, Québec, Canada.
McAlester, Virginia and Lee McAlester. 1988. A Field Guide to
American Houses. New York, New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Nabokov, Peter and Robert Easton. 1989. Native American
Architecture. New York, New York: Oxford University Press.
Upton, Dell and John Michael Vlach, eds. 1986. Common Places:
Readings in American Vernacular Architecture. Athens, Georgia:
University of Georgia Press.
Annotation: Articles on diverse architectural styles, including
24
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
Wilbur, C. Keith. 1978. The New England Indians: An Illustrated
Source Book of Authentic Details about Everyday Indian Life. The
Globe Pequot Press, Chester, Connecticut.
Annotation: Excellent drawings of northeast Native American
clothing and gear prior to the Contact Period. Warning: text
promotes ethnic and gender stereotypes.
material goods or artifacts
Benes, Peter, ed. 1987. Families and Children. Edited by Peter
Benes. The Dublin Seminar for New England Folklife Annual
Proceedings. Boston, Massachusetts: Boston University.
Haviland, William A. and Marjory W. Power. 1994. The Original
Vermonters: Native Inhabitants, Past and Present. Hanover, New
Hampshire: University Press of New England.
Noël Hume, Ivor. 1989. Historical Archaeology: A Comprehensive
Guide for Both Amateurs and Professionals to the Techniques and
Methods of Excavating Historical Sites. New York, New York:
Alfred A. Knopf.
Seymour, John. 1984. The Forgotten Crafts: A Practical Guide to
Traditional Skills. New York, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.
Title VII Bilingual Education Program. n.d. Baskets of the
Dawnland People. Edited by Joseph A. Nicholas. Perry, Maine:
Title VII Bilingual Education Program.
Wigginton, Eliot, ed. 1972. The Foxfire Book: Hog Dressing, Log
Cabin Building, Mountain Crafts and... Anchor Books, Garden
City, New York.
Annotation: An excellent, exceptionally descriptive series covering folk traditions and forgotten crafts.
continuity and change in Franklin County from
Paleoindians to the Contact Period
Benes, Peter, ed. 1993. Algonkians of New England: Past and
Present. Edited by Peter Benes. The Dublin Seminar for New
England Folklife Annual Proceedings: Boston University.
Braun, Esther K. and David P Braun. 1994. The First Peoples of
the Northeast. Lincoln, Massachusetts: Lincoln Historical Society.
Annotation: A very readable, chronologically-organized book on
Northeast Native Americans with great illustrations, could be
used as an educator’s guide to Precontact Era archeology.
Brundin, Judith A. 1990. The Native People of the Northeast
Woodlands. New York, New York: Museum of the American
Indian-Heye Foundation.
Annotation: A well written education resource, but oriented for
a very broad area of the Northeast.
Calloway, Colin G., ed. 1989. The Abenaki. Series edited by
Frank W. III Porter. Indians of North America. New York, New
York: Chelsea House Publishers.
Annotation: Oriented for younger readers.
Calloway, Colin G. 1990. The Western Abenakis of Vermont, 16001800: War Migration and the Survival of an Indian People. The
Civilization of the American Indian Series. Norman, Oklahoma:
University of Oklahoma.
Annotation: An indispensable overview of the Western Abenaki
that focuses on the Contact Period, and therefore fills a crucial
gap between Precontact and Historic Era studies.
Crisman, Kevin James. 1981. The Lower Missisquoi River
Region: An Archeological Investigation. Senior Honors Thesis,
University of Vermont.
Foster, Michael K. and William Cowan. 1998. In Search of New
England’s Native Past: Selected Essays by Gordon M. Day.
Amherst, Massachusetts: University of Massachusetts Press.
Haviland, William A. and Marjory W. Power. 1994. The Original
Vermonters: Native Inhabitants, Past and Present. Hanover, New
Hampshire: University Press of New England.
Landau, Elaine. 1996. The Abenaki. New York, New York:
Franklin Watts, A Division of Grolier Publishing.
Ledoux, Rodney R., ed. 1988. The History of Swanton, Vermont.
Swanton, Vermont: The Swanton Historical Society, Inc.
Annotation: A good example of local Franklin County history
covering Paleoindians to the Abenaki cultural revival of the
1970s.
Power, Marjorie W. and James B. Petersen. 1984. Seasons of
Prehistory: 4000 Years at the Winooski Site. Montpelier, Vermont:
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation.
Annotation: Continuity and change at site occupied for 4000
years, a non-technical public report.
Ritchie, William A. 1953. A Probable Paleo-Indian Site in
Vermont. American Antiquity 18, no. 3: 249-258.
Robinson, Charles T. 1996. Native New England: The Long
Journey. North Attleborough, Massachusetts: Covered Bridge
Press.
Snow, Dean R. 1980. The Archaeology of New England. New
York, New York: Academic Press, Inc.
Annotation: Introduces the goals and methods of archeology as
applied to Native Peoples of New England until the Contact
Period.
Thomas, Peter A. 1994. Vermont Archaeology Comes of Age: A
Current Perspective of Vermont’s Prehistoric Past. The Journal of
Vermont Archaeology 1:38-91.
Annotation: Summarizes the Native American prehistory section
of the Vermont Historic Preservation Plan in a more widely
available format, includes pictures and illustrations.
Thomas, Peter A., Nanny Carder, and Robert Florentin. 1996. A
Changing World: 8,000 Years of Native American Settlement
along the Missisquoi River in Highgate, Vermont: Unpublished
Contract Report by the Consulting Archaeology Program,
University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont. Report Number
170.
Thomas, Peter A. and Brian S. Robinson. 1980. The John’s
Bridge Site: VT-FR-69, An Early Archaic Period Site, in
Northwestern Vermont. Burlington, Vermont: University of
Vermont, Department of Anthropology. Report Number 28.
Wright, J. V. 1979. Quebec Prehistory. Canadian Prehistory. New
York, New York: Van Norstrand Reinhold, Ltd.
continuity and change during Franklin County’s
Historic Era
Cheney, Cora. 1976. Vermont, the State with the Storybook Past.
Vermont Bicentennial Commission. Brattleboro, Vermont:
Stephen Greene Press.
Franklin County Vermont: Part of the Vermont Genealogy Web.
Annotation: A detailed web site with links to various Franklin
County Historic Resources. Online at:
http://www.rootsweb.com/~vtfrankl/.
Muller, H. Nicholas III and Samuel B. Hand, eds. 1982. In a
State of Nature: Readings in Vermont History. Montpelier,
Vermont: Vermont Historical Society.
Annotation: The next best thing to a recent, comprehensive
book on Vermont history addressing broad trends.
Sherman, Michael and Jennie Versteeg, eds. 1992. We
Vermonters: Perspectives on the Past. Montpelier, Vermont:
Vermont Historical Society.
Childs, Marquis. 1952. The Farmer Takes a Hand: The Rural
Electric Power Revolution in Rural America. Garden City, New
York: Doubleday & Company, Inc.
Doherty, Prudence, Robert A. Sloma, and Peter A. Thomas.
1998. Phase 2 Archaeological Site Evaluation at VT-FR-168 for
Sheldon HES 034-1(17), Sheldon, Franklin County, Vermont:
Unpublished Contract Report by the Consulting Archaeology
Program, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont.
Submitted to the Vermont Agency of Transportation,
Montpelier, Vermont.
Annotation: An example of CRM archeology of Franklin
County’s historic sites.
Doherty, Prudence, Robert Florentin, Kathleen Kenny, and
Robert A. Sloma. 1997. Phase 2 Site Evaluation For HighgateFranklin RS 0301(1) SA, Highate and Franklin, Franklin
County, Vermont: Unpublished Contract Report by Consulting
Archaeology Program, University of Vermont. Submitted to the
Vermont Agency of Transportation, Montpelier, Vermont.
Duffy, John. 1985. Vermont: An Illustrated History. Northridge,
California: Windsor Publications, Inc.
Coffin, Howard. 1993. Full Duty: Vermonters in the Civil War.
Woodstock, Vermont: Countryman Press, Inc.
Haviland, William A. and Marjory W. Power. 1994. The Original
Vermonters: Native Inhabitants, Past and Present. Hanover, New
Hampshire: University Press of New England.
Hemenway, Abby Maria, ed. 1871. The Vermont Historical
Gazetteer: A Magazine, Embracing a History of Each Town, Civil,
Ecclesiastical, Biographical and Military. Volume 2 of 3. Edited
by Abby Maria Hemenway. The Vermont Historical Gazetteer.
Burlington, Vermont: Miss A. M. Hemenway.
Annotation: Contains eclectic town histories of Franklin and
other counties. The antiquated text can be used to identify and
correct ethnic and gender stereotypes.
Houghton, George F. 1871. Franklin County, Introductory
Chapter. In Vermont Historical Gazetteer: A Magazine, Embracing,
SECTION TWO: IF A RIVER COULD SPEAK
25
a History of Each Town, Civil, Ecclesiastical, Biographical and
Military, Volume 2 of 3, ed. Abby Maria Hemenway, pages 89103. Burlington, Vermont: Miss A. M. Hemenway.
Annotation: A historic perspective on Franklin County’s past.
Field, Rachel. 1998. Calico Bush. New York, New York: Aladdin
Paperbacks.
Annotation: Novel for students aged 10-14.
Walker, Mabel Gregory. 1969. The Fenian Movement. Colorado
Springs, Colorado: Ralph Myles Publisher, Inc.
Hubbell, Seth. 1824. A Narrative of the Sufferings of Seth Hubbell
& Family, In His Beginning, A Settlement in the Town of Wolcott,
In the State of Vermont. Danville, Vermont: Ebenezer Eaton.
Other Franklin County historic themes: agriculture and
early industry
Beers, Frederick W. 1871. Atlas of Franklin and Grand Isle
Counties, Vermont: From Actual Surveys by and under the
Direction of F. W. Beers. New York: F. W. Beers & Co.
Annotation: Very detailed historic maps with residential and
commercial buildings depicted with owners/occupants initials.
Be careful, although these maps are detailed, they are not as
accurate as modern maps.
King, David C. 1998. Colonial Days: Discover the Past with Fun
Projects, Games, Activities, and Recipes. American Kids in History.
New York, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Cannon, LeGrand Jr. 1970. Look to the Mountain. Bantam Books,
New York, New York.
Moodie, Susanna. 1970. Roughing it in the Bush, or Forest Life in
Canada. Edited by Malcolm Ross. New Canadian Library.
Toronto, Canada: MccLelland and Stewart.
Child, Hamilton, ed. 1883. Gazetteer and Business Directory of
Franklin and Grand Isle Counties, Vermont for 1882-83. Syracuse,
New York: The Journal Office.
Ovecka, Janice. 1992. Cave of falling Water. The New England
Press, Shelburne, Vermont.
Flynn, Dennis J., and Robert V. Joslin. 1979. Soil Survey of
Franklin County, Vermont. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C.
Parker, Trudy Ann. 1994. Aunt Sarah: Woman of the Dawnland.
Lancaster, New Hampshire: Dawnland Publications.
Annotation: A very readable novel about the 108 Winters of an
Abenaki healing woman, covering a gap in Native American history of the nineteenth century.
Russell, Howard S. 1976. A Long Deep Furrow: Three Centuries of
Farming in New England. Hanover, New Hampshire: University
Press of New England. Abridged edition.
Rolando, Victor R. 1992. 200 Years of Soot and Sweat: The
History and Archeology of Vermont’s Iron, Charcoal, and Lime
Industries. Burlington, Vermont: Vermont Archaeological Society.
Howell, Charles and Allan Keller. 1977. The Mill: At Philipsburg
Manor Upper Mills and a Brief History of Milling. Tarrytown,
New York: Sleepy Hollow Restorations.
Ledoux, Rodney R., ed. 1988. The History of Swanton, Vermont.
Swanton, Vermont: The Swanton Historical Society, Inc.
Annotation: Contains a detailed section on limestone industry
and railroads.
Munsell, Lottie. 1936. John G. Saxe and “Little Jerry the Miller”
The Vermonter 41, no. 4, December: 247-249.
Period Historical Fiction and Non-Fiction for Students
Anderson, Grace Neil. 1993. In the Shadow of Cox Mountain.
Rutland Vermont: Academy Books.
Archiving Early America. 2000.
Annotation: A wealth of informative, instructive and entertaining resources. Primary source material from eighteenth-century
America. A unique array of digitally displayed original newspapers, maps and writings. Online at:
http://earlyamerica.com/index.html.
Bruchac, Joseph. 1993. Dawn Land. Golden, Colorado: Fulcrum
Publishing.
Bruchac, Joseph. 1988. The Faithful Hunter, Abenaki Stories.
Greenfield Center, New York: Greenfield Review Press.
26
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
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PAST
Sheldon, Asa G. 1988. Yankee Drover: Being the Unpretending Life
of Asa Sheldon, Farmer, Trader, and Working Man, 1788-1870.
University Press of New England, Hanover, New Hampshire.
Reprint of the original 1862 volume.
Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher. 1991. A Midwife’s Tale: The Life of
Martha Ballard, Based on Her Diary, 1785-1812. Vintage Books, A
Division of Random House, Inc., New York, New York.
Annotation: The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) has a great
companion site online at:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/amex/midwife/about/html.
Historic documents and teachers resources are listed.
Vermont Folklife Center. 1997. The Mad River Valley: Crucible of
Change. Middlebury, Vermont, The Vermont Folklife Center.
Annotation: An audio cassette recounting the oral history of
changes in Vermont’s Mad River Valley since World War II.
Wriston, Hildreth Tyler. 1939. Camping Down at Highgate. New
York, New York: The Junior Literary Guild and Doubleday,
Doran & Company, Inc.
SECTION THREE:
ARCHEOLOGICAL DETECTIVES
Archeological Site Formation and Transformation
Objective:
T
his section illustrates how past places and human activities form archeological sites. It also introduces students to natural and cultural processes that transform and
threaten archeological sites.
Focusing Questions:
How are artifacts and sites changed through time?
Vocabulary List:
artifact
natural processes
composite artifact
pH
context
phenomena
cultural processes
reconstruction
decay
sediment
disintegrate
site formation processes
erosion
site transformation processes
feature
soil formation
interdisciplinary
structure
looting
vandalism
SECTION THREE: ARCHEOLOGICAL DETECTIVES
27
SECTION THREE:
LESSON
D I D Y O U K N O W. . .
3.1 Archeologists investigate the past, like detectives
3.1
archeological detectives
Both detectives and archeologists investigate the past.
Detectives investigate using material evidence left at a
crime scene. Archeologists study past human behavior
using clues found at a site. Both work methodically.
Unique patterns of artifacts, structures, features, their
spatial context, and sediments form the basis of archeological evidence. Only a small percentage of rare sites,
partially preserved evidence in each site, and altered clues
survive. At every step, archeologists question whether
natural or cultural processes tampered with any unique
evidence after the site was abandoned. Over time, materials were transformed differently depending on context,
climate, and site chemistry. Archeologists work in teams
made up of specialists from a variety of disciplines to
learn as much as possible from their evidence.
Methodical, interdisciplinary investigation allows archeologists to reconstruct the past at fragile, threatened sites.
3.2
investigative methods
Detectives would never catch their culprit without a reliable method, or process. Criminology entails at least four
steps: background searches, crime scene investigation,
forensic analysis, and bringing cases to justice.
Archeologists also follow a four-step scientific method of:
archival research, fieldwork, laboratory analysis, and public reporting.
Arti Fact illustrates each of these four steps on the Rock
River Valley: Pathway to the Past poster. Section Four
explores archival research, the first step in the scientific
method of archeology, as a means of hypothesizing site
locations. While detectives pound pavement to interview
witnesses and search newspaper files to understand a
crime and suspects, archeologists search libraries and
other archives for critical background information about
sites. Section Five digs into archeological fieldwork, a
precise method for identifying and evaluating sites. While
crime scene investigation and archeological fieldwork are
crucial, successful detectives and archeologists emphasize
the other three steps more. Section Six places archeologists in laboratory coats, analyzing evidence uncovered
T he Method of during fieldwork. Detectives
Scientific
call on forensic, or legal,
Ar cheology:
expert witnesses and archeolArchival
Research
ogists use an interdisciplinary
1
team of specialists to extract
2 Careful Fieldwork
the most from fragmentary
3 Laboratory Analysis clues. Section Eight covers
reporting results to the public,
4 Public Reporting
the fourth and most impor-
28
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
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3.2 Detectives and archeologists follow a four-step scientific method
3.3 Crime scenes and archeological sites are formed by
people who leave behind unique evidence of their
actions
3.4 Surviving sites, evidence, and clues are rare
3.5 Nature and people transform threatened crime scenes
and sites
3.6 Archeological detectives study fragile, material clues
for surviving evidence
3.7 Detectives and archeologists rely on expert witnesses
3.8 Interdisciplinary investigation is the key to reconstructing sites
tant step of the archeological research method. Detectives
burn the midnight oil preparing case files that bring criminals to justice before the public and a judge. Likewise,
archeologists prepare reports that explain to the public
and others all aspects of archival research, fieldwork, and
laboratory analysis.
3.3
establishing patterns of evidence
Crime scenes and archeological sites are both formed by
the unique actions of people. Detectives and archeologists
interpret human behavior by establishing patterns from
clues or material evidence found at the scene. A good
detective can deduce counterfeit money was printed if he,
or she, finds a printing press, the right colored ink, paper
and engraving plates. Archeologists call the events that
led to the creation of a scene, site formation processes.
The events that led to the formation of the Saxe Brook
North Site (VT-FR-234) are recounted by Shy One. She
describes travel to the Rock
River on foot, setting up a wigCLUES
wam for shelter, fishing and
ARCHEOLOGISTS
gathering nuts for subsistence,
USE
and telling stories. Activities of
• Artifacts
the Missisquoi Abenaki left
• Features
behind material evidence pat• Sediment
terns later investigated by
• Spatial context
archeologists.
• Structures
Evidence used by archeologists
to reconstruct past places and activities includes artifacts,
structures, features, their spatial context and sediments.
Archeologists carefully collect evidence by documenting
the position of artifacts, or small items, they find. Any
buildings, ruins or other features are also recorded.
Notes, illustrations and photographs preserve vital evidence. This information is examined for patterns that
could help them understand what happened.
In the laboratory, archeological experts analyze artifact
characteristics like shape, size, material and craftsmanship to determine function, age, and ethnic origin. For
example, a fragment of fired clay ceramic, or pottery, of a
certain thickness and decoration may originate from a
cooking vessel of Missisquoi Abenaki ethnicity made at a
site dating to the Contact Period, such as Shy One’s Saxe
Brook North Site (VT-FR-234). Archeological classification systems rely heavily on shape and material type,
because artifact styles have changed dramatically
throughout history—just think of car or clothing styles.
Archeologists describe groups of items or large nonportable artifacts as features. We know from other reported sites that common Precontact Era features in Vermont
include fire hearths, shelters, and storage pits. Consulting
archeologists working for Vermont Gas reconstructed
where Native Americans cooked food over fire hearths
using evidence at the Saxe Brook North Site (VT-FR-234).
Archeologists based this interpretation on the pattern of
lithics, or rocks, charcoal and burned animal bones they
found. During the Historic Era, typical features included
residences, outbuildings, watersystems, and transportation routes. Every archeological site in Vermont contains
a unique pattern of evidence that yields stories about past
people.
3.4
3.5
nature and people alter evidence
Crime scenes and archeological sites are fragile and vulnerable. Over time, nature and people threaten the quality of crime scene and archeological site evidence.
Archeologists call these threats, natural processes and
cultural processes. At a crime scene, detectives arrive
quickly, keep others from disturbing evidence, and docu-
GRIST MILL
GRIST MILL
RUINS
surviving evidence is rare
Archeologists must make the most of surviving evidence.
Both detectives and archeologists study clues exhaustively
because most events in human lives leave few traces.
Imagine if detectives had to regularly catch culprits without a crime scene. All the existing archeological sites in
the world today represent a small percentage of the
human past. Great gaps in our knowledge have been
washed out to sea or digested by earthworms. What if
detectives solved crimes from partially preserved scenes
or a few clues? Of the small percentage of preserved
archeological sites, natural and cultural processes have
transformed the scenes. Often the only clues that remain
are relatively resistant to destruction, such as stone,
ceramics, and charred bone. Could detectives decipher
cases from extremely fragmented clues? Even a relatively
resistant bone or artifact may have been unrecognizably
fragmented by nature and people. Only a small fraction of
the human past survives as clues at rare archeological
sites.
We cannot afford to be reckless with the small remaining
fraction of the only resources which can help us to unravel ceturies of human history in Vermont.
ment all clues. A “cold trail” could mean failure to interpret what happened and inability to catch the criminal.
Archeologists must be better investigators than detectives
because evidence in archeological sites has been altered
over long stretches of time. Archeologists regularly work
with clues that are decades, centuries, or thousands of
years old. The older an archeological site is, the less likely
we are to find it intact. Archeologists call the events that
led to the alteration or destruction of a scene, site transformation processes. Rivers may wash away parts of sites
or historic people may trample evidence of earlier times.
On the Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past poster, early
settlement activities associated with the Saxe Farmstead
and Mill (VT-FR-325) disturbed clues left by previous
Missisquoi Abenaki occupants at the Saxe Brook North
Site (VT-FR-234).
In order to be an archeological detective, you must have a
good understanding of earth sciences and humans!
3.5.1 natural processes bury and alter sites
– Vermont Division for Historic Preservation (1985-1991)
Natural processes form and transform sites. Water, wind,
gravity, and soil can bury and preserve sites—or these
SECTION THREE: ARCHEOLOGICAL DETECTIVES
29
natural site processes can erode, reexcavate, and threaten
sites. Natural agents often work in combination to alter
evidence of past activities. For example, water and soil
decayed logs of the 1700s grist mill at the Saxe Farmstead
and Mill (VT-FR-325), leaving no evidence at the surface.
Later floods on Saxe Brook and the
forces of gravity damaged a 1800s
NATURAL
stone mill built near the same locaPROCESSES
tion; it appears as structural ruins
• Water
during John King’s time period.
• Wind
Water is one of the most powerful
• Gravity
natural threats to archeological site
• Soil
evidence. At the beginning of the
Archaic Period, around 8000 B.P.,
the land slowly rebounded after the weight of the glacier
was gone. In Vermont and elsewhere around the
Northeast, rivers cut down rapidly through valley sedi-
H ow do ar tifacts get buried?
Water is one process. Rivers carry sediment, burying sites
during year floods. How quickly or deeply a site is buried
depends upon the river size and surrounding topography.
ments. Rivers eroded tons and tons of landscape containing ancient archeological sites. Many other sites and artifacts continue to fall out of stream banks, wash into
lakes, flow down bigger rivers, and end up in the sea as
sediment. Erosion affects specific artifacts as well as
entire sites. A Paleoindian fluted point that washes many
miles down a river will eventually be ground into sand.
Wind is somewhat less effective at transforming archeological sites. Constant wind can drastically polish stone
artifacts. Artifacts and features can be churned when high
winds uproot trees.
Gravity is another site transformation process. It is the
agent that covers archeological sites in caves or beside
steep cliffs with falling debris. Building roofs and walls
tumble down under the force of gravity, like the 1800s
Saxe mill on the Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past
poster.
At Cape Henlopen, Delaware, dunes traveling 60 feet
a year swallowed up a historic light-house and nearby
forest.
– John Anthony Adams (1986:117) Dirt
Phenomena that change sites and artifacts after burial in
sediments are grouped as soil formation processes.
Archeological sites in forests are covered by leaf litter,
earthworm castings, and mixed into the soil. Decay in the
soil is a slow process. For a time, logs like those in the
1700s Saxe grist mill or bone in fire hearths leave behind
30
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
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PAST
a shadow or stain in the soil that provides a clue for
archeological interpretation.
3.5.2
cultural processes transform sites
The loss of archeological sites to natural processes is predictable. However, there is little that we can do to prevent
the flow of time and natural processes. People present a
far more disturbing threat to archeological sites, and the
important information they contain. Our urban areas continue to grow at considerable cost to historic archeological resources. Many Vermont towns historically developed
over earlier Native American settlements because of basic
human requirements for water, level land, and other natural resources. People continue to accidentally and intentionally destroy hundreds of archeological sites throughout Vermont.
In general, our expanding
Cultural Thr eats
population requires new
to Sites
marketplaces, homes,
roads, and other infra• archeological excavation
structure. New construc• dam impoundments
tion increasingly targets
• deep plowing
our limited open farm
and woodland, contain• energy transmission
ing fragile undisturbed
corridors
archeological sites. Even
• gravel pits
driving a pickup truck
• hydroelectric dams
across an agricultural
field could crush
• industrial areas
Woodland pots and ani• intense summer logging
mal bones. Sites located
• landfills
in shallow soils on agricultural land are now
• mines
chiseled by increasingly
• new development
deeper plowing. Looting
on private and public
• off-road vehicle use
lands, whether motivated
• overuse of trails
by a desire to personally
• overuse of open space
acquire antiquities or to
sell them, removes arti• residential housing
facts from their context.
• recreational facilities
Casual collecting, bottle• reuse of site materials
hunting, and hobbyist
digging also damages our
• roads
ability to interpret arche• sand pits
ological sites. Vandalism
of abandoned buildings
• stone quarries
and ruins remains a prob- • unnecessary collecting
lem. Archeological detec• unnecessary excavation
tives accounted for a
multitude of natural and
• urban renewal
cultural processes that
• vandalism
altered fragile evidence
before it was possible to
interpret the voices of
Shy One, Catherine Saxe, and Pierre LaBarre.
3.6
analyzing surviving material clues
Archeologists closely scrutinize each surviving material
clue at rare preserved sites. Past peoples left a wide range
of natural and culturally modified materials as evidence
on archeological sites. Natural and cultural archeological
clues may be made of one class of material, like stone or
wood. Composite artifacts are made of two or more
material classes.
Over time, the
transformation
EXAMPLES OF SURVIVING
of each material
MATERIALS
depends on its
Natural
context, cliSandy site sediments
mate, and site
Log or fire hearth stains
chemistry (e.g.,
Nut shells
soil acidity).
Cultural
Material condiSingle
tions vary in
Stone projectile point
different site
Wool textile
contexts.
Wooden spoon
Different mateComposite
Iron fork with a bone handle
rials preserve
variably, if
found exposed
at the surface, buried in soil, or submerged underwater.
Foundation stones from the 1800s grist mill at Saxe’s
Mills survived as surface ruins. The same lime-rich rocks
buried underground show signs of dissolving in strong
soil acids. Climate also dramatically affects the condition
of archeological materials. High temperature and humidity typically destroys textile, or cloth, evidence faster than
lower temperature and humidity. Differences in site
chemistry, such pH (acidity) of the soil, variably alters
different materials. For example, iron artifacts rust away
in acid soils and salt water, but may be preserved in alkaline environments or fresh water mud. In contrast, organic remains, such as animal hides, may be preserved in
highly acidic bogs but dissolved in fresh waters.
Few archeologists know everything about every natural or
cultural material. So they call on specialists, or expert
witnesses, to help them identify, analyze, and preserve
archeological materials. Specialists draw on other disciplines, experimentation, and creativity to study how individual and composite materials reacted in particular site
contexts.
3.7
interdisciplinary investigation
Investigative detectives rely on the teamwork of forensic
scientists, handwriting specialists, ballistics experts and
psychologists. Like detectives, a rigorous, interdisciplinary approach makes reconstruction of past places and
activities possible. How does an interdisciplinary team of
archeologists investigate?
Imagine a new mobile home park scheduled for development. The landform is a sandy bluff, high above the river.
Consulting archeologists were aware of a Paleoindian
Period site through archival research in the state database.
In the 1930s landowners planting red pine to stabilize the
sandy, blowing soils found a fluted point and contacted
an archeologist. The site was assigned a name and number, such as “the Fluted Point Site,” VT-FR-000. Archival
research suggested the site had been altered by cultural
practices in the 1800s such as timber cutting and overgrazing. Over 10,000 years of cultural and natural
processes had transformed the Paleoindian encampment
into a site.
Modern day consulting archeologists carefully survey the
area for further traces of the past. Unfortunately, any
organic remains have disintegrated long ago, including
any human burials, unburned wood, animal bone, and
hide. Only features with stone, stone artifacts, charred
wood, and sediments remain.
The field crew finds and maps the position of large rocks
that indicate how hunters intentionally drove caribou
through lanes. The crew chief was looking for these types
of rocks because she had read an article about similar use
of drive lanes among the Inuit in Alaska.
VT-FR-000
The State of Vermont’s Archeological Inventory lists every
site sequentially by county. VT stands for Vermont. Middle
letters abbreviate county (in this case Franklin). The number uniquely indicates the site identified. To date, less
than 400 sites have been identified in Franklin County.
A geologist helps distinguish overlying sand dunes from
underlying glacial beach sand, based on the characteristics of individual sand grains. While excavating the interface, or area, between the dune and ancient beach surface,
archeologists find a cluster of fire hearth features, flakes
and stone tools. Charred wood samples are sent to a paleobotanist to determine the tree species and to a laboratory where a physicist can date the charcoal by radiocarbon
analysis.
The flakes of stone, or byproducts of making stone tools
like fluted spear points, are carefully mapped, bagged,
and analyzed. Archeologists also find a graver, or tiny
sharpened flake. Crushing and polishing on the graver’s
cutting edge suggests to the archeologist that this band of
Paleoindians once carved intricate patterns on bone or
wood.
In the laboratory, archeologists transfer the position of all
artifacts onto a 3-dimensional computerized map that
SECTION THREE: ARCHEOLOGICAL DETECTIVES
31
Exper t witnesses to the past
unwashed stone tools for blood type. Part of the project
budget is reassigned for determining whether this band of
Paleoindians were successful caribou hunters or dined on
smaller animals. The archeologists call upon a paleobotanist to help them visualize an arctic environment that
once contained scrubby trees, grasses, and arctic hares.
Clues
Expert
Cultural patterns,
predictive models
Principal Archeologist
Landform and
archeological sites
Project Director
Artifacts, features and
their context
Archeological Technician
Primary & Secondary
Sources
Historian
Archives & Oral history
Ethnohistorian
Cultural/Natural
Resources, Maps
Geographer
3.8
Soil maps and profiles
Soil Scientist
Sediments, Landforms,
and rocks
Geologist
Plant remains
Paleobotanist
Animal remains
Paleontologist or
Zooarcheologist
Archeologist’s notes,
sketches, and photos
Archeological Illustrator
Human remains
Physical Anthropologist
Oral traditions
Folklorist
Archeologists and detectives term the ability to visualize
what happened or bring the past to life, reconstruction.
Reconstruction of human activity patterns and evidence
requires the archeological detective to apply personal
knowledge, experience, and creativity. Imagine the band
of Paleoindians hunting caribou on the arctic tundra. You
can almost smell the fires as the women prepare smoked
meat and dress hides. Smoked meat preserves longer.
Dressed hides are used for clothes, shelters and tools. The
men are planning another hunt. Paleoindian elders conduct a ritual ceremony that will lure the caribou into rock
lined drive lanes. Children and dogs are dashing in and
out of shelters.
Date organic remains
Physicist
Plant & animal residue
Chemist
shows exactly where Paleoindians sat making tools.
Selected flakes and stone tools are sent to other laboratories to compare the geochemistry of the artifacts with
known quarry samples. This analysis helps archeologists
reconstruct Paleoindian travel and trade patterns.
During archival research, a team member reads about an
experimental technique for testing residue on the edges of
32
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
An artist is able to bring the archeologist’s interpretation
alive for a report or museum diorama. Everyone breathes
a sigh of relief as the finished report is mailed to the
client, government agencies, libraries, and members of
the public.
bringing the past to life
Once the caribou and Paleoindian people have moved on,
the site they formed was eventually transformed by natural and cultural processes. Archeologists would not have
been able to reconstruct the scene of the Paleoindian site
without methodical, interdisciplinary investigation of
clues such as sand grains, charred wood, and flakes of
stone. Every one of Vermont’s unique and threatened
archeological sites merits careful investigation—just like
fragile crime scenes!
SECTION THREE:
ACTIVITY 3A
Standard: 6.6a and 6.6b
Length: one class period
Materials: poster
Assignment:
Listen to the Lesson or read the photocopy provided by your teacher. “Brainstorm” a list of all
artifacts associated with each feature and/or site occupied by the four characters on the front
of the Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past poster. Classify these artifacts by material type,
using the following categories:
• organic (people, wood, plant, bone, leather, cloth, paper)
• lithic (rock)
• ceramic (pottery, brick)
• metal (iron, copper)
• glass
• rubber/plastic
• composite (a mix of the above)
As a group, use the information you gained from the Lesson to predict how each class of
material objects, features, or the entire site might be preserved or destroyed through time.
Choose a representative from your group to report your observations and scientific reasoning
to the class.
SECTION THREE: ARCHEOLOGICAL DETECTIVES
33
SECTION THREE:
ACTIVITY 3B
Standard: 2.6
Length: one to two class periods
Materials: poster paper
color pencils
Assignment:
Listen to the Lesson or read the photocopy provided by your teacher. Using prior knowledge
and imagination, pick an event or place in your community (school, own house) and diagram
what it might look like in a thousand years to archeologists of the future. Present your scientific reasoning orally to the class.
34
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
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PAST
SECTION THREE:
ANSWERS
Activity 3A and 3B Answers:
Use the following table to assess Activity 3A and 3B answers:
Material
Organic
location
buried
Environmental Context
climate
cold
moderate
hot
Lithic
buried
cold
moderate
hot
Ceramic
buried
cold
moderate
hot
Metal
buried
cold
moderate
hot
Glass
buried
cold
moderate
hot
Rubber/Plastic
buried
cold
moderate
hot
Composite
buried
cold
moderate
hot
acidity
high
low
high
low
high
low
high
low
high
low
high
low
high
low
high
low
high
low
high
low
high
low
high
low
high
low
high
low
high
low
high
low
high
low
high
low
high
low
high
low
high
low
General Condition
< 100 years
> 100 years
good
poor
good
good
poor
poor
poor
poor
poor
poor
good
poor
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
poor
good
poor
poor
poor
good
poor
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
good
poor
good
poor
good
poor
good
poor
poor
poor
poor
poor
variable
variable
variable
variable
variable
variable
variable
variable
variable
variable
variable
variable
SECTION THREE: ARCHEOLOGICAL DETECTIVES
35
Checklist:
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
organic (people, wood, plant, bone, leather, cloth, paper)
lithic (rock)
ceramic (pottery, brick)
metal (iron, copper)
glass
rubber/plastic
composite (a mix of the above)
Activity 3A Assessment:
Use rubric 3A, the checklist, and exemplar provided to assess student performance in classifying artifacts from each Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past poster time period by material
type. Observe student interaction and oral presentations from group representatives to the
class. Use rubric 3A and the exemplar provided to record each group’s answers regarding artifact, feature, and site preservation.
Activity 3B Assessment:
Use rubric 3B to assess student diagrams of future archeological sites. Observe individual student oral presentations to determine if they comprehend why some materials preserve well
over time and others do not. Record your observations.
36
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
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SECTION THREE:
RECOMMENDED
RESOURCES
Adams, John Anthony. 1986. Dirt. College Station, Texas: Texas
A & M University Press.
Amato, Ivan. 1997. Stuff: The Materials the World is Made of.
New York, New York: Avon Books, Inc.
De Cunzo, Lu Ann and Bernard L. Herman, eds. 1996. Historical
Archaeology and the Study of American Culture. Winterthur,
Delaware: The Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Inc.
Annotation: An excellent example of interpreting Historic Era
site formation processes in urban and rural landscapes.
Schiffer, Michael B. 1987. Formation Processes of the
Archaeological Record. Albuquerque, New Mexico: University of
New Mexico Press.
Annotation: This is an essential text for every professional and
avocational archeologist interested in deciphering natural from
cultural agents that form and transform sites, highlighting the
rarity of surviving evidence.
Fagan, Brian. 1995. Time Detectives: How Archeologists use
Technology to Recapture the Past. New York, New York: Simon &
Schuster.
Henry, Susan L. 1993. Protecting Archeological Sites on Private
Lands. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of the
Interior, National Park Service, Cultural Resources Programs,
United States Government Printing Office.
Annotation: Briefly discusses natural and cultural forces that
threaten archeological sites.
McIntosh, Jane. 1986. Archeology. Eyewitness Books. New York,
New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Annotation: Detecting the past through acheology, for younger
readers.
Noël Hume, Ivor. 1982. Martin’s Hundred: The Discovery of a Lost
Colonial Virginia Settlement. New York, New York: Dell
Publishing Company.
Panati, Charles. 1987. Extraordinary Origins of Everyday Things.
New York, New York: Harper & Row Publishers.
Power, Marjorie W. and James B. Petersen. 1984. Seasons of
Prehistory: 4000 Years at the Winooski Site. Montpelier, Vermont:
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation.
Annotation: An excellent example of reconstructing the Middle
Woodland Period through interdisciplinary research.
Samford, Patricia and David L. Ribblett. 1995. Archeology for
Young Explorers: Uncovering History at Colonial Williamsburg.
Williamsburg, Virginia: The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
Sass, Stephen L. 1998. The Substance of Civilization: Materials
and Human History from the Stone Age to the Age of Silicon. New
York, New York: Arcade Publishing.
Annotation: A look at how other disciplines classify the fragmentary, surviving clues that archeologists recover from rare,
threatened sites.
SECTION THREE: ARCHEOLOGICAL DETECTIVES
37
38
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
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SECTION FOUR:
SCIENTIFIC EXPLORERS
Hypothesizing Archeological Site Types and Locations
Objective:
T
his section introduces students to the scientific method of predicting, or
hypothesizing, archeological site types and locations on the Rock River Valley: Pathway to the
Past poster, using different maps and map skills. In particular, students examine the relationship between archeological sites and natural resources such as water. Students then use the
skills they acquire to hypothesize where archeological sites from different eras might be located in their own community.
Focusing Questions:
How do archeologists predict where different types of sites will be found?
Vocabulary List:
archeologically sensitive area
map scale
archival research
map symbol
cartographer
multi-component site
cultural resource
natural resources
cultural resource management (CRM)
orthophotograph
historic map
predictive model
hypothesize (n.– hypothesis)
primary source
landuse
secondary source
map
settlement pattern
map key
single-component site
SECTION FOUR: SCIENTIFIC EXPLORERS
39
SECTION FOUR:
LESSON
D I D Y O U K N O W. . .
4.1 Archeologists draw on geography to explore the past
4.1
scientific explorers
Archeologists are scientific explorers of past human geography. Today, most archeologists search for sites to avoid
them prior to new construction or other landuse projects.
Archival research is the first step to predict if archeological sites are present, what types, and where. Settlement
patterns, the spatial distribution of site types, change
through time but remain clustered around natural
resources. Geographic predictive models can help archeologists find and avoid sites. Archeologists use a variety
of primary and secondary archival sources to predict site
types and locations. Many kinds of historic and modern
maps showing natural and cultural resources can lead
archeologists to sites. Standard geographic skills guide
archeologists around maps and to possible sites.
4.2
4.3 Archival research is the first step of the scientific
archeological method
4.4 Archeological settlement patterns, or clustering of
specific time period sites, reflect natural resource
distributions
4.5 Archeologists build models to predict site locations
based on natural resources and settlement patterns
4.6 Primary and secondary archival sources reveal if sites
are present, what types, and where located
4.6.1. Archeologists rely heavily on historic and
modern maps
4.6.2 Standard geographic skills allow archeologists
to find their way around maps and to possible
sites
archeologists avoid sites!
How do archeologists know where to dig? Surprisingly,
most archeologists avert excavation by avoiding sites!
Vermont archeologists only look for sites during the environmental regulatory review process, before any changes
in landuse through planned construction or development.
The goal of government agencies, archeologists and developers is to avoid sensitive areas and known sites. For
example, Vermont Gas hired archeologists as consultants
to determine whether the proposed System Expansion
Project would harm any archeological sites. Archeological
sites are one cultural resource considered during such
cultural resource management, studies (see Section Seven
for more about CRM).
One of the most cost-efficient and ethical ways to preserve
archeological sites for the future is to protect them in
place, or in situ. Archeological sites provide an important
public resource. Scientific investigation of archeological
sites is very time-consuming and relatively expensive,
because they are fragile, unique, and rare resources that
must be carefully documented (see Section Five for more
about site preservation and excavation). Archeologists
expend large amounts of time and labor in the archives,
field, laboratory, and reporting their findings. Someday,
Why avoid sites?
• Undisturbed sites are fragile, unique, and rare public
resources
• Careful archeological research is time-consuming and
expensive
• New technology will allow future research without
destructive excavation
40
4.2 CRM projects largely dictate where Vermont’s
archeologists look for sites—so they can avoid them!
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
archeologists may use new technology to fully explore
sites in a non-destructive manner that does not involve
excavation. New scientific methods may be able to reveal
more information than we can gain through today’s imperfect technology. Initial design by Vermont Gas attempted
to avoid archeologically sensitive areas, defined on the
basis of archival research. In order to avoid sites, archeologists must first know where they are located.
4.3
archival research
Archival research is the first step in the scientific archeological method. Successful geographic explorers always
start their voyages by gathering information about
unknown territory. Archives, or repositories of information, used by explorers have ranged from libraries to
sailor’s memories. Similarly, archeologists spend more
time “digging” into archives than they do in the field
looking for sites. To Vermont archeologists, the term
archives refers to the State of Vermont’s Division for
Historic Preservation (VDHP) site files, consulting archeology reports, libraries, museums, people’s memories, and
many other sources. On the Rock River Valley: Pathway to
the Past poster, Arti Fact is accessing distant archives and
communicating via the internet with experts regarding
Shy One’s Western Abenaki culture.
Background information from libraries and other archives
is used to hypothesize, or predict, if archeological sites
may be present in a project area. Like geographers, archeologists ask “what types of sites and where are they located?” Throughout history, people have always settled near,
traveled to, and used natural resources. Since natural
resources are not evenly scattered across the landscape,
people clustered near particularly rich locations.
Geographers study the spatial distribution of natural and
cultural resources. Archeologists explore past cultures by
examining the spatial distribution of natural resources
and groups of sites. The results of archival research are
used to understand past settlement patterns and develop
predictive models.
DIGGING INTO ARCHIVES
1
An archeologist starts work by doing research to predict where
sites might be found and how to avoid disturbing them.
digging into archives
copy and artifact art
go here
4.4
settlement patterns
In archeology, settlement pattern refers to where groups
of sites, associated with a particular time period or culture, are located. Archeologists group sites into types to
explore settlement patterns. Settlement patterns reflect
geographically varying, basic human needs for shelter,
food, moving about, and making a living.
Some common site types distributed on the landscape
include habitation (buildings, structures, and living
areas), subsistence (foodways), transportation, and industrial (natural resource extraction and processing) sites.
Do you see any overlap between these common site types
and the list of cultural characteristics discussed in Section
Two?
Landuse or settlement patterns can change over time, just
like cultural characteristics. While sites of all types may
cluster around natural resources, people of different time
periods may use the same resources differently. For example, Native Americans from the Woodland Period typically fished at waterfalls along rivers, where eel and salmon
All communities exercise choice in their labeling of
resources, but they do so in radically different ways.
Perhaps the central contrast between Indians and
Europeans at the moment they encountered each other in
New England had to do with what they saw as resources
and how they thought those resources should be utilized.
– William Cronon (1983:165-166) Changes in the Land
congregated seasonally. Early Euro-American settlers later
canoed up the waterways, and harnessed the same falls to
power grist mills and saw mills.
The natural resources that archeologists theorize were
important to peoples of all time periods and cultures
include: flat topography or landforms with a view, usable
bedrock, well-drained sediment, good agricultural soil,
abundant vegetation, plentiful wildlife, and nearby water.
Waterways were especially important. The Rock River
Valley is an example of an important natural corridor
boasting rich transportation, habitation, subsistence,
industrial opportunities.
Many cultural resources, such as early Native American
trails and historic roads, follow natural corridors through
Vermont’s landscapes. Cultural resources can possess a
clear relationship to natural resources. Bridges, for example, are typically built along a river at bedrock narrows.
Cultural resources of one type, such as habitation sites,
may be associated with sites of another type, such as
transportation corridors. Settlement patterns of one cultural group or time period commonly overlie other patterns.
Archeologists call areas of the landscape used once, single-component sites. For example, one habitation site at a
waterfall dating to the Woodland Period is a single component site. Places occupied repeatedly through time are
multi-component sites. Where the same waterfall was
later harnessed for industrial purposes, archeologists
would find a multi-component site. For instance, the
Saxe Farmstead and Mill (VT-FR-325) on the Rock River
Valley: Pathway to the Past poster is a multi-component
site with archeological evidence from more than four time
periods.
Can you identify the relationship between diverse natural
resources within the Rock River Valley and people in the
time periods of Shy One, Catherine Saxe, Pierre LaBarre,
and John King? The poster explores a variety of rich natural resources at the location where Saxe Brook flows into
the Rock River. The Rock River Valley offers a natural
transportation corridor, both within the river channel and
along its banks. The lower reaches of the Rock River are
fringed with bountiful wetlands and fertile floodplains.
Limestone bedrock outcrops in the upland and on valley
knolls. The small Saxe Brook tributary drops precipitously in elevation into this rich valley, marked by water
falling over bedrock. The lime-rich bedrock sustains lush
vegetation, including a mixed hardwood forest. This
mosaic of natural environments hosts a variety of fish,
waterfowl, and other game animals.
The Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past poster blazes a
trail from the Modern Period to the Euro-American
Settlement Period with an easterly view of the same geo-
SECTION FOUR: SCIENTIFIC EXPLORERS
41
VERMONT’S LAND AND RESOURCES
Noted Vermont geographer Harold Meeks (1986)
describes some natural resources that shaped our state’s
landscape and history.
• Natural landscape
• Running water
• Glaciers
• Geology
• Metallic minerals
• Non-metallic minerals
• Weather
• Vegetation
• Soil
graphic landform. Landscape changes to the Saxe
Farmstead and Mill (VT-FR-325) can be traced through
the three later time periods. The geographic explorer
turns slightly north to find the earlier Native American
Saxe Brook North Site (VT-FR-234), roughly where sheep
grazed from Pierre LaBarre’s perspective during the
Industrial Period.
4.5
4.6
finding the right source
Archeologists explore a variety of archival sources to predict where, and what types of, sites may be found within
a specific project area. As geographic explorers, archeologists seek out every reference to archeological sites, such
as places where Native Americans camped or where early
settlers constructed log cabins.
Primary sources are more accurate than secondary
sources. Primary sources include the original records or
documents such as maps, deeds, birth certificates, census
records, wills, cemetery markers, photographs, diaries,
and newspaper accounts. Primary sources also encompass
oral history regarding incidents actually undertaken or
witnessed by the informant. Data from previous archeological excavation is also considered a primary source. As
you can see, primary sources may be difficult to find, lost
or missing, or require appointments at a variety of town
and state offices.
predictive models
Archeologists use natural resources and settlement patterns to build models that can systematically predict the
location of archeological sites. To create a geographic predictive model, archeologists map where sites have been
identified in the past, using the State of Vermont’s
Vermont Archeological Inventory site forms and database.
Archeological site forms contain data fields from previous
projects about nearby natural or cultural resources that
assist the researchers to deduce under what conditions
new sites will be found.
[Lake Champlain’s] Missisquoi Bay... like the
Missisquoi River... derives its name from the [Missisquoi]
Abnaki Indians.
Pr edictive Modeling
Secondary sources are easier to access. They are important because they provide a broad overview of historic
trends. However, secondary sources often contain rewritten material that largely summarizes primary and other
secondary sources. Written errors or misinterpretations
may influence people for generations. Secondary sources
include: town histories, state histories, published history
and archeology papers, and oral tradition related second
or third hand. The context sections of most archeology
reports are drawn from secondary sources.
• Develop a site location hypothesis based on:
• natural resources
• known cultural resources
• Conduct archival research to find known sites; search
through libraries, town files, and interview collectors
• Record known and potential sites in the field
• Start a database of standardized site forms
• Test the hypotheses where sites are and aren’t expected
• Modify the original hypothesis
Accurate geographic modeling of which natural resources
and cultural characteristics are significant predictors of
site locations is still in its infancy. Every predictive model
remains a hypothesis or theory until scientifically tested.
Thorough archeological testing requires investigation of
places where sites are and are not suspected. In Vermont,
predictive models are commonly used as an economic
compromise, to limit the amount of fieldwork on large
CRM projects.
42
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
Rock River [in Highgate] is named for its chief attribute.
From 1832 until 1858 there was a post office of Saxes
Mills, taking its name from the original settlement which
had grown up around the first mill in town.
– Esther M. Swift (1977:244-245) Vermont Place-Names
Written or oral geographic clues about site locations in
archival resources are often vague like, “on the north
bank of the river.” Whether primary or secondary
sources, maps more precisely pinpoint the location of natural and cultural resources than vague written references.
4.6.1 archeologists explore maps
Archeologists rely heavily on a wide variety of maps to
show locations of natural and cultural resources. Maps
are one of the best tools for visually pinpointing potential
archeological sites, areas sensitive for archeological sites,
or settlement patterns. Cartographers, or map makers,
draw maps to represent parts of the earth. Maps can portray different types of geographic information such as
topography, landscapes, political boundaries, transportation routes, population statistics, linguistic distributions,
geology, and soil types.
Few maps show actual archeological site
locations. Instead,
Help scientists explore the past
archeologists hypothRepresent geographic informaesize potential site
tion visually
locations from one or
more maps made for
Varieties include:
other purposes. The
• historic
lime kiln pictured
• topographic
behind Pierre LaBarre
• orthophotographic
on the Rock River
Valley: Pathway to the
• political
Past poster appears
• geologic
beside the Vermont &
• other
Canada Railroad (VTFR-316) on a late
Contain:
nineteenth century
• title
map showing the
• labels or symbols
political boundaries of
Missisquoi County,
• legend or key
Province of Québec,
• scale
Canada. During the
• north arrow
Industrial Period,
people burnt limerich rock in kilns to make lime for agriculture, glass, pottery, iron, and other industries. Archeologists working for
Vermont Gas examined the Centennial Geological Map of
Vermont, illustrating bedrock outcrops, to predict where
kiln owners quarried limestone. This helped archeologists
determine whether the proposed pipeline would impact
any stone quarry sites.
Maps...
Archeologists use maps of all time periods to explore
resources considered important during a given time period. Geographic knowledge and mapping technology
improved through time. Today’s modern maps are typically much more accurate than even the best historic maps.
Modern cartographers use satellites, aerial photographs,
and other new technology to produce very precise maps
such as the orthophotograph drawn on the poster as a
small inset. Both the historic map and orthophotograph
focus sharply on natural and cultural resource settlement
patterns surrounding Saxe’s Mills. Can you identify historic sites that have not survived to be shown on the
orthophotograph (see Section Three for more about site
transformation processes)?
Historic maps, however, might provide the only clues
about the existence of long abandoned sites. Exploring
older maps requires caution. Samuel de Champlain, an
early French explorer, was famous for his cartographic
skills, but it would be difficult to find your way around
New England from one of his maps. Many early maps
depicted uncharted regions. A later cartographer named
Frederick W. Beers surveyed many Vermont counties at
the peak of a map-making revival during the 1860s.
Historic cartographers measured distances with special
rods (1 rod = 16.5 feet) and chains (1 chain = 66 feet).
Beers engraved maps similar to the aged Highgate plan
depicted on the front of the Rock River Valley: Pathway to
the Past poster. As a geographic explorer, you will be able
to recognize many historic roads, houses, and natural
resources like springs on Beers maps that are still present
today. Other roads, structures, and natural resources may
indicate actual archeological sites or just historic errors!
4.6.2 finding your way around a map
Archeologists find their way around maps and identify
where sites might be located using standard geographic
skills. Most maps contain five basic components: title,
labels or symbols, legend or key, scale, and north arrow.
Titles describe the purpose of a map. Information is presented on the map using symbols or labels. Some representational maps use symbols that convey an idea, but
don’t necessarily show every detail. For example, a square
might show where a house is located. Nearby barns,
garages, wells, drive ways, or other cultural features may
not be depicted. Labels can identify the names of house
owners, roads, mountains, rivers, and other important
natural and cultural resources. The label Lime Kiln Road,
As some Vermont scholars have recognized, the state’s
cartographic heritage offers a potentially valuable tool for
the work of examining both the old and new questions of
Green Mountain history.
– Kevin Graffagnino (1983:ix) The Shaping of Vermont
SECTION FOUR: SCIENTIFIC EXPLORERS
43
for example, could lead archeologists to the ruins of a
lime kiln or limestone quarry.
Symbols are defined in a key, or legend. Distances are
measured using a scale. There is a direct relationship, a
ratio, between the unit of measurement shown on the
map and the actual distance. For example, if one inch on
a map is equal to one mile on the ground, the map scale
is 1:63,360. Maps include a north arrow and distinguish
whether the arrow points to true north, magnetic north,
or another direction. A scale and north arrow allow
archeologists to plot a course from a known fixed point,
such as a standing building, to an abandoned site.
With a few basic map skills, you too can become a scientific explorer. Help predict where Vermont’s rare, endangered archeological sites are located and protect them for
future generations.
44
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
SECTION FOUR:
ACTIVITY 4A
Standard: 6.7d, 6.7e, 6.7aa, 6.7bb, 6.7dd
Length: one class period
Materials: poster
Assignment:
As an archeological detective, you will reexamine the Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past
poster graphics, text, and your table of site characteristics (Activity 2A) for clues regarding
site location. Listen to the Lesson or read the photocopy provided by your teacher. Answer the
questions below.
Questions:
1. A property deed is a __________ source and a town history is a ___________ source of
archival information.
2. A ______________ and _____________ map are illustrated on the poster.
3. All maps typically have a ___________, ___________, ___________, ___________, and
___________ arrow.
4. Information about map ________ is located in the key.
5. ______________ lines depict streams, and the edges of rivers and lakes on the historic map
illustrated on the poster.
6. Shy One’s family camped beside the _________ River and fished at the base of the
_________ on a small stream for salmon.
7. The Saxe family used _______ to power their grist mill at the _________ on a small stream.
8. The small stream was known as _________ ____________ by 1871, after the Saxe family
who built the first grist mill there.
9. Homes or residences are depicted on the map as _______________.
10. Roads are symbolized as double __________________.
11. By 1871, the buildings once owned by the Saxe family were owned by A. Barr (A.B.). How
many houses are shown? What other standing buildings or old foundations could one
expect to find at this location?
12. What railroad is shown within the Rock River Valley?
13. The major vegetation type depicted on the map that Pierre LaBarre and other railroad
workers built through was _______________.
14. Lines arranged in a radiating circle depict ______________.
15. True or False: Rivers, roads, or railroads typically cross hills or mountains.
16. What political entity lies to the north of the town of Highgate?
17. Measure the distance from the mouth of the Rock River upstream to the Canadian border.
18. Two historic transportation routes parallel the Rock River, once a Abenaki travelway. These
are ___________ and ______________.
19. Houses are commonly located next to _______________.
20. True or False: Communities tend to cluster near intersections of roads and rivers.
SECTION FOUR: SCIENTIFIC EXPLORERS
45
SECTION FOUR:
ACTIVITY 4B
Standard: 6.7e
Length: one to two class periods
Materials: poster
local historic town map (1871 Beers Atlas of Franklin and Grand Isle
Counties)
rulers
poster paper
color pencils
Assignment:
Listen to the Lesson or read the photocopy provided by your teacher. The class then chooses a
project area within their community and predicts archeological sensitivity of that area. Begin
by making your own list of potential late-nineteenth century historic sites (homes, work or
community structures, and transportation routes) using an 1871 Beers atlas or other historic
map. Next, the entire class compiles one list and writes it on the chalkboard. Discuss how
potential historic sites identified by the class relate to natural resources such as water (springs,
streams, rivers, lakes), terrain (in valleys or on hills), bedrock (including falls or rapids), and
vegetation.
46
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
SECTION FOUR:
ACTIVITY 4C
Standard: 6.7cc
Length: one to eight class periods
Materials: poster
local historic town map (1871 Beers Atlas of Franklin and Grand Isle
Counties)
rulers
poster paper
color pencils
Assignment:
Listen to the Lesson or read the photocopy provided by your teacher. Based on your observations, form a hypothesis about the location of earlier (Precontact Era or Euro-American
Settlement Period) sites that are not depicted, in relation to natural resources. Also consider
temporary nineteenth-century buildings or activities that are not depicted on the historic map
(e.g., barns, outhouses, sugar houses). Can you find evidence for these types of earlier sites or
temporary activities within your project area by reading a town history (e.g., Ledoux 1988,
Child 1883; Aldrich 1891; Hemenway 1871; see Recommended Resources) or by conducting
oral history interviews with older town residents? Make a new map of the project area with
your classmates, grouping archeologically sensitive areas as: high or low.
SECTION FOUR: SCIENTIFIC EXPLORERS
47
SECTION FOUR:
ANSWERS
Activity 4A Answers:
1. Primary, secondary
2. Historic and Orthophotograph
3. Title, Legend (or Key), symbols (or labels), scale, north
4. Symbols
5. Wavy
6. Rock, water falls
7. Water, water falls
8. Saxe Brook
9. Squares (or boxes)
10. Lines
11. Two. Barns, outbuildings.
12. Vermont & Canada Railroad, or Vermont & Canada Junction Railroad
13. Swamp (or wetland)
14. Hills
15. False
16. Canada (Missisquoi County, or Québec)
17. 440 Rods, 7,260 feet or 2,212.85 meters (the distance represented on the poster artwork is
comparable to some distances shown on historic maps. Historic maps are not as accurate
as modern maps.)
18. roads and the Vermont & Canada Railroad (also Lake Champlain)
19. Roads
20. True
Activity 4A Assessment:
Use rubric 4A and the answer key provided to document student answers to the questions listed above.
Activity 4B Assessment:
Use the 4B and 4C rubric to assess individual student site lists. Observe individual student
performance in the class brainstorming session to develop a list of potential sites and ensuing
discussion about the relationship between archeological sites and natural resources.
Activity 4C Assessment:
Use the 4B and 4C rubric to assess individual student hypotheses and the class’ archeological
sensitivity map. Observe student interaction in the class and assess each person’s contributions. Record your observations.
48
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
TO THE
PAST
SECTION FOUR:
RECOMMENDED
RESOURCES
cultural resource management
Knudson, Ruthann. 1986. Contemporary Cultural Resource
Management. In American Archaeology Past and Future: A
Celebration of the Society for American Archaeology, 1935-1985,
edited by David J. Meltzer, Don D. Fowler, and Jeremy A. Sabloff,
pp. 395-413. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
Annotation: Defines cultural resources and introduces how they
are managed today within the United States.
Peebles, Giovanna. 1989. A Rich and Ancient Heritage.
Montpelier, Vermont: Unpublished Pamphlet by the Vermont
Division for Historic Preservation.
Annotation: An excellent introduction to Vermont’s diverse
archeological sites, many identified through CRM projects.
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation. Sites and Structures
Survey. Montpelier, Vermont: Files maintained by the Vermont
Division for Historic Preservation, Department of Housing and
Community Affairs, Agency of Commerce and Community
Development.
Annotation: A largely paper database of historic buildings,
bridges, and other structures recorded across Vermont, primarily
by Vermont Division for Historic Preservation staff and students.
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation. Vermont
Archeological Inventory. Montpelier, Vermont: Files maintained
by the Vermont Division for Historic Preservation, Department of
Housing and Community Affairs, Agency of Commerce and
Community Development.
Annotation: A largely paper database of archeological sites that
have been recorded during past CRM projects or through the
efforts of avocational archeologists.
natural resources, site locations, and site types
Cherry, Lynne. 1992. A River Ran Wild. Gulliver Green, New
York, New York.
Annotation: This superbly illustrated book about Nashua, New
Hampshire history for younger audiences focuses on the relationship of different peoples through time to an important
resource, the Nashua River.
Cronon, William. 1983. Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and
the Ecology of New England. New York, New York: Hill and Wang.
Glassie, Henry. 1968. Pattern in the Material Folk Culture of the
Eastern United States. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of
Pennsylvania Press.
Annotation: One of the first cultural geographers to explore the
influence of natural resources (climate and landforms) on historic settlement patterns, as illustrated by regional building
styles.
Lord, Philip Jr., ed. 1989. War Over Walloomscoick: Land Use and
Settlement Pattern on the Bennington Battlefield-1777. Albany, New
York: Division of Research and Collections of the New York State
Museum, The University of the State of New York.
Annotation: A wonderful interpretation of Historic Era settlement pattern (site location) and natural resources along New
York and Vermont’s Walloomsac River from historic maps and
other archival sources.
Meeks, Harold A. 1986b. Vermont’s Land and Resources.
Shelburne, Vermont: New England Press.
Annotation: Introduces Vermont’s natural resources, cultural
geography, and the origins of the state’s landuse planning.
Rolando, Victor R. 1992. 200 Years of Soot and Sweat: The History
and Archeology of Vermont’s Iron, Charcoal, and Lime Industries.
Burlington, Vermont: Vermont Archaeological Society.
Annotation: This excellent work clearly demonstrates the relationship between Vermont’s natural resources and early historic
industries. Through exhaustive archival research and nondestructive field inventory, Victor Rolando identified many fastvanishing traces of Vermont’s important heritage.
Sanford, Robert and Don & Nina Huffer. 1994. Stonewalls &
Cellarholes: A Guide for Landowners on Historic Features and
Landscapes in Vermont’s Forests. Waterbury, VT: Vermont Dept. of
Forests, Parks, and Recreation.
Annotation: Describes some of the most common historic site
types that you, your students, and community might discover.
Spiess, Arthur E., ed. 1978. Conservation Archaeology in the
Northeast: Toward a Research Orientation. Peabody Museum
Bulletin. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum of
Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University.
Annotation: This important, but obscure publication from New
England archeology’s past addresses predictive models, settlement patterns, and archival research for finding sites, conserving,
and otherwise scientifically investigating sites of all time periods.
The ideas in these papers are worth brushing the dust off and
republishing.
digging into archives
Carnahan, Paul A. 1994. A Guide to Vermontiana Collections at
Academic, Special and Selected Public Libraries. Burlington,
Vermont: Center for Research on Vermont, University of
Vermont.
Graffagnino, Kevin J. 1983. The Shaping of Vermont, From the
Wilderness to the Centennial 1794-1877. Vermont Heritage Press
and the Bennington Museum, Rutland, Vermont.
Annotation: A beautiful, well-researched collection of early historic maps, and their potential uses.
Graffagnino, Kevin J. 1985. Vermont in the Victorian Age:
Continuity and Change in the Green Mountain State, 1850-1900.
Shelburne, Vermont: Vermont Heritage Press and the Shelburne
Museum.
SECTION FOUR: SCIENTIFIC EXPLORERS
49
Marran, James F. and Cathy L. Salter. 1988. Geography: United
States of America. McGraw-Hill Learning Materials, Spectrum.
Worthington, Ohio: McGraw-Hill Consumer Products.
Annotation: A great workbook showing how to read, interpret,
and make maps, along with other geographic skills. Grade 5.
Schlereth, Thomas J. 1980. Artifacts and the American Past.
Nashville, Tennessee: American Association for State and Local
History.
Annotation: Explains how to use historical photographs, vegetation, and objects to learn about past places and events.
Shafer, Robert Jones, ed. 1980. A Guide to Historical Method.
Dorsey Series in History. Homewood, Illinois: The Dorsey Press.
Annotation: Introduces archival research required by archeologists and other geographic explorers.
Weitzman, David. 1976. Underfoot: An Everyday Guide to
Exploring the American Past. New York, New York: Charles
Scribner’s Sons.
Annotation: One section on library archeology explains methods
for using photographs and maps to research site locations.
United States Geological Survey. 2000. United States Geological
Survey.
Annotation: National and state resources about maps and mapping. June 23, 2000@14:43. Online at http://info.er.usgs.gov/.
United States Geological Survey. 1989. Finding Your Way with
Map and Compass. Washington, D.C.: United States Government
Printing Office.
Annotation: Informative pamphlet, free from the United States
Geological Survey.
Vermont. St. Albans, Vermont: St. Albans Area Chamber of
Commerce and the St. Albans Historical Society.
Flynn, Dennis J., and Robert V. Joslin. 1979. Soil Survey of
Franklin County, Vermont. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C.
Annotation: Each Vermont soil survey includes a concise history
of a given county, information about soil resources, and air photographs generally predate major urban development.
Franklin County Vermont: Part of the Vermont Genealogy Web.
Annotation: A detailed web site with links to various Franklin
County Historic Resources. Online at:
http://www.rootsweb.com/~vtfrankl/.
Hemenway, Abby Maria, ed. 1871. The Vermont Historical
Gazetteer: A Magazine, Embracing a History of Each Town, Civil,
Ecclesiastical, Biographical and Military. Volume 2 of 3. Edited by
Abby Maria Hemenway. The Vermont Historical Gazetteer.
Burlington, Vermont: Miss A. M. Hemenway.
Annotation: Contains town histories of Franklin, Grand Isle,
Lamoille, and Orange Counties. May contain excellent primary
source accounts by early settlers, industrialists, agriculturalists,
and others, which require winnowing from secondary historic
information.
Houghton, George F. 1871. Franklin County, Introductory
Chapter. In Vermont Historical Gazetteer: A Magazine, Embracing,
a History of Each Town, Civil, Ecclesiastical, Biographical and
Military, Volume 2 of 3, ed. Abby Maria Hemenway, pages 89103. Burlington, Vermont: Miss A. M. Hemenway.
United States Geological Survey. n.d. Topographic Map Symbols.
Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office.
Annotation: Informative pamphlet, free from the United States
Geological Survey.
Skeels, Amos. 1871. Highgate: Introduction to the History of
Highgate. In Vermont Historical Gazetteer: A Magazine,
Embracing, a History of Each Town, Civil, Ecclesiastical,
Biographical and Military, Volume 2 of 3, ed. Abby Maria
Hemenway, pages 254-269. Burlington, Vermont: Miss A. M.
Hemenway.
Williams, Ethel W. 1969. Know Your Ancestors: A Guide to
Genealogical Research. Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle
Company.
Annotation: Although dated, this book clearly outlines basic
archival research methods and sources.
Johnson, John. 1835. Highgate from Actual Survey. State of
Vermont, Burlington. June 23.
Annotation: A rare map produced by one of Vermont’s preeminent surveyors. Wilbur Collection, University of Vermont BaileyHowe Library, Special Collections.
local archival resources
Jones, Anthony, and D. C. Linsley. 1863. Map and Profile of the
Swanton Branch of the Vermont and Canada Railroad. Vertical
scale 100 feet = 1 inch, Horizontal scale 1,000 feet = 1 inch. Jim
Murphy collection. Cited with the permission of Jim Murphy.
Aldrich, Lewis Cass, ed. 1891. History of Franklin and Grand Isle
Counties, Vermont. Syracuse, New York: D. Mason & Co.
Annotation: Both Aldrich and the Gazetteer sections of Child
(see below) could almost be considered “tertiary” sources,
because they often extract history from first-hand accounts or
secondary sources such as Hemenway (see below).
Beers, Frederick W. 1871. Atlas of Franklin and Grand Isle
Counties, Vermont: From Actual Surveys by and under the Direction
of F. W. Beers. New York: F. W. Beers & Co.
Annotation: Very detailed historic maps with residential and
commercial buildings depicted with owners/occupants initials.
Be careful, although these maps are detailed, they are not as
accurate as modern maps.
Child, Hamilton, ed. 1883. Gazetteer and Business Directory of
Franklin and Grand Isle Counties, Vermont for 1882-83. Syracuse,
New York: The Journal Office.
Annotation: Useful business directory, includes historic maps,
and may present some items in gazetteer or town history sections not duplicated in local histories of other decades.
Ewald, Richard. 1998. Windows on St. Albans & Franklin County
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Swift, Esther Munroe. 1977. Vermont Place-Names: Footprints of
History. Brattleboro, Vermont: The Stephen Greene Press.
United States Geological Survey. 1916. St. Albans, Vermont
Quadrangle (15 Minute Series Topographic), Washington, D.C.
United States Geological Survey. 1972. Highgate Center
Quadrangle, Vermont (7.5 Minute Series Topographic), Reston,
Virginia.
Annotation: Archeologists start with the most recent and accurate topographic map to trace project areas back through time,
discovering whether cultural features such as residences and
roads still exist, if any are now relict, when first abandoned, and
when first built.
United States Geological Survey. 1977. Highgate Springs Port of
Entry, Vermont-Quebec: Color Image Map, Reston, Virginia.
Annotation: An example of an orthophotograph used as a map.
The Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past Poster inset of Saxe’s
Mills is based on this orthophotograph.
SECTION FIVE:
EARTH’S ARCHEOLOGY LIBRARY
Archeological Site Preservation and Excavation
T
Objective:
his section highlights archeological resource management by comparing
cultural resources to natural resources. It describes the contributions of archeology and the
scientific method archeologists use to investigate and explain phenomena. Students participate
in an archeological classroom expedition.
Focusing Questions:
Why have people enacted national, state, and local legislation and created other ways to preserve or manage archeological sites?
What four steps make up the scientific archeological method?
How is archeological excavation conducted when site destruction is unavoidable?
Vocabulary List:
association
law of superposition
provenience
cartesian coordinates
legislation
qualified archeologist
context
matrix
record keeping
deductive reasoning
non-renewable
research design
excavation
Phase I Site Identification
sample
fieldwork
Phase II Site Evaluation
scientific archeological method
heritage
Phase III Site Mitigation
stratum (pl.—strata)
inductive reasoning
phenomena
stratigraphy
in situ
preservation, site
steward
SECTION FIVE: EARTH’S ARCHEOLOGOY LIBRARY
51
SECTION FIVE:
LESSON
D I D Y O U K N O W. . .
5.1 Earth’s archeological sites are a library of knowledge
5.1
earth’s archeology library
Archeological sites house the earth’s library of past, present, and future knowledge. They are irreplaceable, nonrenewable cultural resources best preserved for the future
in their natural setting. Archeologists today concentrate
limited fieldwork time and money on imminently threatened sites. Laws and historic preservation organizations
provide guidelines for archeologists to ensure the public
benefits from cultural resource management (CRM) projects and destructive fieldwork. Qualified archeologists
are educated and trained to retrieve a maximum amount
of information from irreplaceable sites. Inductive and
deductive scientific reasoning plays an integral part of the
four-step archeological method. Archeological fieldwork
is undertaken in phases to allow enough time for site
avoidance. Phase I Site Identification demands careful
record keeping to provenience sites, features and artifacts.
Phase II and Phase III excavation emphasizes careful
recording and context.
5.2
5.3 Archeological sites are irreplaceable, non-renewable
resources best preserved in situ for the future
5.4 Archeologists focus excavation on unavoidably threatened sites
5.5 Laws, government agencies, non-profit organizations
guide archeological work for the public’s benefit
5.6 Education and training help qualified archeologists
interpret the past accurately
5.7 Scientific reasoning is an essential part of the four-step
scientific archeological method
5.8 Careful archeological fieldwork is phased to allow time
for planning, flexibility, and site avoidance
5.8.1. Accurate site identification requires keeping
careful records and good provenience
5.8.2 Context is a particularly important aspect of
Phase II and Phase III excavation record keeping
contributions of archeology
We all benefit from the ability to access past, present, and
future information from archeological sites. Archeological
sites contain the earth’s human heritage. Among the contributions of archeological research housed at public institutions are stories about past human lifeways, important
persons, and significant events. Our world would be that
much poorer without knowledge of early human origins
and migrations. Archeologists explored the lives of
notable figures like Pharaoh Tutankhamen of Egypt,
Helen of Troy, Jesus Christ, Thomas Jefferson, Elizabeth
Cady Stanton, and the Saxe family of Highgate, Vermont.
Archeology adds a new dimension to ordinary people
whose accounts were rarely recorded in written history
books. The application of advanced technology by
ancient Southwestern Native Americans to construct
sophisticated irrigation systems was only detected
through archeological research. Discoveries like the 3300
B.C. Alpine Ice Man highlight how past global climate
change affected environments and humans. Modern people now appreciate early Chinese, Egyptian, and Mayan
We all have a right to our past, and our past is the
world-wide record of the human experience. Each human
being has an inalienable right to use the intellectual and
spiritual values inherent in archaeological materials to
understand and/or believe one is secure in her or his
place in the physical and social world.
– Ruthann Knudson (1991:3) “The Archaeological Public
Trust in Context” in Protecting the Past
52
5.2 Past, present, and future archeological knowledge contribute to humanity’s well-being
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accomplishments in mathematics and astronomy technology. Through archeology, we gained unique information
about two significant events that shaped Vermont’s history in the Rock River Valley: origins of the first grist mill
and construction of the Vermont & Canada Railroad (VTFR-316).
People across the world presently borrow from the archeology library to enrich their daily lives. Archeology is an
important capital good of today’s modern heritage
tourism economy. Millions travel abroad to Neolithic cave
paintings in France, Inca ruins at Machu Picchu, Peru or
within the United States to Colonial Williamsburg, Custer
Battlefield National Monument, and Mount Independence
State Historic Site. For example, over 50% of Vermont’s
annual tourists visit historic sites. Archeological sites
offer a direct and tangible link to our past. Visitors walk
into actual ancient Anasazi homes at Mesa Verde National
Park, through reconstructed French colonial fortifications
at Louisburg, Québec, and across largely unchanged portions of Vermont’s late-nineteenth century rural landscape. Archeological sites give us a sense of identity, a
heritage that is particularly important to Vermonters.
Excavations in the Rock River Valley by Vermont Gas
archeologists reaffirm Western Abenaki oral tradition of
local landuse going back to at least 4,000 B.C. Research
also highlighted important aspects of German and
French-Canadian immigrants to the Rock River Valley.
Some archeological sites are traditional cultural places
that contain human burials and other sacred items.
England’s Stonehenge, Swanton’s Boucher Cemetery, and
other landmarks set aside from disturbance bring special
meaning to our lives.
endangered species.
The archeology library shelves await additions on the origin of stratified societies, reasons for climate change,
deforestation, impact of excessive natural resource
exploitation, negative impacts of overpopulation, development of agriculture, and the huge cost of losing biodiversity. Sites that are fortunate enough to avoid destruction (See Section Four) or intentionally protected in situ
(in place) will constitute our legacy to future generations.
As irreplaceable and non-renewable resources, we should
ideally preserve, or steward, all archeological sites in situ
for the future. Archeological sites convey the most meaningful information in their natural setting. The spatial
context of a site is comparable to an animal’s ecosystem.
Section Four mapped the diverse geographic relationships
between cultural sites and natural resources. Vermont Gas
archeologists, for example, interpreted Precontact Era
Native American settlement patterns from sites associated
with small tributaries, waterfalls, wetlands, and forests in
the Rock River Valley. Each new site discovery in the
Rock River Valley adds an additional dimension to the
local settlement pattern. Preserving sites intact and in
place helps maintain the original surrounding historic
setting or cultural “ecosystem.” Preservation of sites in
place enhances recreational, economic, sacred or traditional, as well as informational, importance. Applying the
Industrial Period as an example, accelerating technological changes in the Modern Period will dramatically
expand future archeological site value. Future research
techniques may allow non-destructive fieldwork of earth’s
irreplaceable and non-renewable archeological resources.
5.3
5.4
Future volumes in the archeology library will contribute
to the earth’s social, economic, and environmental well
being. In Vermont and nationwide, archeological sites
present an underutilized tourism opportunity waiting to
be tapped. Archeology may unearth medicinal plants past
people used to treat disease. Other vital information from
archeological sites could benefit humanity besides lifesaving medicine. For example, data furnished by the
Vermont Gas Systems project could be developed into a
quiet roadside marker, virtual web tour, tourist destination, museum, heritage conference center, or publication
featuring Franklin County sites.
preserve irreplaceable and non-renewable sites in their natural setting
Like natural resources, the earth’s archeology library is an
important asset deserving vigilant protection.
Archeological sites are increasingly endangered cultural
resources. Unlike natural resources, they are irreplaceable
and non-renewable. Once lost, we can never regain the
knowledge contained in an archeological site. Each site is
a time capsule. In Section One, we noted that archeology
provides tremendous time depth. Section Two illustrated
how archeological sites contain rarely recorded stories of
...Influenced by the natural sciences and environmental
concerns of the day [Lipe] reminded archaeologists that
archaeological sites comprise a finite, non-renewable
resource rapidly being obliterated throughout the land.
The core of Lipe’s model, styled a ‘conservation ethic’ by
many, lies in the statement that we should ‘treat [archaeological] salvage, especially of the emergency kind, as the
last resort—to be undertaken only after all other avenues
of protecting the resource have failed.’
– Don D. Fowler (1986:135) quoting William D. Lipe
(1974) “Conserving American Archaeological Resources”
in American Archaeology Past and Future
ordinary people. Section Three investigated the uniqueness and fragility of cultural resources. The destruction of
earth’s archeological time capsules is comparable to burning an entire library. Losing one unique site is similar to
vandalizing a rare book or exterminating the last of an
archeologists focus on threatened sites
Today, archeologists concentrate precious time, money,
and human effort on identification and documentation of
imminently threatened sites. Ongoing natural and cultural destruction demonstrates that far more sites are threatened than stewarded.
Archeological excavation, or careful scientific digging,
should only be supported if there is an overwhelming
public benefit from landscape alteration. Destructive
archeological fieldwork techniques are often the only way
to save past knowledge for the future. Public forums help
decide if archeological excavation of our irreplaceable and
non-renewable archeological resources is necessary or justifiable (See Sections Seven and Eight).
Irreversible destruction of threatened sites can be offset
through scientific, controlled excavation to provide a positive public benefit. Positive benefits of scientific fieldwork include archeological knowledge, opportunities for
research, education, and economic purposes, such as
enhancing heritage tourism.
5.5
who ensures the public benefits from
archeology?
Laws, government agencies, and non-profit organizations
encourage rigorous standards and peer review to ensure
the public receives the maximum benefit from archeological fieldwork. People who feared the loss of our past
enacted federal, state, and local laws and formed historic
SECTION FIVE: EARTH’S ARCHEOLOGOY LIBRARY
53
preservation organizations to guide archeological work.
Legitimate archeology
• Information about our past
demands a four-step
vital to present and future
scientific archeologiproblems
cal method if site
• Research opportunities
destruction is
• Education
unavoidable.
• Economic resources such as
Environmental and
heritage tourism attractions
historic preservation
laws discourage
unnecessary collecting
and excavation of archeological sites, and encourage public reporting of sites that cannot be stewarded in place.
Legislation such as the National Historic Preservation
Act, Vermont’s Historic Preservation Act, Criterion 8 of
Act 250, and local ordinances have spurred thorough
examination of archeologically sensitive areas.
Public benefits of
scientific fieldwork
example, the state’s archeological society membership is
dominated by volunteers and interested public.
Thousands of Vermont’s archeological sites have been
identified and recorded on site forms in the Vermont
Archeological Inventory by volunteer enthusiasts from
local communities.
Whether an archeologist has a professional degree or is an
avocational volunteer, they all observe scientific methods.
Anyone who borrows irreplaceable information from a
site is obligated to return the loan to the public through a
report. An archeologist’s scientific professionalism and
public commitment is reflected by contributions to the
archeology library. Ask to see an archeologist’s publication
list or the number of sites they recorded in state files!
Trained Pr ofessionals:
Profession
Education
Legislation also led to the establishment of federal and
state agencies such as the Advisory Council for Historic
Preservation, the National Park Service, and the Vermont
Division for Historic Preservation to safeguard archeological sites and maintain basic research guidelines.
Principal Archeologist
Masters or Ph.D.
Project Director
B.A. or Masters
Archeological Volunteer
Enthusiasm!
Non-profit archeological organizations like the Society for
American Archaeology, the Registry of Professional
Archaeologists, and the Vermont Archaeological Society,
Inc. uphold scientific ethical standards for both professional and volunteer archeologists. To encourage thorough public reporting of archeological data, federal and
state laws stipulate that only qualified individuals should
undertake CRM projects.
Historian
B.A. to Ph.D.
Ethnohistorian
B.A. to Ph.D.
Geographer
B.A. to Ph.D.
Soil Scientist
B.A.
5.6
Conservator
M.S. to Ph.D.
Archeological Illustrator
Skills
Physical Anthropologist
M.S. to Ph.D.
trained professionals
Qualified archeologists must be prepared to recover
invaluable information from irreplaceable sites. Like naturalists managing endangered species, archeologists are
educated and trained to manage cultural resources and
investigate sites. Federal and state legislation require
archeologists in charge of projects earn a masters degree
(6 years in college), combined with several years of work
experience. Scientific archeological projects usually
include an interdisciplinary support team of archeologists, historians, ethnographers, conservators, geologists,
soil scientists, chemists, and others to interpret the past
accurately.
Well-educated and trained team experts are important
human resources in today’s economy. Years of specialized
work experience prepare archeologists to guide new crew
members. Novice archeologists attend one or more field
schools to learn how to recognize and interpret archeological sites, features, and artifacts. Volunteers also play
an important role in research projects. In Vermont, for
54
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Archeological Technician
B.A.
Field School Student
High School or College
Geologist
B.A.
Paleobotanist
M.S. to Ph.D.
Paleontologist or
Zooarcheologist
B.S. to Ph.D.
Folklorist
B.A. to Ph.D.
Physicist
B.S. to Ph.D.
Mathematician
M.A. to Ph.D.
Chemist
B.S. to Ph.D.
Surveyor
B.S. to M.S.
5.7
inductive and deductive scientific
reasoning
Today’s historic preservation laws, organizations, and
guidelines require archeologists write a research design,
prior to beginning any work, with scientific reasoning
clearly outlined. Archeologists employ inductive and
deductive scientific reasoning to develop hypotheses that
explain observations about the relationship between natural resources, sites, features, and artifacts. Scientific rea-
soning is an essential part of the four-step scientific
archeological method researchers use to understand past
human behavior. As discussed in Section Four, archeologists apply the four-step scientific method of archival
research, fieldwork, laboratory analysis, and public
reporting to investigate, describe, and explain
phenomena. Scientific phenomena refer to particular
data, occurrences, facts, or events observed.
CAREFUL FIELDWORK
2
Archeologists excavate test pits, measure the three-dimensional location of all features and artifacts in situ (in place),
and screen sediments for other finds.
Archeologists draw on inductive reasoning based on particular scientific data or site phenomenon to form general
hypotheses about human behavior. For example, the presence of stone tools, fire-cracked rocks, charcoal, and fish
bone, surrounded by the remains of four small wooden
posts, suggest that Precontact Native Americans dried fish
on wooden racks.
Archeologists utilize deductive reasoning when they form
general hypotheses about human behavior and try to
prove those theories with particular scientific data or site
evidence. For example, archeologists confirm a hypothesis that Precontact Native Americans dried fish on wooden racks by unearthing stone tools, fire-cracked rocks,
charcoal, and fish bone, surrounded by the remains of
four small wooden posts. Sometimes archeologists build
several deductive hypotheses based on initial inductive
reasoning. Deductive hypotheses can be tested independently through controlled experiments using statistical,
physical, and/or chemical analysis. A high percentage of
distinct artifacts found during fieldwork, for instance, can
alert archeologists to the existence of a Historic Era site.
The contributions of scientific reasoning rely on careful
field methods.
Nine thousand years later, when Belgian archeologist
David Cahen excavated... all he found were some amorphous scatters of stone-tool debris, seemingly unpromising clues. But Cahen, using sophisticated, little-known
archeological techniques of later twentieth-century science, made a fascinating determination: The second stone
worker was lefthanded.
– Brian M. Fagan (1995:23) Time Detectives
5.8
careful phased fieldwork allows site
avoidance
Careful fieldwork is the second step of scientific archeological method. Archeological fieldwork destroys irreplaceable sites. Important information contained within
each threatened, unique, and rare site can never again be
duplicated. Archeologists, therefore, manage all aspects of
site fieldwork as respectfully as if they were working with
biological species facing extinction. The word careful cautions archeologists to watch for all site avoidance and
record keeping opportunities. On the Rock River Valley:
Pathway to the Past poster, Arti Fact and the research
team are carefully recording the position of archeological
evidence and seeking ways to avoid important sites such
as the Saxe Farmstead and Mill (VT-FR-325).
Phases of Fieldwork
Phase I
Site Identification
Find Sites
Phase II
Site Evaluation
Test Significance
Phase III
Site Mitigation
Recover Data
Archeologists systematically phase field research. A
phased approach allows time for planning, flexibility, and
many opportunities for site avoidance. In Vermont, archeologists follow three phases of archeological fieldwork:
Phase I Site Identification, Phase II Site Evaluation, and
Phase III Site Mitigation.
The purpose of Phase I Site Identification is to physically
search for sites within a specific project area.
Archeologists conserve limited time and money by focusing on sensitive areas, predicted during archival research,
likely to contain sites (see Section Four). Once sites are
identified, archeologists and others coordinate to save
cultural resources in situ. During Phase II Site
Evaluation, archeologists sample larger portions of sites
that are unavoidably threatened to determine whether
they are significant (see Section Seven). This second
phase of fieldwork provides additional time to redesign
projects to avoid archeological sites.
Phase III Site Mitigation allows qualified archeologists to
obtain a maximum amount of data from sites that are destined for destruction. A larger sample, or sometimes all,
of a site may be carefully excavated during Phase III Site
Mitigation fieldwork.
SECTION FIVE: EARTH’S ARCHEOLOGOY LIBRARY
55
y
x
z
cartesian coordinates (x, y, and z) that record the provenience of sites and artifacts. North-south is often labeled
y, west-east is labeled x, and elevation is labeled z.
Deductive scientific reasoning generally forms the basis of
site location hypotheses linked to natural resources.
Archeologists confirm their archival research hypotheses
in the field by systematically inspecting the ground surface to find features and artifacts. To locate evidence of a
site below ground, archeologists excavate shovel-test pits.
All sediment is carefully sifted through wire-mesh screens
for archeological remains. Any features and artifacts
archeologists discover can provide important data on a
site’s time period, cultural affiliation, and activities.
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Superposition
Archeologists dig
shovel-test pits to
sample parts of
sites during Phase
II Site Evaluation.
Sampling shows
archeologists what
areas of a site contain valuable
knowledge. If an
important site or
even part of a site
cannot be avoided,
archeologists excavate again to
retrieve as much
information as
time and money
allow, before it is
lost forever.
Careful record
keeping forms the
backbone of scientific reasoning and
the four-step archeological method.
Archeological
records, especially
vigilant attention
to context and
provenience, differentiate professional
archeological field-
MODERN PERIOD
Car tesian Coor dinates
Archeologists exercise similar fieldwork techniques during Phase II Site Evaluation and Phase III Site Mitigation.
Inductive scientific reasoning allows archeologists to
hypothesize what activities formed and transformed each
unique site. Careful record keeping and context are
emphasized. Context specifically refers to an artifact’s
provenience (cartesian coordinates), association (relationship to other items), and matrix (surrounding sediment). Removing an artifact from its in situ context is like
ripping a page out of a history book. It is important to
keep records on all aspects of an artifact’s context, just as
a naturalist keeps
notes on an aniLaw of
mal’s habitat.
INDUSTRIAL PERIOD
Following archival research, archeologists seek sites
through Phase I Site Identification fieldwork. Accurate
site identification requires keeping careful records and
good provenience. Provenience is the three-dimensional,
horizontal and vertical position, of sites and artifacts
found during excavation or survey. Pinpointing a site’s
provenience is like locating an animal in its ecosystem.
Archeologists begin survey by precisely recording where
their project area, sites, features, and artifacts lie on a
map. Archeological maps show imaginary grids with
5.8.2 Phase II and III site excavation and
context
EURO-AMERICAN
SETTLEMENT
PERIOD
5.8.1 Phase I Site Identification fieldwork
and provenience
If identified sites cannot be preserved in place,
researchers browse archives again to ask questions about
the site’s importance. These research questions, or
hypotheses, guide the next phase of archeological work to
assess site significance.
CONTACT PERIOD
Imagine that you predicted the location of a historic limestone or marble quarry in your community. How could
you identify the site in the field if your archival map
research shows it situated near railroad tracks along Lime
Kiln Road? Educated, trained archeologists or volunteers
adding sites to state files start with Phase I Site
Identification to survey or look for sites in the field.
work from acts of site vandalism. Excavators write meticulous notes about stratigraphy, signs of disturbance, and
interpretations. Each stratum, or layer an archeologist
excavates through, represents an interval of time. The
Law of Superposition states that strata from the oldest
periods typically lie deeper than younger ones.
Undisturbed newspapers stacked on a library table, for
instance, are piled with the oldest dated editions on the
bottom. Researchers also make measured or scale drawings of natural and cultural objects in their field notebooks. Every artifact’s location, or context, is carefully
recorded on the site map. All objects are labeled for later
analysis in the laboratory.
Irreplaceable archeological records reconstruct the excavated portion of a site in the laboratory long after it is
destroyed. Careful record keeping lets archeologists
extract maximum information from irreplaceable, nonrenewable resources. The library of scientific archeology
contributes an understanding of the past that enriches
our present and future.
SECTION FIVE: EARTH’S ARCHEOLOGOY LIBRARY
57
SECTION FIVE:
ACTIVITY 5A
Standard: 6.15b, 6.16f, 7.4, 7.5, and 7.15ee
Length: one to two class periods
Materials: poster
Activity 5A Assignment:
Think about the commitment to site preservation Vermont Gas demonstrates by reading the
Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past poster introduction, What is Archeology?, and following
Arti Fact through the scientific archeological method. Listen to the Lesson or read the photocopy provided by your teacher. Form a group of no more than four, to address one or two of
the questions below. Select a recorder from your group and brainstorm answers. When you’re
finished, pick a speaker to present answers to the class when it reconvenes.
Activity 5A Questions:
1. Why are archeological sites important resources that should be protected?
2. How do the U.S., Vermont, and local communities encourage site preservation?
3. How can we protect archeological sites from cultural and natural threats?
4. When should archeological sites be excavated?
5. Who should excavate sites, and what is their training/education?
6. What steps make up the scientific archeological method?
7. What contributions can scientific archeology make to our understanding of the past, present, and future?
58
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SECTION FIVE:
ANSWERS
Activity 5A Answers:
1. They are an important non-renewable resource. They provide a connection to our past.
They give us a sense of identity. They are an underutilized heritage tourism opportunity
vital to our economy. They may contain burials or other objects sacred to Vermonters. They
may contain data important to our future (e.g., climate change, medicinal plants). They
should be saved for the future. Standard 6.15b (May also fulfill Standards 6.16f, 7.15ee)
2. By: Passing laws such as the National Historic Preservation Act, Native American Graves
Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), Vermont Historic Preservation Act, Act 250,
and local ordinances. Establishing federal and state agencies who safeguard archeological
sites, such as the Advisory Council for Historic Preservation and the Vermont Division for
Historic Preservation. Supporting of non-profit organizations such as the Archaeological
Conservancy, the Vermont Archaeological Society, the Vermont Historical Society, and the
Vermont Land Trust. Promoting archeological stewardship through Vermont Archaeology
Week or other public outreach. Discouraging unnecessary collecting and excavation of
archeological sites. Standard 7.15ee
3. We should ideally preserve, or steward all archeological sites in situ for the future.
Archeological sites convey the most meaningful information in their natural setting.
Preserved, intentionally stewarded sites are less susceptible to natural and cultural threats
such as erosion by rivers or unnecessary collecting and excavation. Standard 7.15ee (May
also fulfill Standards 6.16f)
4. Archeological sites should be excavated when: they are threatened and cannot be avoided
(see question number 3), or when there is an overwhelming benefit to controlled site
destruction, such as when they can provide valuable information about our past vital to
present problems or if they can provide an important economic resource such as a heritage
tourism attraction. Standards 6.16f and 7.15ee
5. Only qualified archeologists should excavate sites. Archeologists typically require at least a
masters degree, combined with several years of experience. Well designed archeological projects usually include an interdisciplinary team of archeologists, historians, ethnographers,
conservators, geologists, soil scientists, chemists and others. Standards 3.15 and 7.5
6. Archival research, careful fieldwork, laboratory analysis, and public reporting make up the
scientific archeological method. Standard 7.5
7. Scientific archeology can contribute to our understanding of past lifeways, important persons, and events. Presently, archeology can be a vital force in heritage tourism. In the future,
archeology could provide important information that benefits humanity. Examples of
important information include: reasons for climate change, deforestation, impacts of excessive natural resource exploitation, negative impacts of population growth, development of
agriculture and origin of stratified societies. Standard 7.4
Activity 5A Assessment:
Use rubric 5A to assess student group answers to selected questions from the educator’s guide.
Observe student interaction and oral presentations from group representatives to the class.
Use rubric 5A to record each group’s answers.
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SECTION FIVE:
ACTIVITY 5B
Standard: 7.1a-i, 7.1aa-ii, 7.7bb, and 7.7dd
Length: variable, but all or part of 4 class periods is recommended
Materials: masking tape
string
markers or color pencils
construction paper
white paper
tablet of graph paper
a 3 foot wide roll of packing or butcher paper at least 120 feet long
expedition kit:
• sample artifact and feature key (Appendix Three)
• envelopes
• scissors
• pencils
• graph paper
• small notebooks
Activity 5B Assignment:
Listen to the Lesson or read the photocopy provided by your teacher. Form a group of no
more than four students to participate in an archeological classroom expedition. Each team is
responsible for careful note taking and recording observations of natural and cultural
resources. Your team must also draw hypotheses about site locations, draft scaled plans of the
“site,” and develop conclusions from the “excavation.” Take turns writing in the notebook and
select a speaker to report group findings and interpretations to the class when it reconvenes.
Phase I Site Identification Survey
1. Research teams record observations about the entire surface area in expedition notebooks.
- Notes should include the names of the research team members, date, class period, observations, hypotheses, findings, and conclusions.
- Are there any sources of water, outcrops of bedrock, ruins, or artifacts visible at the surface?
- In what grid unit(s) are natural or cultural resources seen at the surface?
- In what grid unit(s) might sites be found and why.
2. Excavation begins with sampling the archeologically sensitive area for sites.
- Each research team should get one card that indicates where they will sample.
- For random sampling, shuffle the 100 cards and remove one per team.
- For systematic sampling, keep the 100 cards in order and remove one per team in
even intervals.
3. Excavate by:
- Cutting through the packing paper covering their excavation unit.
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4. Each research team records observation about their excavation unit in their expedition
notebook.
5. Each research team draws a scaled site plan on graph paper for each layer.
- The site plan should include the names of the research team members, date, class period, scale, north arrow, and key.
6. Collect artifact and feature symbols you excavate and place them into envelopes
- Mark envelopes with the grid unit, stratum, names of the research team members, date,
and class period.
7. The end of an excavation day or layer may be marked by a class period or by flicking the
lights off and on.
Phase II Site Evaluation
1. Select another set of five cards where you will focus excavation.
2. Focus excavation where you find sites based on artifacts and features found through sampling.
3. Your research team may choose to excavate one unit at a time, or excavate all units together
one layer at a time.
4. The research teams have a time limit on their expedition (about 1 hour).
- “Excavate” and keep records as noted above.
5. Your research team can trade up to two cards with colleagues, or choose another two cards
randomly from the deck.
- The cards may be exchanged at any time as long as you have not begun to excavate that
unit.
6. If your research team’s initial sampling fails to identify any evidence of a site (excavation
unit contains no artifacts or features), the team may excavate where you hypothesize a site
may be located (based on natural or cultural resources noted previously at the surface).
- Or, your team can combine excavation units and excavate with another research team, if
they agree.
Site Interpretation
1. Each research team writes a final site interpretation in your notebook when the expedition
is concluded.
- Interpretation should include the total number of features and artifacts found, a description of the cultural activities represented, age of the site, and condition (disturbance, if
any).
2. Each research team selects a representative to report findings to the class.
3. The class discusses: where sites were found in relation to natural and cultural resources
noted at the archeologically sensitive area’s surface. Conclude your discussion with what
important information may be preserved for the future in unexcavated portions of the site.
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Activity 5B Educator Preparation:
1. Begin the archeological “classroom archeological expedition” with a discussion about reasons for a simulated “dig” rather than excavation of an actual site, with each student contributing at least one reason.
2. Next, discuss why only 25% of the entire archeologically sensitive area will be excavated.
3. The educator can prepare the classroom expedition exercise alone, or designate students to
complete specific tasks.
4. Divide the class into research teams of four students (for a class of 20).
5. Supply each team with an “expedition kit”.
6. Grid a 10 x 10 foot section of classroom floor into an even number of squares. This will
designate an entire archeologically sensitive area.
- Use the floor’s one foot linoleum squares, or string and masking tape, to mark excavation units.
- Number and letter the grid’s perimeter as a northeast quadrant, north (N) and east (E)
axis, on the masking tape.
7. Cut 100 playing card sized pieces of paper equaling the designated 100 excavation units.
- Number the pieces of paper sequentially on one side with grid coordinates.
8. Draw an archeological lesson plan on a sheet of graph paper depicting where natural and
cultural resources will be located on the entire grid.
- Use the sample site lesson plan, and sample artifact and feature key provided in
Appendix Three as a guide.
- Use a different sheet of graph paper to scale archeological features and artifacts for every
“stratum” students will “excavate.”
- All but a few excavation units should contain at least one artifact or feature.
- Graph at least the surface and two excavated layers.
- The surface should include natural resources such as bedrock and streams, and
some cultural resources like a cellarhole or artifacts.
- The second sheet of graph paper should depict the plan for the first excavated layer.
It should contain historic artifacts and features associated with a residence like
bricks and glass. A ring of stone could indicate the location of a well.
- The third sheet of graph paper could depict Abenaki artifacts from the Woodland
Period as evidenced by the remains of a hearth and wigwam using fire-cracked rock,
charcoal, post molds, stone tool, and flake scatter symbols.
- Add other time periods with additional sheets of graph paper. For example, Native
American sites from the Archaic and Paleoindian Periods.
- Indicate disturbances to archeological sites by overlapping and removing selected
artifacts and features from two or more time periods.
9. Draw and cut out artifact and feature symbols and arrange them on the classroom floor
grid.
- Tape down natural resources.
- Tape down artifacts and cultural resources from the deepest stratum and cover the layer
with a sheet of packing paper (cut around natural resources).
- Repeat for each layer.
- Color the packing paper to signify different layers.
- If necessary, replace the grid string over the packing paper.
Activity 5B Alternate Activities:
Have students visit one of the site areas predicted in their own community to confirm archeological site locations.
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Activity 5B Assessment:
Use rubric 5B to assess student group performance. Collect and review expedition notebooks.
Observe student group interaction and oral presentations from group representatives to the
class. Use rubric 5B to record each group’s answers.
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SECTION FIVE:
RECOMMENDED
RESOURCES
contributions to the archeological library and site
preservation
Crisman, Kevin J. and Arthur B. Cohn. 1998. When Horses
Walked on Water: Horse-Powered Ferries in Nineteenth-Century
America. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Annotation: Example of archeological research contributing
details about an unusual transportation technology. When was
the last time that horses powered Vermont’s machinery?
CRM: Cultural Resource Management. Washington, D.C.: United
States Department of the Interior, National Park Service,
Cultural Resources.
Annotation: A magazine published by the National Park Service
that provides information for parks, federal agencies, Indian
tribes, states, local governments, and the private sector that promotes and maintains high standards for preserving and managing cultural resources. Identifies many unique types of archeological sites that have yet to be recorded in Vermont’s state files.
Feder, Kenneth, L. 1994. A Village of Outcasts: Historical
Archaeology and Documentary Research at the Lighthouse Site.
Mountainview, California: Mayfield Publishing Company.
Annotation: Archeology of an ethnically diverse rural pioneer
village in Barkhamstead, Connecticut made up of AfricanAmericans, Euro-Americans, and Native Americans.
Fowler, Don D. 1986. Conserving American Archaeological
Resources. In American Archaeology Past and Future: A
Celebration of the Society for American Archaeology, 1935-1985,
edited by David J. Meltzer, Don D. Fowler, and Jeremy A.
Sabloff, pp. 135-162. Smithsonian Institution Press,
Washington, D.C.
Annotation: Reviews historic and present efforts by a minority
to conserve or preserve cultural resources such as archeological
sites for the intrinsic value, analogous to natural resource conservation efforts.
Hutt, Sherry, Elwood W. Jones, and Martin E. McAllister. 1992.
Archeological Resource Protection. Washington, D.C.: The
Preservation Press, National Trust for Historic Preservation.
Knudson, Ruthann. 1991. The Archaeological Public Trust in
Context. In Protecting the Past, edited by George S. Smith and
John E. Ehrenhard, pp. 3-8. CRC Press, Inc., Boston,
Massachusetts.
Annotation: Defines multiple values of archeological sites, for
different segments of the public.
Pringle, Heather. 1996. In Search of Ancient North America: An
Archaeological Journey to Forgotten Cultures. New York, New
York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Annotation: An exciting book by a science journalist, highlighting contributions of archeology at famous sites in North
America.
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Scott, Douglas D., Richard A. Jr. Fox, Melissa A. Connor, and
Dick Harmon. 1989. Archaeological Perspectives on the Battle of
the Little Bighorn. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman,
Oklahoma.
Annotation: Historic preservationists at Custer Battlefield
National Monument take advantage of a natural grass fire to
conduct interdisciplinary, non-destructive archeological fieldwork and answer questions that have long puzzled historians.
Stuart, George F. and Francis P. McManamon. 1996. Archaeology
& You. Washington, D.C.: Society for American Archaeology.
Annotation: An attractive, informative, and free public pamphlet
about archeology by the United States Department of the
Interior, the Bureau or Reclamation and the National Park
Service, the National Geographic Society, and the Society for
American Archaeology, in particular, the Public Education
Committee. Extensive recommended resources section.
Stipe, Robert E. and Antoinette J. Lee, eds. 1987. The American
Mosaic: Preserving A Nation’s Heritage. Washington, D.C.: United
States Committee, International Council on Monuments and
Sites.
Annotation: A broad treatment of heritage preservation, value of
historic properties, and introduction to key government organizations and other programs.
Thomas, Peter A., Robert A. Sloma, Nanny Carder, and Robert
Florentin. 1997. Archaeological Site Identification, Evaluation
and Mitigation of VT-CH-619 for Richmond TH 2407,
Richmond, Chittenden County, Vermont: Unpublished Contract
Report by Consulting Archaeology Program, University of
Vermont, Burlington, Vermont.
Annotation: A good example of an interdisciplinary archeology
project in Vermont.
scientific archeological method and qualified
archeologists
Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. 1980. Search for a Century:
The Discovery of Martin’s Hundred Plantation. Williamsburg,
Virginia: Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
Annotation: Although a slightly dated treatment, this is still one
of the best archeology videos available. Color/Running Time:
58.30 minutes.
Fagan, Brian. 1995. Time Detectives: How Archeologists use
Technology to Recapture the Past. New York, New York: Simon &
Schuster.
Green, Ernestene L., ed. 1984. Ethics and Values in Archaeology.
New York, New York: The Free Press.
Annotation: The introduction addresses how to distinguish
legitimate archeologists from antiquarians, looters and others, as
well as to whom archeologists are accountable. On the pathway
to archeological ethics, many contributors discuss the value or
importance of archeological sites.
Heizer, Robert F., ed. 1959. The Archaeologist at Work: A Source
Book in Archaeological Method and Interpretation. New York, New
York: Harper & Brothers.
Annotation: A very good description of archeological field methods and interpretation, despite its age.
Joukowsky, Martha. 1980. A Complete Manual of Field
Archaeology: Tools and Techniques of Field Work for
Archaeologists. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
Annotation: A very comprehensive archeological field manual.
Knudson, S. J. 1978. Culture in Retrospect: An Introduction to
Archaeology. Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc.
McHargue, Georgess and Michael Roberts. 1977. A Field Guide
to Conservation Archaeology in North America. New York, New
York: J. B. Lippincott Company.
Peebles, Giovanna. 1989. Guidelines for Archaeological Studies.
Montpelier, Vermont: Unpublished Pamphlet by the Vermont
Division for Historic Preservation.
Annotation: All CRM archeologists in Vermont must adhere to
these minimum guidelines for archival research, fieldwork, laboratory analysis, and public reporting outlined by the Vermont
Division for Historic Preservation.
Renfrew, Colian and Paul Bahn. 1991. Archaeology: Theories,
Methods, and Practice. New York, New York: Thames and
Hudson, Ltd.
Sagan, Carl. 1977. The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a
Candle in the Dark. New York, New York: Ballantine Books.
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation. 1996. An Easy Guide
to 36 CFR 800: Federal Agency Responsibilities, SHPO’s Role.
Historic Preservation Fact Sheet. Montpelier, Vermont: Vermont
Division for Historic Preservation.
Register of Professional Archaeologists (ROPA). 2000.
Annotation: An organization that maintains a list of qualified
archeologists who become members and subscribe to certain
professional ethics. Online at: http://www.rpanet.org/.
SECTION FIVE: EARTH’S ARCHEOLOGOY LIBRARY
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SECTION SIX:
ARCHEOLOGISTS WEAR WHITE LAB COATS TOO!
Archeological Materials Analysis and Curation
Objective:
T
his section introduces students to scientific laboratory investigation and
ethical curation of materials recovered from archeological sites. Students appropriately identify, classify, research, and develop stabilization plans for simulated or authentic artifacts.
Focusing Questions:
What is the purpose of archeological laboratory work?
What do archeologists do in the laboratory?
Vocabulary List:
absolute dating
laboratory analysis
assemblage
management plan
attribute
relative dating
classification
reconstruction
conservation
seriation
curate (n.- curation, n. curator)
typology
database
verifiable
ethical
SECTION SIX: ARCHEOLOGISTS WEAR WHITE LAB COATS TOO!
67
SECTION SIX:
LESSON
D I D Y O U K N O W. . .
6.1 Archeologists work in scientific laboratories
archeologists wear white lab coats
How many people picture archeologists working in a laboratory? The third step of archeological research is the
scientific investigation of materials recovered from newly
discovered archeological sites or existing collections.
Laboratory analysis zooms in on archival research and
fieldwork hypotheses, or research questions.
Archeological laboratory work brings the past to life by
reconstructing site ethnicity, function, and age.
Laboratory researchers analyze sites and collections by
identifying, classifying, and dating artifacts, assemblages,
and environmental samples. Arti Fact wears a white lab
coat to symbolize ethical scientific practices followed by
qualified archeologists across the nation.
6.2
the third step: laboratory analysis
Archeologists continue site reconstruction in the laboratory. Visualizing excavated sites through laboratory
analysis, the third step of the scientific archeological
method, allows better understanding of past people’s
activities. Wouldn’t it be great if archeologists could view
Scientific archaeological research includes much more
than the excavation of ancient sites. Modern archaeology,
in fact, frequently requires no excavation but depends
upon the study of existing collections and information
reported in scientific publications. Instead of digging,
archaeologists bring new technologies and methods to
bear upon materials excavated earlier in order to reinterpret them.
– George E. Stuart and Francis P. McManamon (1996:4)
Archaeology & You
time lapse movies to see what occurred at a site? Through
archeological maps, field notes, computer data, photographs, videos, and illustrations, laboratory researchers
can replay a site’s excavation and interpret past activities.
Archeological records supply critical context for excavated artifacts and ecological samples (see Section Five).
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6.3 Laboratory investigation refines hypotheses posed during archival research and fieldwork
6.4 Archeologists reconstruct site ethnicity, function, and
age in the laboratory
6.5 Laboratory researchers identify, classify and date artifacts, assemblages and environmental samples
6.6 Ethical archeological research is part of the scientific
method
augmented traditional archeological laboratory methods
of bringing the past to life.
6.3
zooming in on hypotheses
Laboratory investigators refine hypotheses generated during archival research and fieldwork (see Section Five). A
project’s research design directs the choice of field and
laboratory methods. Archeologists studying the Contact
Period, for instance, might use fine screens in the field to
seek small glass beads and other tiny fragments of traded
European goods. In the laboratory, researchers zoom in
on these trade items with extremely powerful microscopes. Examples of research questions Vermont’s archeologists have worked on include the following six sentences. What plants and animals did Paleoindians subsist
on in the Northeast? With what landforms are Archaic
sites associated? What is the earliest evidence of beans in
Vermont’s Woodland Period sites? What trade goods are
characteristic of Contact Period sites in Vermont? Why
did early Euro-American settlers, like the Saxe family on
the Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past poster, choose
to settle on the same landforms as Native Americans?
How did limestone outcrops influence Franklin County’s
I hypothesize...
What was this pot used for?
In addition to new archeological site data, existing museum or private collections provide a wealth of information.
Investigation of local collections expands opportunities to
record previously unknown archeological sites, compare
nearby artifacts, and encourage ethical curation of endangered cultural resources. Private collections may have
been donated to historical societies or museums long ago
with little scientific investigation, no written documentation, or without the benefit of today’s analytical technology. The introduction of computers, 3-dimensional modeling programs, and other innovations have tremendously
6.2 Laboratory analysis of sites and collections is the third
step of the scientific archeological method
Who made this?
6.1
How old is this ceramic pot?
economic growth during the Industrial Period? Site context, artifacts, and environmental data play a vital role in
answering such questions.
6.4
sorting out site ethnicity, function,
and age
Archeologists reconstruct site ethnicity, function, and age
in the laboratory. Artifacts and environmental samples
(e.g., plant remains, sediment, rocks, etc.) show archeologists past stories, like movies developing in a cinematographer’s darkroom. A single artifact or entire assemblage
(group of items) holds clues about the people and events
that formed sites. Attributes, or characteristics, of an artifact may reveal its ethnic origin, function, and age.
Common attributes studied by archeologists include condition, size, shape, and material. Archeologists examine
the condition of each artifact to understand what natural
and cultural processes shaped the site. Environmental
samples also help archeologists sort out natural from cultural processes that affected sites and artifacts. Let’s
explore artifact size, shape, and material further.
ASSEMBLING
3
6.5
THE
PAST
Artifacts like this bolt help archeologists reconstruct
what a railroad stringer bridge really looks like!
identifying, classifying, and dating sites
and collections
Laboratory researchers analyze sites and collections
through identification, classification, and dating.
Identification begins with careful cleaning, documentation, and cataloging of all items. Archeologists wash
ceramics, slowly dry animal bone, and sieve through sediment for plant seeds and pollen. All archeological finds
are permanently labeled to indicate their context.
Archeologists identify the specific chemical, physical, and
mineral properties of artifacts using microscopes, x-rays
and other techniques. On the Rock River Valley: Pathway
to the Past poster, Arti Fact points to a bolt, made of iron,
that archeologists discovered within the Vermont &
Canada Railroad (VT-FR-316)
bed. Laboratory documentation
also involves drafting scale drawings or other physical representations of intriguing artifacts and
environmental samples. Any deviation from standard cleaning and
documentation is noted. Fragile
artifacts like rusted iron, for
example, may require immediate
treatment or conservation.
Researchers prepare environmental samples, such as shell from a
midden (dump) or rock from a
known quarry, for further study.
Information is entered into a
computer database to make a site
catalog. Archeologists track all
materials with an artifact catalog.
The catalog reduces the chance of
artifact loss during fieldwork, laboratory analysis, or sending items
to specialists. Computer databases speed sorting of site materials
and statistical analysis.
ANALYTICAL
TECHNIQUES
Identification
Cleaning
Cataloging
Drawing
Photographing
Labeling
Microscopes
X-rays
Chemistry
Classification
Sorting
Grouping
Weighing
Measuring
Cross mending
Typology
Seriation
Dating
Seriation
Tree-ring
Radiocarbon
Cross-dating
Site ethnicity, function, and age
are reflected in artifacts and
assemblages. Archeologists bring
order to artifacts and assemblages through classification.
Classification links item manufacture, use, and deposition, to ethnicity, function, and age. For example, Arti
Fact is pointing to a bolt classified by archeologists.
Scientists discovered the bolt was manufactured of iron,
fastened by immigrant railroad workers to an early wooden stringer bridge, and remained behind as the surrounding wood decayed. The bolt dated the stringer bridge to
the nineteenth century and distinguishes early Vermont
railroad construction.
Archeologists employ techniques such as typology and
seriation to classify site materials. Artifacts are sorted,
counted, weighed, and measured into groups of similar
types to build a typology (e.g., pottery with small red
dots versus large red dots). Designs on an artifact could
indicate the culture or ethnic origin of site occupants or
trading contacts. The wigwam pictured behind Shy One
on the poster, for instance, illustrates a characteristic
Western Abenaki building style. Researchers also match
or cross-mend artifact fragments from different features
and strata. Cross-mending helps archeologists seriate artifacts. Seriation is a way to look at subtle changes in artifact material, size, shape, or decoration over time. A slowmotion movie (or poster) showing evolution of transportation from dugout canoes to trucks is seriation.
Artifacts arranged chronologically in a series also provide
a relative dating method.
SECTION SIX: ARCHEOLOGISTS WEAR WHITE LAB COATS TOO!
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Typology
• Compare one artifact to another
• Group by material type (e.g., natural vs synthetic fiber)
• Separate fragments from complete items
• Sort decorated artifacts according to designs
• Group items by method of manufacture
• Arrange characteristic types together
• Test hypotheses about past cultures
Scientists may experiment with various dating techniques
to answer when, how, and why items were made, used,
and discarded. Organic samples from artifacts, features, or
stratigraphic layers are sent to specialists for radiocarbon
dates, an absolute dating method. Absolute dating allows
archeologists to date other artifacts, features, or stratigraphic layers by association. When combined, laboratory
identification, classification and dating techniques reveal
untold stories about site occupation and abandonment.
Laboratory analysis holds the key to unraveling the
unique picture of site ethnicity and function through the
ages.
6.6
scientists practice ethical research
Archeologists practice ethical research as part of the scientific method. Arti Fact wears a white lab coat for two
reasons. First, scientific archeologists depend on laboratory analysis to study the past. Second, they’re ethical, like
the “good guys” in Hollywood western movies.
Laboratory ethics embrace non-destructive analyses, verifiable data collection, public reporting, artifact conservation, and long-term curation.
Historic preservationists stress nondestructive investiga• non-destructive analyses
tive methods. Each
• verifiable data collection
artifact, assemblage,
reporting
or environmental
• artifact conservation
sample is irreplace• long-term curation
able. Tools like
microscopes and certain chemical analyses do not harm objects. For example, these techniques
allow researchers to examine faint decorations, or traces
of food, on pot sherds. Electrolysis, a technique that
sends electric current through a tank of liquid, removes
rust from suspended iron artifacts to reveal manufacturers’ marks. Thanks to technological advances, researchers
sample tiny fractions of artifacts, when they once sacrificed entire objects. X-rays of sediment columns reveal
the deposition and transformation of different strata.
Archeologists test sediment and soil samples for hundreds
Laborator y Ethics
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of chemical signatures that suggest different natural or
cultural activities. High calcium levels in the ground, for
instance, might indicate where a historic oyster midden
was once located. Today, archeologists extract more information from artifacts and their contexts than ever with
non-destructive laboratory analyses.
Like any type of scientific investigation, all laboratory
data must be verifiable by others. Research on natural
resources, such as water, can be verified by duplication.
Archeological excavation destroys unique sites. Site
destruction makes it impossible for other scientists to
duplicate research procedure, data, or conclusions.
Ethical archeologists thoroughly report, or document,
each step of the scientific investigative method (see
Section Eight) to the public. John King on the Rock River
Valley: Pathway to the Past poster, for instance, reports his
enthusiasm for each step of the archeological method as a
way of encouraging his historic site tour group to practice
archeological ethics. Traditional archeological tool kits
always featured a field notebook, pencil, level forms, and
site forms. Modern techniques such as lasers, digital camThe archaeological record, that is, in situ archaeological
material and sites, archaeological collections, records,
and reports, is a public trust... It is the responsibility of
all archaeologists to work for the long-term preservation
and protection of the archaeological record.
– Mark J. Lynott and Alison Wylie (1995:28)
“Stewardship: The Central Principle of Archaeological
Ethics” in Ethics in American Archaeology
eras, and computers allow archeologists to reconstruct
sites better than ever before. Today, for example, you can
tour virtual archeological sites on many web pages. The
internet and world wide web introduce a new way to display archeological data and interpretation for other scientists and the public to verify. Internet technology even
supports 3-dimensional video documentaries of archeological research. Methodical reporting allows other cultural resource scientists to verify or reinterpret conclusions
by reexamining site data.
Once materials are removed from original site contexts,
archeologists are responsible for their conservation and
long-term curation. Ethical conservation and curation
preserves irreplaceable items for future generations.
Archeologists keep, or curate, everything: fieldnotes,
sketches, artifact catalogs, and artifacts. All of these materials require special care, like reels of old movies.
Where archeological materials and records should be
curated depends on the item. Experience has shown
archeologists, for example, that Vermont’s wooden shipwrecks are best preserved in mud under Lake
Champlain’s cold waters. Once removed, waterlogged
wood is susceptible to decay. Whether retrieved from the
depths of Lake Champlain or from the slopes of the
Green Mountains, most items require some form of conservation to keep them from deteriorating further. Proper
conservation is slow and costly. Once properly preserved,
artifacts in a community or state facility rather than in a
private collection, have the potential to serve many roles
in the future. Such artifacts are available for public
exhibits, examination by students or interns, reinterpretation by other researchers, and development for heritage
tourism.
Archeologists complete laboratory analysis with drafting
management plans for long-term curation of important
objects from our nation’s past. Such management plans
specify ongoing conservation, adequate facilities for
preservation of specific material types, and public access.
Our nation’s archeological heritage belongs to all of us—
scientific and ethical laboratory procedures preserve our
irreplaceable sites and site data.
SECTION SIX: ARCHEOLOGISTS WEAR WHITE LAB COATS TOO!
71
SECTION SIX:
ACTIVITY 6
Standard: 7.2a-g, 7.2aa-ff and 7.16cc
Length: depends upon task, three to fifteen class periods
Materials: poster
Section 6 Assignment:
Examine the laboratory graphic, Assembling the Past, on the Rock River Valley: Pathway to the
Past poster. Listen to the Lesson or read the photocopy provided by your teacher. Think about
the third step in the scientific archeological method. Design and conduct an ethical laboratory
investigation of archeological materials, using available resources. Work alone or as part of a
research team. If working as a group, select a representative to report to the class. Choose
from one of the following tasks:
• Examine the artifact assemblages recovered during Activity 5B.
• Analyze and cross-mend inexpensive museum reproductions.
• Explore natural resources extracted and processed in the community using samples
available from a local museum (e.g., marble, lime, brick).
• Conduct a detailed investigation of a mystery artifact or artifacts supplied by your
teacher.
• Analyze a collection of Native American or historic materials that a community
member is ultimately willing to donate to an area museum.
Section 6 Preparation:
1. Produce a list of questions that can be studied using the available resource (e.g., how old
are the artifacts?, what materials are the artifacts made of?, does artifact form or material
indicate function?, is there a change in a given artifact type through time?).
2. Use the library, recommended texts, and/or the internet to look for examples of archeological laboratory work and find ways to safely and humanely collect data to address your questions. Prepare and present your data collection plan to your teacher, or to the class if you
are working in a research team.
3. Research design and data collection plan should explicitly address ethical treatment of
traces of the past (e.g., work with mock artifacts or reproductions, or real collections provenienced and seriated in preparation for donation to an area museum).
4. Reconstruct an artifact, activity, function, or site based on: reproduction fragments, the
Activity 5B artifact assemblages, the mystery artifact, museum samples, or a real collection.
The reconstruction should include respectively: scale drawings or scale model, diagram of
the artifact in use, diorama of the featured activity, or artifact photographs.
5. Conclude with a cultural resource management plan for your task, recommending appropriate long-term care (based on material types) for artifacts. Indicate where and for whom
those materials should be curated.
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Section 6 Alternate Activities:
Have students visit the conservation laboratory or enroll in the “Digging, Diving, and
Documenting” educational program at the Lake Champlain Maritime Museum. Watch and discuss an archeology video such as Search for a Century: The Discovery of Martin’s Hundred
Plantation from Colonial Williamsburg. Read and discuss a fun, tongue-in-cheek, educational
book about archeological interpretation such as Motel of the Mysteries.
Section 6 Assessment:
Use rubric 6 to assess individual or group student laboratory investigations. If students work
in groups, observe student interaction and oral presentations from group representatives to the
class. Use rubric 6 and the exemplar provided to record each group’s answers.
SECTION SIX: ARCHEOLOGISTS WEAR WHITE LAB COATS TOO!
73
SECTION SIX:
RECOMMENDED
RESOURCES
Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. 1969. Doorway to the Past:
The Art of Historical Archaeology. Williamsburg, Virginia:
Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
Annotation: Although a slightly dated video, this is still a good
look at excavation. The video shows the role of laboratory analysis in reconstructing what a colonial tavern looked like and how
it operated. Color/Running Time: 28.30 minutes.
Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. 1980. Search for a Century:
The Discovery of Martin’s Hundred Plantation. Williamsburg,
Virginia: Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
Crisman, Kevin J. 1987. The Eagle: An American Brig on Lake
Champlain During the War of 1812. Shelburne, Vermont: The
New England Press.
Annotation: An excellent example of reconstruction of a ship
through archival research, underwater fieldwork, and laboratory
analysis.
Archaeology: Challenges for the 1990s. Washington, D.C.: Society
for American Archaeology.
Macaulay, David.1979. Motel of the Mysteries. Boston,
Massachusetts, Houghton Mifflin Company.
Annotation: Archeologists of the future try to decipher artifacts
unearthed in a common motel room.
McLaughlin, Scott A. 1994. Vermont Prehistoric Collections and
their Possible Utility. The Journal of Vermont Archaeology 1:30-37.
Noël Hume, Ivor. 1991. A Guide to Artifacts of Colonial America.
New York, New York: First Vintage Books Edition.
Panati, Charles. 1987. Extraordinary Origins of Everyday Things.
New York, New York: Harper & Row Publishers.
Deetz, James. 1967. Invitation to Archaeology. American Museum
Science Books. Garden City, New York: The Natural History
Press.
Pollard, Gordon. 1993. Bottles and Business in Plattsburgh, New
York. Plattsburgh, New York: Clinton County Historical
Association.
Annotation: This historic glass bottle typology is the product of
archival research on a variety of businesses in Plattsburgh, New
York. Each business is described, along with information about
the bottles they used. A supplement to this book was printed in
1997.
Deetz, James. 1996. In Small Things Forgotten: An Archaeology of
Early American Life. Expanded and revised edition. New York,
New York: Anchor Books.
Renfrew, Colian and Paul Bahn. 1991. Archaeology: Theories,
Methods, and Practice. New York, New York: Thames and
Hudson, Ltd.
E.M.M.E. Interactive. 1995. Introduction to Archaeology. United
Kingdom: Micro-Intel E.M.M.E.
Annotation: A great interactive CD-ROM about archaeology for
young audiences and adults. This CD features Pointe-à-Callière,
the Montrèal Museum of Archaeology and History.
Ritchie, William A. 1980. The Archaeology of New York State.
Harrison, New York: Harbor Hill Books.
Cronyn, J. M. 1990. The Elements of Archaeological Conservation.
New York, New York: Routledge.
Green, Ernestene L., ed. 1984. Ethics and Values in Archaeology.
New York, New York: The Free Press.
Annotation: For many, this set of papers crystallized positions on
the role of ethics in science, archeology, and cultural resource
management.
Horan, Julie L. 1996. The Porcelain God: A Social History of the
Toilet. Secaucus, New Jersey: Carol Publishing Books.
Kingery, W. David, ed. 1996. Learning From Things: Method and
Theory of Material Culture Studies. Washington, D.C.:
Smithsonian Institution Press.
Lambert, Joseph B. 1997. Traces of the Past: Unraveling the Secrets
of Archaeology Through Chemistry. Reading, Massachusetts: Helix
Books.
Annotation: Readable, popular account of scientific techniques
used to unravel archeological sites in the laboratory.
Lynott, Mark J. and Alison Wylie, eds. 1995. Ethics in American
74
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Ritchie, William A. 1981. A Typology and Nomenclature for New
York Projectile Points. New York State Museum Bulletin. Albany,
New York: New York State Museum Division of Research and
Collections, The State University of New York, The State
Education Department.
Annotation: One of the first comprehensive typologies developed
for Northeast projectile points (spear, dart, and arrow points).
Stuart, George F. and Francis P. McManamon. 1996. Archaeology
& You. Washington, D.C.: Society for American Archaeology.
Annotation: An attractive, informative and free public pamphlet
about archaeology by the United States Department of the
Interior, the Bureau or Reclamation and the National Park
Service, the National Geographic Society, and the Society for
American Archaeology, in particular, the Public Education
Committee.
Squire, Mariella. 1977. Classification of Projectile Points from
the Champlain Valley. Master of Arts, State University of New
York at Buffalo.
Annotation: At present, one of the few typologies of Vermont
projectile points. M. A. Thesis of a University of Vermont
Graduate (1975).
SECTION SEVEN:
CAN WE PRESERVE ALL ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES?
Problem Solving Through Consensus and Archeological Site Significance
S
Objective:
tudents participate in a culminating Town Planning Meeting activity that
integrates Personal Development Standards such as Relationships (Teamwork, Interactions,
Conflict Resolution, Roles and Responsibilities) and Service (Service, Democratic Process).
The culminating activity challenges students to balance cultural resource protection with the
increasing demand for growth and development. This section introduces students to important historic Themes in Vermont archeology, highlighted by the Vermont Division for Historic
Preservation.
Focusing Questions:
How do Vermont citizens balance protection of cultural resources such as archeological sites
with planned development?
Vocabulary List:
avoidance
legal compliance
citizenship
National Historic Preservation Act, Section 106
compromise
permit
conflict resolution
population pressure
consensus
public forum
consulting archeologist
sampling strategy
democratic
significance
development
traditional cultural places
environmental regulatory review
Vermont’s Act 250, Criterion 8
historic landscape
Vermont Historic Preservation Plan
historic properties
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation
landuse planning
SECTION SEVEN: PROBLEM SOLVING THROUGH CONSENSUS AND ARCHEOLOGICAL SITE SIGNIFICANCE
75
SECTION SEVEN:
7.1
LESSON
D I D Y O U K N O W. . .
can we preserve all archeological sites?
We face the increasingly difficult challenge of balancing
cultural stewardship with growth as the world’s population expands. Archeological sites contribute to Vermont’s
historic landscapes, making the state an attractive place
to live, work, and play. Vermont’s citizens share opportunities to reach consensus on new landuse and stewardship issues under the Historic Preservation Act, Vermont’s
Act 250, and in many other public forums.
The System Expansion Project, a proposed natural gas
pipeline, furnishes an example of the challenges being
met daily by growing businesses such as Vermont Gas.
CRM archeologists manage harm to cultural resources by
focusing only on significant sites, as defined by the
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation. The experience of Vermont Gas shows that reaching consensus on
landuse issues is possible by taking time to weigh
resource impact with project redesign. CRM compromise
permits planned development to proceed. As one of over
6 billion people, you share a responsibility to exercise
your citizenship and resolve conflicts over resources and
growth through democratic consensus.
7.2
Vermont’s historic landscapes attract
growth
The Vermont Division for Historic Preservation (1997)
writes that residents of the Green Mountain State live in a
world-class environment that combines the state’s natural
beauty with a historic landscape shaped by the work of
past generations. “Vermont’s historic villages and cities,
rural farmsteads and landscapes, and archeological sites”
are its “number one asset.” Our historic landscape attracts
“intensive” public and private capital investment. Yet
development triggered by this investment leads to
increasing pressure on open spaces and cultural
resources.
7.3
Vermonters must balance stewardship
and growth
Progress and new technology has certainly enriched our
lives, but new practices also lead to increased destruction
of archeological sites. For example, Vermont’s “traditional” farms have changed dramatically to remain competitive in today’s marketplace. Through time, Vermont farms
have shifted from subsistence agriculture, to small family
operations, and now large agribusinesses. Economic viability of agribusiness demands farmers use new technology, such as deep chisel plowing and manure banking, to
heighten productivity. Many of these new methods seriously accelerate disturbance of previously intact archeo-
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7.1 As a nation, we have chosen to manage significant
cultural resources by public consensus
7.2 Vermont’s archeological sites are an asset that attracts
growth
7.3 Residents and visitors must balance archeological
site stewardship with economic growth
7.4 There are many forums for Vermont’s citizens to weigh
the positive and negative aspects of development
projects
7.5 The Vermont Gas System Expansion Project illustrates
the difficult challenges new development brings to local
communities
7.6 To manage planned development, the Vermont Division
for Historic Preservation focuses CRM efforts on significant sites, by highlighting important historic themes,
contexts, and property types
7.7 Vermont Gas weighed potentially destroying one or
more significant archeological sites with several other
known sites and natural resources
7.8 The presence of archeological sites does not stop
development
7.9 You can responsibly excercise your citizenship and
solve population pressures on cultural and natural
resources
logical sites. New ways of home building, snow-making,
road improvement, obtaining and distributing drinking
water, conveying and recycling waste water, expanding
telecommunications, and hundreds of other technological
advances have similarly harmed archeological sites.
Widely available new technology has increased the
already existing problem of site destruction caused by
looters on land and underwater. Yet, technological
advances also offer archeologists better ways of identifying and protecting archeological sites.
Vermont’s Modern Period is reminiscent of the Industrial
Period. During the Industrial Period, the advent of the
railroad changed every individual’s life and remodeled the
landscape. These dramatic changes often occurred at
great cost to human life, natural resources, and cultural
resources. In fact, nostalgia for a simpler time triggered
the first historic preservation efforts. Archeological
research brings to life those sweeping changes—and cautions us not to repeat our past mistakes. Vermont residents and visitors today must balance good stewardship
of our diminishing historic landscape and endangered
archeological sites with the desire for economic opportunity, good jobs, adequate housing, better shopping choices, and improved roads. The pros and cons of new landuse or development projects are featured in newspaper
headlines daily.
7.4
citizens reach consensus in public
forums
Industrial Period newspapers often provided the only
forum for public comment on proposed projects. Today,
Vermont’s citizens have many other avenues to weigh a
given development project’s positive and negative aspects.
Will a project provide clean fuel, new jobs, or better
housing for low-income residents? Will it damage an
early French fortification, an important wetland, or prime
agricultural land? Project planners must provide answers
to these and many other questions to federal and state
governmental agencies long before the bulldozers roll.
Project planners must also seek and incorporate public
comment.
The destruction of archeological resources by artifact
hunting and vandalism in the 1880s and 1890s was so
severe that as early as 1882 alarmed supporters of preservation formally petitioned Congress to enact protective
legislation. ...[T]his legislation, known as the Antiquities
Act of 1906 (P.L. 34-209) was created. ...With the passage
of this act, congressional commitment to archeological
preservation began.
– Hutt et al. (1992:20) Archeological Resource Protection
Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act
and Vermont’s innovative Criterion 8 of Act 250 provide
an effective forum for weighing issues such as impacts to
archeological sites against proposed landuse changes. The
government legislative branches that designed Section
106 and Act 250 built in a democratic, negotiative
process based on consensus. Groups interested in proposed projects voice their opinion at various points in the
environmental regulatory review process hearings and
board meetings. Interest groups may include: the development team, landowners, local community, local government, and federal and state historic preservation officials.
The review
process starts
Citizen par ticipation
when the develop• Town Meetings
ment team
• Regional planning commission
approaches a fedmeetings (Act 250)
eral, state, or local
government
• Comment to federal agencies
agency for access
(Section 106)
to government
• Town and Municipal planning
land, financial aid,
board meetings
or a project
•
Contacting state and national
permit. These
legislators
agencies ask
•
Comment to state agencies
whether the developer has consid• Newspaper editorials
ered the project’s
• Television and radio
impacts on his• Internet
toric properties, a
• Newsletters
term that encom• Books and articles
passes historic districts, standing
• Grassroots petitions
structures, objects,
and archeological
sites. Other concerns may involve traditional cultural
places and historic landscapes.
Boards consisting of local citizens who volunteer their
service to the community or government representatives
review projects. Project reviewers have the difficult role of
considering all concerns, overseeing respectful interaction
of all parties, and resolving conflicts that arise from new
development. Democratic input in public forums requires
respectful conflict resolution.
7.5
the System Expansion Project illustrates challenges
The Vermont Gas System Expansion Project illustrates
the many difficult challenges we face in the future. New
development to expand the
Vermont Gas natural gas
pipeline will provide local
communities in northwestern
Vermont with many benefits,
such as access to natural gas
fuel and more jobs.
Vermont Gas applied for federal and state permits
because this new gas fuel
technology required a pipeline that would cross wetlands,
state property, and maybe archeological sites. Project
developers, like Vermont Gas, hire consulting archeolo-
SECTION SEVEN: PROBLEM SOLVING THROUGH CONSENSUS AND ARCHEOLOGICAL SITE SIGNIFICANCE
77
gists to help guide them through the legal compliance, or
environmental permit process. Archeologists provide specialized cultural resource management expertise to the
development team, similar to natural resource consultants. Consulting archeologists assess project area sensitivity and, as necessary, identify archeological sites
through archival research and fieldwork.
Vermont Gas hired the Archaeology Research Center of
the University of Maine at Farmington and GEOARCH,
Inc. to assess sensitivity and identify archeological sites
along Route 1 of the proposed System Expansion Project
in Franklin County, which encompasses Vermont’s Rock
River Valley. The Rock River Valley is a natural transportation route. Like many other fertile river corridors,
this valley has been a travel route and home to many different cultures for thousands of years.
Finding and preserving all sites on this CRM project, or
similar projects, through 100% sampling was not realistic
due to the high cost of research. Vermont Gas, project
archeologists, and reviewing agencies agreed on a minimum sampling strategy compromise, or scope-of-work,
that could find most undiscovered sites. Project consulting archeologists used archival research and environmental predictive models to hypothesize where sites of all
time periods might be located (see Sections Three and
Four). Then, they searched for sites during Phase I Site
Identification, using sampling techniques such as walking
plowed fields and excavating shovel-test pits. As expected, the Archaeology Research Center and GEOARCH
identified a relatively high number of archeological sites
along the proposed pipeline corridor. Among these were
the Saxe Brook North Site (VT-FR-234), the Saxe
Farmstead and Mill (VT-FR-325), and the Vermont &
Canada Railroad (VT-FR-316).
7.6
significant site management
During the 1970s, archeologists realized that there was
not enough time or money to protect every unique and
irreplaceable site. Given the need to balance growth and
historic preservation, CRM conserves historic properties
though compromise by assessing significance. Energy and
funds are spent only on sites that can tell us about significant historic themes.
As noted in Section Five, archeologists work in phases,
allowing time for planning, flexibility, and opportunity for
site avoidance. If a site cannot be avoided after a Phase I
Site Identification survey, archeologists begin Phase II Site
Evaluation to determine if that site is significant.
Historic property significance across the nation is typically determined by each state. In Vermont, the Division for
Historic Preservation highlights significant types of sites
in Keeping Vermont A Special World: The Vermont Historic
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Preservation Plan (1997). This state plan summarizes historic contexts that describe what we know about our past
according to important themes types of cultural
resources, quantity, and quality. More detailed information about significant site types is available in an evolving, loose-leaf publication, also entitled the Vermont
Historic Preservation Plan. Archeologists further define
significance as a site’s potential to yield important information about the past, despite site size, artifact quantity,
or site notoriety.
Let’s look at the Vermont Gas System Expansion Project
again. For example, GEOARCH conducted further archeological surveys to find minor reroutes around the undisturbed Precontact Native American Saxe Brook North Site
(VT-FR-234), and other sites. Archeologists discovered
that the Saxe Brook North Site was larger than originally
thought. In addition, it contained unique evidence of
Native American fire hearth features. Archival research
and archeological fieldwork pointed to long-term Abenaki
use of the site from the Archaic Period into the EuroAmerican Settlement Period. The Vermont Division for
Historic Preservation
writes that such habitaSignificance
tion (living and working) sites are a signifiArcheological sites are sigcant property type in the
nificant if they possess
Archaic (7,000-900 B.C.)
integrity of location,
and Woodland (900
design, setting, materials,
B.C.- 1609 A.D.) Period
workmanship, feeling, and
contexts of the Native
association and:
American Prehistoric
a. are associated with an
Cultural Heritage (9,000
important event
B.C.-1609 A.D.) theme.
b. are associated with an
The later Native
important person
American occupation
c. embody distinctive
could also make the site
significant under the
characteristics
Contact, Exploration,
d. have yielded, or may
Conflict and Early
yield important inforSettlement (1609-1790)
mation.
theme. Therefore, the
Saxe Brook North Site
(VT-FR-234) was considered likely to be significant,
although Phase II fieldwork had not yet occurred.
Even before Phase II fieldwork, GEOARCH’s Phase I
archival research also demonstrated that the nearby Saxe
Farmstead and Mill (VT-FR-325) was potentially significant. The unique and little known Saxe Farmstead and
Mill was associated with the prominent Saxe family, characteristic of the early settlement period, and the first grist
mill built in Franklin County. It exhibits rare, water-powered technology. The Division for Historic Preservation
lists Small Water Powered Mill Production as a historic
context under the Industry and Commerce (1790-1940)
theme. The site would probably also be significant under
the Contact, Exploration, Conflict and Early Settlement
(1609-1790), Agriculture (1760-1940) and perhaps other
themes.
Vermont Gas and GEOARCH examined several minor
reroutes around the Saxe Brook North Site (VT-FR-234).
After additional sensitivity studies and Phase I surveys,
Vermont Gas concluded that bending the north-south
pipeline corridor slightly would either impact a wetland
to the west, the Saxe Farmstead and Mill (VT-FR-325) to
the east, or other historic properties farther east along
Ballard Road. Phase I studies of minor reroutes around
other sites similarly demonstrated extensive archeological
deposits and possible site significance. Even with minor
changes, Vermont Gas realized that Route 1 would harm
significant natural and cultural resources.
7.7
Vermont Gas weighs resource impact
and construction redesign
Vermont Gas began weighing the implications of designing an alternate pipeline route once they learned about
the number of potentially significant archeological sites,
wetlands, and other natural resources along the Route 1
pipeline corridor. They were still in their early planning
stage. Following Phase I Site Identification, Vermont Gas
could still choose whether to completely redesign the
pipeline route or conduct further archeological work. If
archeologists found a site significant later, after Phase II
Site Evaluation, then Vermont Gas would have to avoid it,
or mitigate (make up) for harming it. Archeological Phase
III Site Mitigation typically includes further excavation to
recover as much information as possible. This work,
called data recovery, is costly and time consuming
because it involves National Geographic-style archival
research, excavation, laboratory analysis, and reporting.
Vermont Gas System Expansion Project,
Rock River Valley Archeology Flow Chart
Planning and
archeological
sensitivity
assessment
Route 1
Vermont Gas applies
for federal and state
permits.
Route 1
Reviewing agencies find
Route 1 archeologically
sensitive.
Phase I
Site Identification
Are sites present?
Phase II
Site Evaluation
and
Phase III Site
Mitigation
Route 1
University of Maine
identifies many sites.
Recommends Phase II
Site Evaluation or
avoidance.
Alternate route
Vermont & Canada
Railroad selected
as Route 2.
Alternate route
Vermont Gas weighs projected cost of Vermont &
Canada Railroad, natural and cultural resource
(archeology Phase I-III of known and other sites).
Alternate route
GEOARCH assesses
sensitivity of Ballard Road.
Alternate route
Ballard Road is not
feasible.
Route 1
Vermont Gas weighs projected cost of
landowner issues, wetlands and other
natural resources and Phase I-III
archeology of known sites.
Route 1
Route 1 is
not feasible.
Route 1
GEOARCH finds some sites are
extensive and could be significant.
Route 2
GEOARCH conducts Phase I
Site Identification Survey.
Route 1
GEOARCH conducts Phase I on
minor reroutes around identified
sites.
Route 2
Railroad features and other
sites identified.
Route 2
GEOARCH conducts Phase II
Site Evaluation of the Vermont &
Canada Railroad and in situ
burial of another site. Railroad
stone culverts, stringer bridge,
and bed protected by directional
boring.
Route 2
Vermont Gas completes Route 2 and
optimizes resource
stewardship.
SECTION SEVEN: PROBLEM SOLVING THROUGH CONSENSUS AND ARCHEOLOGICAL SITE SIGNIFICANCE
79
To limit any damage to undiscovered archeological sites,
wetlands, and other natural resources, Vermont Gas
closely scrutinized the abandoned Vermont & Canada
Railroad (VT-FR-316). This historic transportation route
from the Industrial Period could be turned into a hightechnology, Modern Period, transportation system carrying natural gas instead of freight and passengers.
A recommendation that a pipeline be moved to avoid a
significant archaeological site may conflict stongly with a
recommendation to avoid the visual impacts of cutting a
new pipeline corridor through forest rather than out in a
grass meadow... Cultural resource management practioners must therefore also have some familiarity with... all
other environmental issues addressed in management and
planning.
– Ruthann Knudson (1986:402) “Contemporary Cultural
Resource Management” in American Archaeology
Past and Future
Following abandonment in 1955, the railroad bed deteriorated. By choosing this abandoned historic corridor,
Vermont Gas could even steward it for the future.
However, this alternate alignment would need new access
roads, work areas, and more archeological testing. In this
case, Vermont Gas had to balance impacting one or more
significant archeological sites against several other known
sites and natural resources.
The development team weighed the estimated cost of project redesign against possible Phase I through III archeology on the Vermont & Canada Railroad (VT-FR-316).
They then weighed the estimated cost of Phase II and
Phase III archeology of several known sites along the
original alignment. Requirements of landowners and
other local residents were carefully considered.
Representatives of the Abenaki Nation commented on the
project prior to construction. Vermont Gas reached public
consensus for resource stewardship and landuse changes
by taking the time to plan alternate pipeline routes.
Nearly all concerns were addressed by selecting one alternate route, named Route 2. Route 2 proactively avoided
many environmentally and culturally sensitive areas by
following the abandoned Vermont & Canada Railroad
(VT-FR-316) bed from the Canada-United States border
through the Rock River Valley.
7.8
CRM compromise allows planned
growth to proceed
Today, there are many options for balancing growth and
resource stewardship. Vermont’s historic preservation
community works hard to streamline a process of negotiation, so conflict doesn’t arise between developers and
environmentalists or preservationists. Given careful lan-
80
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PAST
duse planning well in advance of construction, the presence of archeological sites does not stop development.
Development teams can find, and either avoid or assess
significance of, archeological sites. If necessary, CRM
archeologists can mitigate for destruction of most significant archeological sites. For example, Vermont Gas
requested GEOARCH conduct Phase I Site Identification
survey and Phase II Site Evaluation of the Vermont &
Canada Railroad (VT-FR-316). They found the site significant. Archeological consultants also discovered one previously unknown Precontact Native American site, VTFR-315, along a temporary access road at the eastern
margin of the
Rock River floodA Case Study
plain, near the
United StatesAdvance planning, belief in public
Canada border.
consensus, and commitment to
Despite these
resource preservation lead to sucfinds, Route 2
cessful, timely project completion.
continued to be
the most feasible
“Clyde-Woodward International, a
alternative to
contracting firm, has paid $18,000
damaging the
for damaging rare archeological
many other sigsites while excavating around a
nificant sites and
Utah dam to bid on repairs... The
natural resources
firm’s employees knew about the
along Route 1.
importance of sites, marked off
GEOARCH recwith pin flags.”
ommended a
management plan
– (1999:7) “Sitewatch” in
for protecting
Common Ground
fragile Vermont
& Canada
Railroad (VT-FR-316) features, such as the early stone
culvert on the Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past
poster, under construction by Pierre LaBarre. Vermont
Gas directionally-bored and inserted the pipeline beneath
unique historic stone culverts.
The Vermont Gas development team then reviewed several options for protecting the Precontact Native American
archeological site (VT-FR-315). GEOARCH helped select
in situ site burial as a means of avoidance. This experimental archeology technique to save sites for the future
was pioneered at other locations along the System
Expansion Project corridor. Temporary site burial makes
Phase II Site Evaluation unnecessary. Archeological site
VT-FR-315 was mapped on construction plans with
instructions for avoidance. A special geotextile fabric was
placed on the ground surface. Construction crews covered the fabric with 6-12 inches of gravel before heavy
trucks and machinery were allowed to temporarily drive
over the site. Vermont Gas carefully removed the gravel
and fabric after the new pipeline was finished. Within a
few short months, the field regained its previous appearance.
7.9
you are part of the problem and part of
the solution
The experience of Vermont Gas shows how new development can be balanced with the need to protect natural
resources and cultural resources like archeological sites.
Most local Franklin County communities remain enthusiastic about this project, and worked toward negotiating
A... possible future is one of hyperdevelopment. The
pastoral and forested landscape of Vermont today could
become transformed into the kind of developed landscape
that is currently characteristic of southern New
England... Burlington would develop into a major urban
center... Rutland and Brattleboro would become mid-sized
cities. Major transportation corridors, such as Interstate
Highway 89 and Route 7, would pass through miles of
strip development.
– Christopher Klyza and Stephen Trombulak (1999:222223) The Story of Vermont
its completion. Once federal and state reviewing agencies
received preliminary written information about Vermont
Gas choices, and pledges for fulfillment of reporting
obligations, the project received all necessary permits.
Legal, public forums allowed comment from interested
individuals and organizations right up until all permits
were signed.
Through the System Expansion Project, northwestern
Vermont gained access to natural gas fuel and jobs.
Archeological consultants and other System Expansion
Project planning and construction provided local employment. The historic preservation community gained information on dozens of archeological sites, saving the majority in situ for future generations. What the public learned
about these sites is available in Vermont Division for
Historic Preservation resource room and archives.
Archeological information is also available to the local
community through letters, maps, reports, and public
outreach programs like this Rock River Valley: Pathway to
the Past poster and educator’s guide. Final construction
plans included guidelines for minimizing any harm to
natural and cultural resources, thereby balancing the
demand for growth with Vermont’s world-class historic
landscape.
Increasing numbers of development projects similar to
the System Expansion Project must be weighed against
stewardship of cultural and natural resources in your
community. As one of the 6 billion people on the planet,
you contribute to population pressure. You share a
responsibility to exercise your citizenship and solve
resulting challenges democratically.
SECTION SEVEN: PROBLEM SOLVING THROUGH CONSENSUS AND ARCHEOLOGICAL SITE SIGNIFICANCE
81
SECTION SEVEN:
ACTIVITY 7
Standard: 3.10, 3.11, 3.12, 3.13, 4.1a-b, 4.2a, 7.19a-b, 7.19aa-bb
Length: three to fifteen class periods
Materials: poster
Activity 7 Assignment:
Listen to the Lesson or read the photocopy provided by your teacher. Arbitrarily divide your
class into eight groups:
Development Team
(developer & engineers)
Landowner Association
Local Community Members
Local Government Representatives
Natural Resource Consultants
(working with development team)
Consulting Archeologists
(working with development team)
Federal and State Historic Preservation Officers
Act 250 Board
Using the project area identified in Activity 4B, the developer team will propose a new private
or community development (e.g., low income housing, mall, sewer, waterline, etc.). All other
groups then comment on the proposed location, balancing the desire for economic growth
with: present use of the property (e.g., prime agricultural), community needs, local ordinances
and priorities, natural resource protection, archeological resource protection, and federal/state
cultural resource regulations. Each group should independently critique development
location, suggest feasible alternatives, and “brainstorm” a list of arguments for their position.
Each group shall illustrate a map of the development that identifies their concerns and
recommendations.
All six groups present their team’s position before the Federal and State Historic Preservation
Officers and Act 250 Board (official project reviewers) in a town meeting forum. The educator
may act as moderator. Based on final recommendations from the official project reviewers, the
class should work together to draft a final map and written plan for the proposed landuse
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changes. The written plan should include “permit conditions” which protect valuable community resources.
- Development Team criteria for locating the project should include: a nearby source of
water, level terrain, and convenient transportation systems. The development team will also
seek to keep landuse planning & construction time and costs low by: either avoiding or not
considering archeological sites (archeological research is time-consuming and costly).
- Landowner Association has diverse positions, including: keeping land in agricultural use,
stopping development “in my backyard,” supporting development, enhancing economic
opportunities, avoidance of Native American or historic cemeteries, and protecting
natural/cultural resources.
- Local Community Members may also opt to argue similar positions, adding the following:
concern about tax burden posed by development incentives. Local community members
may also represent ethnic groups with past and present ties to the land (i.e., FrenchCanadian or Abenaki), environmental or historical groups.
- Local Government Representatives may argue for: economic growth (more jobs for the
community and an eventual increased tax base), enforce existing zoning regulations, or saving sites for heritage tourism.
- Natural Resource Consultants working for the development team will encourage good
stewardship by avoidance of the following: wetlands, endangered flora or fauna, deer yards
or bear territory, and fish spawning areas. If natural resource avoidance is not possible, consultants should propose to mitigate project impacts by: alternate wetland construction, programs to preserve endangered flora or fauna off-site, green space for deer yards, etc.
- Archeological Consultants working for the development team will determine significance of
archeological sites by reviewing whether sites on the lists prepared in Activity 4B & 4C are
considered important on a national, state, or local level by the Vermont Division for Historic
Preservation. The archeologists will encourage good stewardship of significant archeological
sites by: avoidance or appropriate excavation and documentation.
- Using a community time line developed in Activity 1B, archeologists state that certain sites
within the project area may be very significant to the local community.
- Project redesign to avoid sites may include: complete avoidance by more than 200 feet, in
situ burial of certain sites, creation of “green space” within the project area, and/or encouraging the development team to use archeological sites as heritage tourism resources.
- Federal and State Historic Preservation Officers review project to ensure that cultural
resources have been fully considered under federal and state law. The officers specifically
comment on recommendations by consulting archeologists.
- Act 250 Board listens to all groups, receives technical input from the Federal and State
Historic Preservation Officers, and negotiates a final landuse plan.
SECTION SEVEN: PROBLEM SOLVING THROUGH CONSENSUS AND ARCHEOLOGICAL SITE SIGNIFICANCE
83
Activity 7 Assessment:
Use rubric 7 to assess the written plan with permit conditions and map produced by the class.
Observe student interaction in each of the eight groups and assess each student’s contributions
using rubric 7 and the descriptors provided. Record your observations.
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SECTION SEVEN:
RECOMMENDED
RESOURCES
Advisory Council on Historic Preservation. 2000. 1100
Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Suite 809, Old Post Office Building,
Washington, DC 20004. Email: [email protected]. Telephone:
(202) 606-8503. Online at: http://www.achp.gov./
Annotation: The Advisory Council on Historic Preservation is an
independent Federal agency that provides a forum for influencing Federal activities, programs, and policies as they affect historic resources. The goal of the National Historic Preservation
Act (NHPA), which established the Council in 1966, is to have
Federal agencies as responsible stewards of our Nation’s
resources when their actions affect historic properties. The
Council is the only entity with the legal responsibility to balance
historic preservation concerns with Federal project requirements.
Andrews, David, ed. 1999. Sitewatch: Protecting the Nation’s
Archeological Heritage; Firm Pays $18,000 for Damage. Common
Ground: Archeology and Ethnography in the Public Interest
Winter:5.
CRM: Cultural Resource Management. Washington, D.C.: United
States Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Cultural
Resources.
Annotation: A magazine published by the National Park Service
that provides information for parks, federal agencies, Indian
tribes, states, local governments, and the private sector that promotes and maintains high standards for preserving and managing
cultural resources.
Daniels, Tom and Deborah Bowers. 1997. Holding Our Ground:
Protecting America’s Farms and Farmland. Washington, D.C.:
Island Press.
Hutt, Sherry, Elwood W. Jones, and Martin E. McAllister. 1992.
Archeological Resource Protection. Washington, D.C.: The
Preservation Press, National Trust for Historic Preservation.
Argentine, Cindy Corlett. 1993. Vermont Act 250 Handbook: A
Guide to State and Regional Landuse Regulation. Brattleboro,
Vermont: Putney Press.
King, Thomas F. 1987. Prehistory and Beyond: The Place of
Archaeology. In The American Mosaic: Preserving A Nation’s
Heritage, edited by Robert E. Stipe and Antoinette J. Lee, pp.
235-264. United States Committee, International Council on
Monuments and Sites, Washington, D.C.
Callum, Kathleen E. and Thomas R. Buchanan. 1996. In Situ Site
Burial: The Efficacy of a Geotextile and Gravel Fill Cover as
Protection Against Temporary Construction-Related Traffic over
an Archeological Site: Unpublished Contract Report by
GEOARCH, RR2 Box 2429-1, Brandon, Vermont 05733.
Submitted to Vermont Gas, P.O. Box 467, Burlington, Vermont
05402-0467.
Klyza, Christopher McGrory and Stephen C. Trombulak. 1999.
The Story of Vermont: A Natural and Cultural History. Hanover,
New Hampshire: Middlebury College Press.
Annotation: These two authors present several scenarios for
unchecked growth in Vermont.
Callum, Kathleen E., Sheila Charles, and Thomas R. Buchanan.
1996. Phase I Archeological Survey of a Rerouted Segment of the
Proposed Vermont Gas Expansion Project in Swanton, Vermont:
Unpublished Contract Report by GEOARCH, RR2 Box 2429-1,
Brandon, Vermont 05733. Submitted to Vermont Gas, P.O. Box
467, Burlington, Vermont 05402-0467.
Callum, Kathleen E., Robert A. Sloma, Peter H. Morrison and
Jacquie Payette. 2000. Phase I Archeological Site Identification of
the Proposed Route 1 Vermont Gas Expansion Project in
Highgate, Vermont: Unpublished Contract Report by
GEOARCH, Inc., 594 Indian Trail Leicester, Vermont 05733.
Submitted to Vermont Gas, P.O. Box 467, Burlington, Vermont
05402-0467.
Annotation: Report in progress.
Callum, Kathleen E., Robert A. Sloma, Jacquie Payette and
Gerald Fox. 2000. Phase I Archeological Site Identification and
Phase II Site Evaluation of the Proposed Route 2 Vermont Gas
Expansion Project in Highgate, Vermont: Unpublished Contract
Report by GEOARCH, Inc., 594 Indian Trail Leicester, Vermont
05733. Submitted to Vermont Gas, P.O. Box 467, Burlington,
Vermont 05402-0467.
Annotation: Report in progress.
Knudson, Ruthann. 1986. Contemporary Cultural Resource
Management. In American Archaeology Past and Future: A
Celebration of the Society for American Archaeology, 1935-1985,
edited by David J. Meltzer, Don D. Fowler, and Jeremy A. Sabloff,
pp. 395-413. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
Kunstler, James Howard. 1993. The Geography of Nowhere: The
Rise and Decline of America’s Man-Made Landscape. New York,
New York: Touchstone.
Annotation: Author of The Geography of Nowhere and Home from
Nowhere has his own web site at: http://www.kunstler.com/.
Meeks, Harold A. 1986b. Vermont’s Land and Resources.
Shelburne, Vermont: New England Press.
National Livability Resource Center. 2000. Livable Communities.
Online at: http://www.livablecommunities.gov/toolsandresources/.
Annotation: The Clinton-Gore Administration’s Livable
Communities Website. Here you will find information about the
Administration’s Livable Communities Initiative and the work of
the White House Task Force on Livable Communities to coordinate federal agencies’ efforts to assist communities to grow in
ways that ensure a high quality of life and strong, sustainable
economic growth. You will also find information on and links to
SECTION SEVEN: PROBLEM SOLVING THROUGH CONSENSUS AND ARCHEOLOGICAL SITE SIGNIFICANCE
85
specific programs, resources, guides, and tools offered by federal
agencies to assist your community. Build healthier, more livable
communities for the twenty-first century by working together.
National Park Service. 2000. Federal Laws & Regulations. Online
at: http://www.cr.nps.gov/linklaws.htm.
Rawson, Deborah. 1989. Without a Farmhouse Near: The Story of
Jericho and Underhill, Two Traditional Vermont Communities in
Transition—from Dairy Farms to the Suburbs. New York, New
York: Available Press, Ballantine Books.
Reidel, Carl H. 1982. New England Prospects: Critical Choices in a
Time of Change. Hanover, New Hampshire: New England Press.
Robinson, Brian S., and James B Petersen. 1990. Vermont Natural
Gas Transmission Line Archaeological Phase IB Study Scope-ofWork. Unpublished Proposal by Archaeological Research Center,
University of Maine, Farmington.
Robinson, Brian S., Wetherbee B. Dorshow, and Richard P. Corey.
1993. An Archeological Phase IB Survey of the Vermont Gas
System Expansion Project, Franklin County, Vermont:
Unpublished Contract Report by Archaeological Research Center,
University of Maine, Farmington. Submitted to Vermont Gas,
P.O. Box 467, Burlington, Vermont 05402-0467.
Roses, Abbie, ed. 1991. Vermont’s Scenic Landscapes: A Guide for
Growth and Protection. Montpelier, Vermont: Vermont Agency of
Natural Resources.
Annotation: A planning guide to assist developers, District
Environmental Commissions and state agencies deal with issues
of asthetics and ACT 250. It lacks substantive information about
archeology.
Division for Historic Preservation.
Annotation: Eight videos about Vermont’s Cultural Heritage that
cover specific historic contexts outlined by the Vermont Division
for Historic Preservation:
I. A Rich and Ancient Heritage: Vermont’s Archeological
Sites
(Color/Running Time: 27 minutes)
II. A Vermont Heritage: Agricultural Buildings and
Landscapes
(Color/Running Time: 21 minutes)
III. Buildings, Villages and Towns: Traditions in Vermont
Architecture
(Color/Running Time: 32 minutes)
IV. From Meeting House to Opera House: Vermont’s
Political and Cultural Heritage (Color/Running Time:
29 minutes)
V. Getting There from Here: Vermont’s Transportation
Heritage
(Color/Running Time: 26 minutes)
VI. Made in Vermont, Sold in Vermont: Our Industrial
and Commercial Heritage (Color/Running Time: 31
minutes)
VII. Two Centuries of Tourism in Vermont
(Color/Running Time: 23 minutes)
VIII. A Guide to Historic Architectural Styles of Vermont
(Color/Running Time: 14 minutes)
State of Vermont. 2000. Vermont Historic Preservation Act. Online
at: http://www.leg.state.vt.us/statutes/title22/title22.htm.
Annotation: Scroll to Chapter 14: Historic Preservation.
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation. 1985-1991. Vermont
Historic Preservation Plan, Planning for the Future of Vermont’s
Heritage. Montpelier, Vermont: Manuscript prepared by the
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation, Department of
Housing and Community Affairs, Agency of Commerce and
Community Development.
Annotation: Details Historic Themes, Contexts, and specific
Property Types for Vermont. Loose-leaf format for three-ring
binder, occasionally updated. Used by all historic preservation
professionals working in the state.
United States Department of the Interior. 1993. Federal Historic
Preservation Laws. Washington, D.C.: United States Department
of the Interior, National Park Service, Cultural Resources
Programs, United States Government Printing Office.
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation. 1996. An Easy Guide
to 36 CFR 800: Federal Agency Responsibilities, SHPO’s Role.
Historic Preservation Fact Sheet. Montpelier, Vermont: Vermont
Division for Historic Preservation.
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation (VDHP). National
Life Building, Drawer 20, Montpelier, Vermont 05620-0501.
Telephone (802) 828-3211. Online at:
http://www.state.vt.us/dca/housing/HistPres/His-home.HTM.
Annotation: The Division is a clearinghouse for information on
historic buildings and villages, urban neighborhoods and downtowns, rural landscapes, and archeological sites. The Division
can provide inventories and/or maps of historic resources and
archeologically sensitive areas to local planners who are developing town plans. Staff also work with municipalities to protect
identified sites through local planning, zoning, and public education activities. The Vermont Historic Sites and Structures Survey
and the Vermont Archeological Inventory are major Division programs to identify historic buildings and archeological sites in the
state. The Division is legally required to evaluate the more than
1,000 Vermont projects yearly that require a state Act 250 permit
and that are funded, licensed, or require a permit from the federal government.
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation. 1997. Keeping
Vermont a Special World: The Vermont Historic Preservation
Plan. Montpelier, Vermont: Manuscript prepared by the Vermont
Division for Historic Preservation, Department of Housing and
Community Affairs, Agency of Commerce and Community
Development.
Annotation: An overview of the VDHP Vermont Historic
Preservation Plan for the public, historic societies, town officials,
and others.
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation. 1975. Vermont
Historic Preservation Act. Montpelier, Vermont: Vermont Division
for Historic Preservation, Agency of Development and
Community Affairs.
Vermont Environmental Board. 2000. Environmental Board
Statutory Authority, ACT 250, Vermont’sLand Use and Development
Law, Title 10, Chapter 151. Online at:
http://www.state.vt.us/envboard/statute.htm.
The Vermont Heritage Series. 1991. Montpelier, Vermont: Vermont
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Vermont Environmental Board. 2000. National Life Records
Center Building, Drawer 20, Montpelier, Vermont 05620-3201.
Telephone (802) 828-3309.
Annotation: The mission of the Environmental Board is to provide a public, quasi-judicial process for reviewing and managing
the environmental, social and fiscal consequences of major subdivisions and developments in Vermont. Online at
http://www.state.vt.us/envboard/.
SECTION EIGHT:
PROTECTING THE PAST
Reporting and Long-Term Stewardship of Archeological Sites
Objective:
T
his section highlights the importance of reporting archeological work to
the public, government agencies, and other scientists, as well as encouraging efforts to protect
the past for the future. Students complete one or more archeological stewardship activities to
help protect and repair their environment.
Focusing Questions:
How can we work together to steward Vermont’s endangered, irreplaceable archeological sites
for the future?
Vocabulary List:
antiquarian
preservationist
conservation movement
pseudo-science
cultural resource management (CRM)
public reporting
environmental movement
public trust
heritage tourism
salvage archeology
historic preservation
site form
legal easement
State Register of Historic Places
looting
stewardship
management plan
Vermont Archeological Inventory
National Register of Historic Places
SECTION EIGHT: PROTECTING THE PAST
87
LESSON
D I D Y O U K N O W. . .
public reporting and stewardship
8.1 We are all stewards of our irreplaceable archeological
sites
SECTION EIGHT:
8.1
We are all stewards of our irreplaceable archeological
sites. Yet, site loss continues to accelerate in Vermont and
throughout the world. United States citizens maintain a
precarious balance between private property rights and
the concept of a public trust. The public values archeological sites in different, sometimes conflicting ways.
Property rights and the history of archeology in the
United States both contribute to limited public awareness
about cultural resource importance. Today we face three
critical preservation issues: low archeological literacy,
scarce support for site protection programs, and domination of cultural resource management (CRM) archeology.
Successful heritage preservation will require greater public involvement in reporting and stewardship efforts. By
working together, we can implement effective governmental, educational, and other measures to protect our
rich and ancient heritage. Your role in saving Vermont’s
endangered sites for the future is crucial.
8.2
Today, one only needs to drive down a road or read the
local newspaper to learn about a new development, an
old building being torn down, or natural disasters like
floods that affect historic properties. For these reasons,
GEOARCH estimates the loss of at least one site every
day in Vermont. A recent Natural Resource Conservation
The continuing loss of archaeological sites due to vandalism, looting, and development threatens the core value
of archaeology as a means for gaining new information
about the past through systematic field research. These
losses also strike at the valued roles that particular archeological sites play in the heritage and living traditions of
indigenous peoples and other cultural groups in the
Americans.
– William D. Lipe (1995:9) “Introduction” in Save the
Past for the Future II
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
8.3 United States citizens balance private property rights
and public trust
8.4 Archeological sites have different, sometimes conflicting, public value
8.5 Lack of public awareness of cultural resource importance arose from the history of property rights and
archeology
8.6 Today’s historic preservation community faces three
problems:
8.6.1 Low archeological literacy
8.6.2 Scarce support for site protection
8.6.3 Domination of CRM archeology
8.7 Successful site preservation in the future will require
greater public involvement
8.8 Reporting is the fourth and most important step in the
archeological process
8.9 Archeological stewardship of the 2000s is global, interdisciplinary, and community oriented
site loss accelerates
Noted archeologist Jeremy Sabloff (1991:iii) recently
sounded a cry for help, saying, “defenders of the archaeological record appear to be losing the war.” There is
almost no data in Vermont, or globally for that matter, on
the number of archeological sites lost to cultural or natural processes, such as looting, development, or erosion.
Vermont archeologists are only now beginning to assess
the diverse range of sites that might be found in our state.
As early as 1886, William Rann’s History of Chittenden
County, Vermont stated “sites [had] been wholly obliterated by grading, excavation, and other changes in the soil.”
88
8.2 Site loss continues to accelerate
TO THE
PAST
8.10 Your participation as citizen, educator, and steward
protects our nation’s rich and ancient heritage
TABLE 6. Threats to Addison County Sites
NOT THREATENED
5%
AGRICULTURAL
PRACTICES
LOOTING
19%
49%
DEVELOPMENT
14%
OTHER CAUSES
3%
EROSION
10%
Service study of Addison County demonstrated that of
370 known Precontact Era sites, 94.8% were threatened
by destruction (Rossen 1994; see Table 6).
Between 1985 and 1987, the National Park Service documented a 51% nationwide rise in archeological looting
and vandalism of known sites on federal land (McAllister
1991). A 1988 report prepared for the United States
Congress suggested that 90% of known archeological sites
in the Southwest have been looted (Smith and Ehrenhard
1991). Looting continues to be a serious problem on federal, state and private property in other areas of the country. While reasons for site destruction may vary with geographic location, the loss of Vermont’s and the world’s
heritage is clearly tremendous.
8.3
balancing private rights and public
trust
Who owns the past? The idea that our nation’s archeological sites should be a public trust, that is, held in common for the good of all, is not new. Management of cultural resources, like our finite natural resources, varies
among the world’s diverse political entities. In Great
Britain, for example, archeological sites belong to the
Crown. Great Britain’s government is responsible for
stewarding limited public resources for the good of all its
citizens.
The archeological record is the material memory of our
human predecessors on earth, by which we may come to
know them. It is a common good, to be held in public
trust.
– Christopher Chippindale (1995:84) “The Concept of
the ‘Commons’” in Ethics in American Archaeology
Our nation’s Euro-American immigrants were rebelling
against limited access to important resources when they
drafted the Bill of Rights (Knudson 1986). Individual
landowners became responsible for property, and all natural or cultural resources that came with that land in the
United States. By the end of the nineteenth century, the
people of the United States decided that they considered
cultural resources, like natural resources, part of the
nation’s public wealth and of importance to all.
A mosaic of federal, state, and local laws developed to
protect various cultural resources on public property and
encourage protection of the same types of cultural
resources on privately owned property. The United States
Supreme Court concurred that no one has the absolute
right to use his property in a manner that damages the
interests of neighboring landowners or the community as
a whole.
property, subject to the needs of individual landowners.
Property owners may manage or change the use of their
land for residences, commercial enterprises, agriculture,
forest, recreation, or hundreds of other purposes. They
may be unaware of the importance of archeological sites to
the public or may value other aspects of their property
more highly. It is a challenge to balance respect for individual property rights with respect for public heritage rights.
8.4
sites retain multiple values
Archeological sites hold different, sometimes conflicting,
values for diverse segments of the public. Some may see
sites as unique, fragile places that may yield new discoveries about the very distant past or common people. To
many, they are storehouses of information. If preserved in
place or studied by knowledgeable archeologists, sites can
answer relevant questions about climate change, new
medicines, different environments, or historic trends. To
others, archeological sites give communities a sense of
identity or provide a tangible link to the past.
Every place in America—rural area, small town, Native
American reservation, big city—can develop cultural
tourism. Each must discover and value its own heritage...
– National Endowment for the Arts (1995:1) Cultural
Tourism in the United States
Archeological interpretation satisfies the public’s desire to
share stories from past peoples, hear their voices, and
touch things made ages ago. Alternatively, hobbyists may
treasure limited access to private artifact hoards.
Archeological localities may hold recreational value, ranging from walking on open land to site excavation.
Archeological sites can be an economic resource, measured in terms of a given state’s heritage tourism dollars
or local jobs in museums and on archeological crews. Still
other people may rely on the illicit sale of looted artifacts
such as historic bottles, Revolutionary War armaments, or
Native American pots for part, or all, of their livelihood.
Many home buyers are willing to pay premiums to real
estate agents who sell historic properties listed on the
National Register of Historic Places. Conversely, some
developers see archeological sites and old buildings as an
economic obstacle to new construction. The public may
...Native American beliefs and values have as much credence in determining the scope of archaeological work in
a Native American site as do the values of the archaeologist and the Euro-American scientific community.
– E. Charles Adams (1984:240) “Archaeology and the
Native American: A Case at Hopi” in Ethics and Values in
Archaeology
The majority of archeological sites are located on private
SECTION EIGHT: PROTECTING THE PAST
89
also view archeological sites, whether dating to the
Historic or Precontact Era, as traditional or sacred locations that should not be disturbed. Such concern lead to
passage of the Native American Graves Protection and
Repatriation Act (NAGPRA).
8.5
why does the public lack archeology
awareness?
People are fascinated by the past, but unmotivated to save
archeological sites. In the United States, limited public
awareness about cultural resource importance stems from
the history of archeology and property rights.
8.5.1 obscure antiquarians and private
preservationists
During the 1700s and early 1800s, only antiquarians and
early preservationists concerned themselves with historic
properties in the United States. Antiquarians collected
relics, or artifacts. Other groups, later known as historic
preservationists, attempted to protect Historic Era landmarks on private property. Early preservationists relied on
private funding to protect our collective past.
In 1848, archaeology existed only in the realm of speculation. Darwin was still a decade away from publishing
his Origin of Species... [Ancient Monuments of the
Mississippi Valley by Squier and Davis] laid the groundwork for the new science: systematic survey and excavation; hypothesis construction and testing; and descriptive
publication of results.
– David K. Schafer (1999:92) “The Birth of a Science” in
Discovering Archaeology
By the mid-1800s, people increasingly recognized that the
new nation’s rapid expansion was consuming resources
previously considered unlimited. With most of our heritage on private property, a few select people attempted to
preserve dwindling traces of the past. In 1846, establishment of the Smithsonian Institution began a precedent of
federal support for acquisition of Native American antiquities from the Precontact Era.
8.5.2 scientific archeology evolves out of
relic hunting
Many early “archeologists”, like the fictional character
Indiana Jones, were reckless treasure hunters who sought
artifacts for museums, universities, wealthy sponsors, or
themselves. Gradually, the scientific discipline of archeology evolved out of this quest for antiquities. George
Perkins, a University of Vermont professor, noted in
1871, “though more rarely found now, Indian relics were
formerly very abundant in many parts of Vermont.” Site
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HIGHLIGHTS IN U.S. ARCHEOLOGY
• During the 1700s and early 1800s, antiquarians
sought relics and early preservationists saved private
buildings
• Loss of U.S. sites drove artifact collecting in mid1800s on behalf of museums, universities, collectors, etc.
• The scientific study of archeology evolved out of an
obscure antiquarian and collecting background. By
mid-1800s, it diverged from other studies and
became housed in anthropology departments
• Conservation movement inspires federal government to acquire land for National Parks, pass 1906
Antiquities Act, and create National Park Service to
oversee important parks and monuments
• Federal construction projects led to development of
salvage archeology during the 1920s and 1960s
• Environmental movement in 1960s inspired Historic
Preservation Act, National Environmental Policy
Act, Vermont’s Act 250, and evolution of cultural
resources management (CRM) businesses
• Public concern over antiquities trade leads to passage of ARPA in 1979 to protect sites on federal land
• By 1990s, grass-roots stewardship begins
loss inspired Perkins to write some of Vermont’s first
archeological reports and purchase private artifact collections for the state. Neither institutions who sponsored
such studies, nor archeologists who oversaw them actively engaged the public in what was then a relatively
obscure field. Unfortunately, the discipline of archeology
grew apart from earth sciences and historic preservation
when it became a subset of American anthropology.
8.5.3 conservation movement and
federal acquisition
Artifact looting and increased public support for conservation led to the federal government’s preservation of natural resources, historic buildings and archeological sites
through direct land purchase. The conservation movement inspired support for the Antiquities Act of 1906,
establishment of the world’s first national parks, and the
National Park Service to manage them.
Rampant artifact hunting and site vandalism in the 1880s
fueled the earliest public support leading to the
Antiquities Act of 1906. Since the 1906 Antiquities Act
aimed to protect archeological sites on federal land, it had
no jurisdiction over sites on private property. Creation of
the National Park Service in 1916 provided archeological
guardians for the federal government’s growing list of
monuments and parks. Unfortunately, the 1906
Antiquities Act proved unsuccessful because most people
regarded it, “as their inalienable right to dig for ‘relics’ in
any ruin” (Fowler 1986:144). In addition, only spectacular sites received protection. Although not entirely effective as a deterrent to artifact and site destruction, the
1906 Antiquities Act shifted the leadership role in management of our nation’s heritage from private hands to
federal government.
8.5.4 salvaging archeological sites
Archeologists and other heritage guardians were more
successful at addressing site loss due to landuse change.
Through the remainder of the 1900s, federal laws instituted a policy of rescue archeology or salvage archeology
that evolved into late twentieth-century cultural resource
management. Salvage archeology first referred to river
basin projects that took place in the 1920s on federal
flood control and hydroelectric dams.
Hasty, last minute, excavation of sites during federal construction continued through the Great Depression in the
1930s into the late 1960s. Lack of archeological guidelines, insufficient funding, poor scheduling, and the lack
of prioritization led to shoddy work. Salvage reporting
often publicly over-emphasized artifacts rather than scientific contributions.
8.5.5 environmental movement and CRM
The popular 1960s environmental movement started to
spread the notion that archeological sites were cultural
resources that should be conserved with natural
resources. This environmental movement led to the passage of the 1966 National Historic Preservation Act and
the 1969 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA).
These environmental regulatory review laws allowed the
federal government to manage cultural resources by requiring planned development avoid important archeological
sites and mitigate for adverse effects. Some states and
municipalities followed suit by requiring environmental
and archeological study before issuing permits for planned
landuse change or development on private property.
The National Historic Preservation Act and Vermont’s Act
250 apply only if a construction project will soon disturb
land. They trigger a process of project negotiation, requirThe Environmental Policy Act has had as important an
affect on archeology as any single piece of legislation, yet
no archeologist was involved with, or probably even
aware of its progression through the congressional mill to
passage. The act was brought into being by those whose
primary concern was the natural environment . . .
– Charles McGimsey III (1999:11)
“Headwaters, Part 2” in Common Ground
ing public notice and involvement. Historic preservation
consulting businesses arose, specializing in archeology,
historic architecture, and later other types of cultural
resources. Although technically for public good, archeologists published findings in limited distribution consulting
or contract reports. Government agencies attempted to
limit artifact looting of undeveloped, undisturbed areas
by restricting public access to site location databases.
These government policies divorced the public from
learning about and appreciating the value of our nation’s
archeological sites.
8.5.6 grass-roots stewardship is just
beginning
Meanwhile, unabated looting led to the passage of yet
another piece of legislation, the 1979 Archeological
Resources Protection Act (ARPA). Once again, though,
ARPA’s strength lies in public protection of federal property and artifacts. Archeologists realized they needed broad
public support to successfully steward public and privately owned sites and stem antiquities trade.
In the laboratory, ancient plant remains from Kentucky
rock shelters are providing new clues about the origins of
agriculture in eastern North America. But in the field,
vandals are destroying the storehouses of cultural history.
– Maria Braden (1999:17)
“Seeds of Change” in American Archeology
Near the end of the twentieth century, government agencies and other heritage guardians began to promote grassroots archeological stewardship. Unfortunately, the public
remains poorly informed about cultural resource importance, as a result of United States archeology and property
rights history.
8.6
today’s site preservation problems
Without broad public support for archeology, today’s historic preservation community feebly confronts serious
problems that contribute to site loss. In Vermont, historic
preservation concerns may be grouped into three areas:
low archeological literacy, scarce support for site protection programs, and domination of late twentieth century
CRM archeology.
8.6.1 archeological illiteracy
Misconceptions about archeology, or low archeological literacy, is perhaps the greatest obstacle to broad public support of archeology. Many people are unable to identify
archeology as the scientific study of past human culture.
A University of British Columbia poll demonstrated that
more than 50% of well-educated people think archeolo-
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gists study “fossils, such as dinosaurs”, rather than paleontologists (Pokotylo and Mason 1991:12).
Few people seem aware of Vermont’s diverse archeological
sites that range from Precontact Era Paleoindian Period
camps and Woodland Period villages, to Historic Era
shipwrecks and grist mills. Unauthorized artifact digging
for private collections or commercial sales continues
unabated. The “don’t dig!” message, which saves sites in
place for the future, has not yet fully penetrated public
consciousness. Historical societies, museums, and schools
continue to excavate archeological sites without direct
supervision of a qualified professional or the resources to
research, analyze, report, and steward archeological
remains. Pseudo-science clouds accurate public understanding of archeology. For example, State Archeologist
Giovanna Peebles continues to face resistance convincing
many that Vermont’s stone chambers are rural nineteenthcentury root cellars.
8.6.2 scarce support beyond CRM
Disregard for the importance of archeology has resulted
in scarce support for high quality, proactive programs
aimed at protecting our nation’s heritage. Across the
United States, implementation of educational, site identification, and stewardship measures has largely rested with
centralized government branches, academic institutions,
or other organizations rather than with local communities.
Vermont’s Division for Historic Preservation is understaffed, underfunded, and using antiquated equipment.
They are unable to conduct comprehensive regional site
surveys and lack a functional computer database for all
identified sites. Separate administration of architectural
preservation, Native American archeology, and historic
archeology resulted in Vermont’s poor record of historic
site documentation. For example, state files in 1994
(Rossen 1994) contained information on 20,000 standing
historic structures, compared to a mere 177 Lake
Champlain Basin Historic Era archeological sites!
No one has the required resources to ask big picture
questions, synthesizing decades of CRM research. For
example, archeological fish data could establish baseline
information on presently threatened sturgeon and salmon
populations. The University of Vermont and other
schools lack graduate programs in archeology, which
could provide academic leadership and energetic students
to tackle site preservation issues.
Launching statewide literacy efforts such as Vermont
Archaeology Week relied exhaustively on volunteer organizers for five years, until it proved successful. Important
sites and collections excavated in the past by amateurs
and professionals alike have not been reported well, nor
have associated materials been responsibly curated.
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8.6.3 irregular CRM quality
Undervaluing the importance of archeological sites and
inadequate public support extends into CRM archeology.
Today, an estimated 98% of the archeology in Vermont is
conducted in a business setting, paid by the private sector, government agencies, or non-profit organizations as
part of the environmental regulatory review process.
Vermont’s cultural resources receive very little consideration in comparison to the state’s progressive natural
resource protection. Only a small percentage of estimated
new land disturbances in Vermont require federal or state
permits. R. Scott Dillon, Survey Archeologist for the
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation calculates that
less than 5% of Act 250 projects receive any archeological
review. Of these, only a few require Phase I Site
Identification Survey or other archeological investigation.
Projects that do undergo review don’t always receive the
full attention they deserve.
Neither regulatory agencies, the public, nor clients consistently demand good CRM archeology. The quality of
Vermont’s archeology suffers from those businesses which
select low cost bids. Government agencies only require
review of a fraction of each project. A relatively untested,
narrow site predictive model is often used to restrict project sample areas. As an example, Vermont Division for
Historic Preservation staff might endorse a 5 acre (0.5%)
sample of a 1000 acre project area for large Native
American habitation sites, often also overlooking potential for Historic Era sites.
Erza Zubrow, in a study of contract archaeology survey
reports in New York and Colorado... found that about 5
percent of the contractors did not even report the locations in which the work was conducted... 30 percent
failed to report the size of the area surveyed... the majority were deficient in their reporting of fieldwork methods.
In Colorado... an average of 158.1 acres were surveyed
per person per day, a figure that literally require...
[archeologists] to perform their work at a dead run.
– Thomas King (1987:256)
“Prehistory and Beyond: The Place of Archaeology” in
The American Mosaic: Preserving a Nation’s Heritage
Consulting archeologists can also have difficulty balancing cultural resource protection with client development
goals. Vermont’s communities remain unaware of archeological projects because many have no public reporting
component other than filing contract reports or site forms
at the Vermont Division for Historic Preservation. Most
products of CRM research belong to the client, including
valuable information drawn from new site discoveries.
Few CRM projects include specifications for long-term
stewardship of archeological materials or sites that have
been avoided.
8.7
public involvement for successful site
reporting and stewardship
Archeologists have wondered whether “we can achieve a
true archeological conservation ethic and make it truly
effective in the country” (Fowler 1986). We now recognize that successful archeological site preservation will
require greater public involvement in reporting and stewardship. Public reporting is the fourth and most important step of the scientific archeological method. The term
broadly describes all ways of informing the public about
our nation’s archeological heritage. Ultimately, an
informed public will be better able to participate in efforts
to protect cultural resources.
Stewardship can be defined as “taking care of the land”
and all resources associated with that land (Vermont
Department of Forests, Parks, and Recreation 1991). This
long-term conservation of sites, artifacts, excavation
notes, and other aspects of the archeological record
involves keeping them as good, or better than, their original condition.
8.7.1 responsible reporting
Responsible archeological reporting has changed with the
historic shift in archeology from antiquarianism to stewardship. Today, archeologists emphasize communication
with a global public, rather than peers. Archeologists now
report to the public on identified sites, project areas with
no sites, scientific discoveries, new theories or ways of
doing things, and critical problems like looting.
INTERPRETING FINDINGS
4
Archeologists accurately report on their work and describe
findings to the public because excavation destroys a site
forever.
... I determined to open and examine it thoroughly.
– Thomas Jefferson (1787)
Notes on the State of Virginia
Jefferson’s stratigraphic approach was quite modern, ...as
was his purpose in excavating the site: to test an explicit
hypothesis about burial practices. [Next, he set an exemplary precedent for promptly publishing his results.]
– Don D. Fowler (1986:137) “Conserving American
Archaeological Resources” in American Archaeology Past
and Future: A Celebration of the Society for American
Archaeology 1935-1985
and conclusions about a burial mound excavation in
Notes on the State of Virginia. Vermont’s archeologists annually produce dozens of limited distribution CRM consulting reports for developers that hire them. Archeologists
also have a long history of orally communicating research
findings to peers. Presentations to archeological societies
are a traditional example of oral reporting, while public
outreach weeks provide a new forum for sharing research
importance. On the Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past
poster, for instance, Arti Fact is presenting new discoveries about Saxe’s Mills to John King and other young
archeological site stewards during Vermont Archeology
Week.
With adequate time, archeologists may submit discoveries
to academic journals, popular magazines, newspapers,
newsletters, or air them on radio and television.
Attractive magazines like CRM promote historic preservation and summarize the effectiveness of our efforts at protecting archeological sites. With increased public involvement in archeology, some state files and site databases are
becoming more accessible. The internet provides an innovative method of reporting all aspects of archeology to a
global public.
8.7.2 global, interdisciplinary, and
community based stewardship
The concept of archeological stewardship is not new.
Perspectives on long-term cultural resource protection
have changed. “Defenders of the archaeological record”
now advocate global, interdisciplinary, and community
stewardship.
For now, the most traditional form of distributing archeological research continues to be a written report. In the
1780s, Thomas Jefferson directed the first controlled
excavation in the United States. Jefferson published his
ground-breaking scientific research method, investigation,
Archeologists now recognize the need to involve everyone
in order to address global problems such as careless misuse of natural or cultural resources. Saving an archeological site at one place has the potential to enrich others
across the globe.
An interdisciplinary stewardship perspective is also vital.
The American public lost ground when archeology
diverged from historic preservation and other disciplines
SECTION EIGHT: PROTECTING THE PAST
93
such as ecology in the 1800s. We are just learning that
stewarding each intact landscape protects many valuable
resources, including forests, farmland, rural communities,
urban centers, wildlife, archeological sites of all types, and
recreational areas. During the twenty-first century, proactive interdisciplinary stewardship could effectively preserve sites before they are threatened by increasing population. Government agencies, organizations and individual
partners will need to communicate, or report, more effectively to cooperatively ensure successful programs. The
approach to cultural resource management in the twentyfirst century should be interdisciplinary enough to encompass landscapes, historic districts, archeological sites,
buildings, traditional cultural places, and folklore.
Most importantly, archeologists now recognize that stewardship is most effective at a local community level.
Historically, the people of the United States have stewarded important sites by acquiring properties on behalf of
government agencies and private organizations.
Community members and individual landowners are the
best caretakers of local cultural resources. You and your
community are the best advocates for local archeology
and history. Your local heritage is significant.
8.8
your participation saves sites
How can Vermonters combat the problems of low archeological literacy, scarce support for site protection programs, and domination of late-twentieth century CRM
archeology that apparently stem from limited public
awareness about cultural resource importance? Each individual makes a choice whether or not to responsibly protect and repair cultural resources along with natural
resources. Your informed participation as citizen, educator, and steward broadens public understanding of our
archeological heritage.
Children can be the advocacy group that falls in love
with the adventure of archaeology and carries it through,
taking civic pride in their involvement to protect our
national heritage.
– Nan McNutt (1991:143)
“Archaeology for the Classrom” in Protecting the Past
TABLE 7. There Should Be Laws Against...
TAKING FROM SHIPWRECKS
DIGGING UP ARROWHEADS OR POTTERY
ON YOUR LAND 67%
SELLING ANY ARTIFACTS YOU FIND
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69%
BUILDING A HOUSE OR BUSINESS
ON THE SITE OF A PREHISTORIC INDIAN VILLAGE
85%
Contact your local, state, and federal legislators to let
them know about the value of archeology. The
Government Affairs section of the Society for American
Archaeology and the Vermont Archaeological Society, Inc.
web sites discuss issues that impact archeology such as
current legislation, federal land management policies, and
historic preservation programs.
Vote for politicians who advocate protection of archeological sites and other cultural resources. Urge your local
officials to enact laws that protect archeological sites on
private land through zoning or construction permits. The
ability of local governments to regulate the use of private
property offers one of the best legal tools to protect cultural resources in Vermont.
Are you aware of all archeology conducted in your community triggered by landuse changes? In Vermont, the
majority of what we know about the past is gained
through compliance projects like the Vermont Gas System
Expansion. Strong public interest will determine whether
you are benefiting from local CRM projects. Become
involved in town affairs and local landuse planning
boards as an advocate for historic preservation.
Encourage your town officials to develop a historic
preservation management plan under the direction of an
archeologist.
PARTNERSHIP FOR SITE STEWARDSHIP
8.8.1 exercising archeological citizenship
Protect your community’s unique historic landscapes by
becoming active in our democratic government. The public appears supportive of new archeological legislation, as
shown in a random poll conducted by the Society for
American Archaeology and other organizations (Table 7;
Common Ground 1999:5). Support existing and new legislation that stewards archeological sites and other cultural resources.
61%
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The Archeological Conservancy
Vermont Department of Forests, Parks and Recreation
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation
Vermont Land Trust
Preservation Trust of Vermont
Vermont Housing and Conservation Board
Vermont Archaeological Society, Inc.
Visit your library and town offices to review construction
permits and consulting reports. Your interest in CRM projects will promote selection of qualified archeologists and
good research. Check to see if all proposed development
projects have incorporated archeological site review, that
a consulting report is available for community use (e.g.,
at the library or town offices), and archeologists summarize project results during a public presentation, exhibit,
or other type of outreach. Contact the Vermont Division
for Historic Preservation or archeologists working on
nearby consulting projects to learn more about CRM in
your community.
Lead organizations and landowners to honor and document known archeological sites in your community by
nominating them to the State Register of Historic Places
and National Register of Historic Places. State and
National Register listing helps preserve sites by making
them eligible for legal protection, funding, and tax incentives. Deter the illicit sale and exhibition of antiquities
from Vermont by boycotting museums, media, antique
stores, auctions, and trade shows with looted archeological site materials. Your active participation as a concerned
citizen will help educate others about the importance of
protecting our nation’s heritage.
Vermont government agencies and other organizations are
forming partnerships with private landowners to save
your community’s historic landscapes, protect undiscovered archeological sites, and steward known sites using
innovative legal means. See the accompanying text box
for some organizations that encourage stewardship of private land containing archeological sites.
LOCAL ARCHEOLOGICAL EDUCATIONAL
OPPORTUNITIES
Keeping undeveloped land open to save archeological
sites also protects farming, forestry, and recreation.
Maintaining the character of Vermont’s villages by saving
archeological sites and historic buildings similarly protects industry, trade, and tourism.
Known Precontact or Historic sites on your family’s land
can be protected through enrollment in the county landuse program, establishment of a legal easement, or sale
of development rights to a land trust. Organizations like
the Archaeological Conservancy can purchase land containing unique archeological sites. Vermont Department
of Forests, Parks, and Recreation stewardship programs
fund development of management plans and recreational
opportunities for forestlands with archeological sites. Ask
your county forester, Division for Historic Preservation
staff, or local land trust personnel to schedule workshops
encouraging community members to protect archeological sites and other cultural resources on private property.
How can you help stop criminals and others from harming Vermont’s rich and ancient heritage? Develop a neighborhood archeological site watch program to monitor
archeological sites. Encourage schools, community
groups, and individuals to adopt and steward archeological sites rather than collecting artifacts from them. Report
vandalism and looting of sites to federal, state, and local
law enforcement officials. Vermont State Police, Vermont
Department of Fish and Wildlife game wardens, and others can help prosecute such crimes on federal and state
land and waters under the Archeological Resources
Protection Act and the Vermont Historic Preservation Act.
Individual land owners can post portions of their land so
that looters may be prosecuted for vandalism and trespassing on archeological sites.
• Lake Champlain Maritime Museum
• Vermont Division for Historic Preservation historic
sites like Mount Independence
• Vermont Archaeological Society, Inc.
• U.S. Forest Service’s “Passport in Time”
• Field schools like New Hampshire’s State Conservation
& Rescue Archeology Program
• Traditional college classrooms
8.8.2 becoming an archeological educator
Archeology is a great way to learn about cultural
resources in your local community or throughout the
world. In order to teach our nation’s youth, historic
preservation advocates recommend a variety of nondestructive activities for the classroom and outdoors.
With archeology, educators can teach virtually any
scholastic subject from environmental studies to mathematics.
Excellent local educational opportunities are offered
through government agencies, non-profit organizations,
and academic institutions (see the accompanying text box
for some ideas). Request funding for organizing exemplary archeological volunteer training programs like those
in Arkansas or Texas by contacting the governor, the
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation, and the
Vermont Archaeological Society, Inc. Your interest inspires
creation of new archeological educational opportunities
whenever you contact archeologists and historic preservation organizations.
Help design fun, educational curriculum that teach about
local archeology, history, science, and vital skills without
harming Vermont’s endangered archeological sites. For
example, develop a traveling exhibit on site destruction
in your area for a local museum. Subscribe to the Society
SECTION EIGHT: PROTECTING THE PAST
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Many elementary and secondary teachers in this area
and throughout the country use archaeology as a keystone in interdisciplinary studies.
– Robin S. Landes and Joanna T. Moyar (1996:x)
Archaeologists at Work: A Teacher’s Guide to Classroom
Archaeology
for American Archaeology’s internet newsletter
Archaeology and Public Education and incorporate the
National Park Service’s Teaching with Historic Places series
of lesson plans in your classroom activities. Attend or
help organize a program for Vermont Archaeology Week.
This public outreach and others like it across the nation
are creative ways to educate others about the importance
of cultural resources.
Learning more about archeology can help protect important cultural resources in your community. Be aware, and
encourage your community to become aware, of issues
that could harm archeological sites and other cultural
resources. Join societies that support archeology and protect endangered sites, like the: Archaeological
Conservancy, Society for American Archaeology, Eastern
States Archaeological Federation, and the Vermont
Archaeological Society, Inc. Most of these organizations
have individual and student memberships.
Speak to local groups about what you learned in this curriculum unit. Be sensitive to traditional knowledge and
values of Native Americans, other ethnic groups, and
community elders in your outreach. Write about local
archeology and landuse projects for school and local
newspapers. Work with historical societies and historic
preservation commissions to develop heritage tourism
opportunities from information out of local archeological
consulting project reports. Use the media, such as newspapers or television, to help broadcast your message
about the importance of archeological site reporting and
stewardship.
8.8.3 increasing archeological stewardship
Global, interdisciplinary, and community stewardship of
archeological sites begins with you! Students, historical
societies, and community groups can form partnerships
to identify, report, and steward archeological sites. Report
sites identified to the Vermont Division for Historic
Preservation by filling out Vermont Archeological
Inventory site forms. Help nominate your community’s
significant sites to the State and National Registers of
Historic Places. Volunteers once contributed the majority
of archeological sites to the Vermont Division for Historic
Preservation. A renewed effort would help identify and
record the many thousands of Precontact and Historic Era
sites that have not yet been documented. For example,
Vermont Archaeological Society, Inc. member Victor
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Rolando identified hundreds of fragile lime kiln, charcoal
kiln, and iron furnace ruins throughout the state.
Underwater, the Lake Champlain Maritime Museum races
against time to identify and document shipwrecks before
they are encrusted with zebra mussels or ravaged by treasure hunters.
Organize projects to collect oral and town history before
it is too late. Encourage local historic researchers to identify, talk about, and write about sites in your area.
Investigate a threatened site by enrolling in an archeological field school. Support local historians who report findings during Vermont Archaeology Week, and to the
Vermont Archaeological Society, Vermont Historical
Society, and other organizations.
In the late 1960s, Alex Apostolides, a Los Angeles
writer-photographer began spending his weekends on an
archeological survey of the Mojave Desert. He didn’t dig;
he surveyed, recording rock art, campsites, trails, and village sites in notes and photos. He came to understand the
prehistory of his area like no other living person. He
helped place the range on the National Register of
Historic Places. This gave it special protection by the federal government.
– Thomas King (1977:13) “Introduction” in A Field Guide
to Conservation Archaeology in North America
Participate in long-term stewardship of our archeological
heritage. Help launch a certified site stewardship program
like Arizona’s by contacting the governor, the Vermont
Division for Historic Preservation, and the Vermont
Archaeological Society. Site stewards help identify sites,
write management plans for known sites, and monitor
site conditions. Certified stewards can help protect sites
by designing interpretive trails and signage to educate
about special features. For example, site stewards can
post signs such as “take nothing but pictures...” alerting
public to leave artifacts in place.
Persuade your school, other organizations, and landowners to develop management plans for archeological sites
within your community. Convince collectors to record
archeological sites and donate artifacts to a local museum.
Work with knowledgeable community members to provenience, catalog, and educate others about archived collections.
Archeological sites are rare, unique, and threatened nonrenewable cultural resources. Arti Fact illustrates the
importance of the scientific archeological method toward
preservation of Vermont’s heritage. Many people like Shy
One, Catherine Saxe, and Pierre LaBarre wait to speak
about their lives through archeological evidence. Each
Community Archaeology Programs
Every community in America has an archaeological heritage which, if managed properly as a public resource, can
help us recognize and celebrate the accomplishments of
our predecessors. Archaeology brings the American legacy to life.
– Susan L. Henry (1993:84) quoting Pamela J. Cressey in
Protecting Archeological Sites on Private Lands
new archeological discovery maps a part of the river of
time. Your help in protecting endangered sites will offer
future generations the same opportunity you have to
enjoy historic and archeological resources in your community, state, and nation.
SECTION EIGHT: PROTECTING THE PAST
97
SECTION EIGHT:
ACTIVITY 8
Standard: 3.9
Length: depends upon task, two to fifteen class periods
Materials: archeological site forms (Appendix Four)
Activity 8 Assignment:
Listen to the Lesson or read the photocopy provided by your teacher. Complete one or more
stewardship projects individually or as a group. Select from the following two choices or from
the list of alternate activities:
• Write an archeological report summarizing findings from Sections 5-6.
• Write a draft management plan for stewarding an actual site within your community or
for the sites identified through Activity 4B.
Your report should include a hypothesis for site locations, methodology for locating sites, and
results with figures. The management plan should include completed archeological site
form(s), a description of how the sites(s) shall be protected (e.g., no artifact collecting,
remove brush and trash) and how they should be interpreted to the public (e.g., walking trail
with signs). Landowner support of community stewardship efforts is required. You are encouraged to submit your completed archeological site form(s) for actual sites to the Vermont
Division for Historic Preservation in Montpelier.
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Activity 8 Alternate Activities:
• Write an archeological site report about a local site that interests you.
• Fill out a site form describing a site from your Activity 5B classroom excavation.
• Record archeological sites on private or municipal property (contingent on landowner permission).
• Document a private or public museum collection of Native American or historic artifacts.
Analyze artifact time period or function and illustrate your study with photographs, or pen
and ink scale drawings.
• Write a local town history.
• Prepare an exhibit summarizing this curriculum.
• Learn more about Vermont’s past by taking part in Vermont Archaeology Week or other public outreach initiatives.
• Join and take an active role in the Vermont Archaeological Society, Inc., Archaeological
Conservancy, or other archeological stewardship organization.
• Start a grass-roots movement in your community to recognize and honor significant archeological sites with State Historic Markers.
SECTION EIGHT: PROTECTING THE PAST
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Activity 8 Assessment:
Use rubric 8 to assess the stewardship project chosen by each student. Students may present
their products to the class. If so, observe individual oral presentations and record your observations.
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SECTION EIGHT:
RECOMMENDED
RESOURCES
site loss
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McAllister, Martin E. 1991. Looting and Vandalism of
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Annotation: Almost every paper in this excellent volume implicitly or explicitly alerts the public to the alarming loss of our
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Society for American Archaeology, 1935-1985. Washington, D.C.:
Smithsonian Institution Press.
McGimsey, Charles R. III. 1999. Headwaters, Part 2: Tributaries,
Archeology goes to Capitol Hill, 1960-1974. Common Ground:
Archeology and Ethnography in the Public Interest Winter:8-15.
SECTION EIGHT: PROTECTING THE PAST
101
Perkins, George Henry. 1871. Some Relics of the Indians of
Vermont. The American Naturalist 5:11-17.
site reporting and stewardship
Schafer, David K. 1999. The Birth of A Science. Discovering
Archaeology 1:92.
Archaeology Consulting Team. 1990. Discoveries at the Blue
Heron Site: An Archaeological Study in Milton, Vermont. Essex
Junction, Vermont, Archaeology Consulting Team.
Shattuck, Gary. 1996. Vermont Archaeological and Historical
Resources Protection Protocol. United States Department of
Justice, United States Attorney, District of Vermont, Rutland,
Vermont.
Annotation: A compendium of laws protecting historic
resources in Vermont.
Consulting Archaeology Program. 1992. 4,500 Years at Gordon’s
Landing: Archaeology at the Grand Isle Fish Hatchery. Burlington,
Vermont, Consulting Archaeology Program, University of
Vermont.
Annotation: A non-technical booklet covering archeological
investigations before construction of the state’s fish hatchery.
Wilson, Rex L. and Gloria Loyola, eds. 1982. Rescue Archeology:
Papers from the First New World Conference on Rescue Archeology.
Washington, D.C.: The Preservation Press.
CRM: Cultural Resource Management. Washington, D.C.: United
States Department of the Interior, National Park Service,
Cultural Resources.
Annotation: A magazine published by the National Park Service
that provides information for parks, federal agencies, Indian
tribes, states, local governments, and the private sector that promotes and maintains high standards for preserving and managing cultural resources.
today’s historic preservation problems
Argus Architecture & Preservation, Hartgen Archeological
Associates, Neil Larson, and Patricia Potter. 1995. The Lake
Champlain Basin: Cultural Planning Needs Assessment.
Unpublished End-of-Field Letter by Argus Architecture &
Preservation, 5 Broadway Street, Suite 204, Troy, New York
12180. Prepared for the Lake Champlain Basin Program.
Braden, Maria. 1999. Seeds of Change. American Archaeology
3:17-21.
King, Thomas F. 1987. Prehistory and Beyond: The Place of
Archaeology. In The American Mosaic: Preserving A Nation’s
Heritage, edited by Robert E. Stipe and Antoinette J. Lee, pp.
235-264. United States Committee, International Council on
Monuments and Sites, Washington, D.C.
Cultural Resource Group, Louis Berger & Associates, Inc. 1998.
History and Archaeology in Derby, Vermont: A 19th Century
“Industrial Park” and Its Sawmill. East Orange, New Jersey, Louis
Berger & Associates, Inc.
Annotation: A detailed and illustrated brochure developed for
Vermont Archaeology Week, September 20-26, 1998.
Fowler, Don D. 1986. Conserving American Archaeological
Resources. In American Archaeology Past and Future: A
Celebration of the Society for American Archaeology, 1935-1985,
edited by David J. Meltzer, Don D. Fowler, and Jeremy A.
Sabloff, pp. 135-162. Smithsonian Institution Press,
Washington, D.C.
Neudorfer, Giovanna. 1980. Vermont’s Stone Chambers: An
Inquiry Into Their Past. Montpelier, Vermont: Vermont Historical
Society.
Jameson, John H. Jr. 1997. Presenting Archaeology to the Public:
Digging for Truths. Walnut Creek, California: AltaMira Press.
Williams, Stephen. 1991. Fantastic Archaeology: The Wild Side of
North American Prehistory. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania:
University of Pennsylvania Press.
Jefferson, Thomas. 1787. Notes on the State of Virginia. Reprinted
in 1954 by W.W. Norton & Company, New York, New York. W.
Penden, ed.
Pokotylo, David L., and Andrew R. Mason. 1991. Public
Attitudes Towards Archaeological Resources and their
Management. In Protecting the Past, edited by George S. Smith
and John E. Ehrenhard, pp. 9-18. CRC Press, Inc., Boston,
Massachusetts.
Starbuck, David R. 1989. The Ferris Site on Arnold’s Bay: A
Research and Educational Program of the Lake Champlain
Maritime Museum. Vergennes, Vermont: Lake Champlain
Maritime Museum.
participate in site reporting and stewardship
Rossen, Jack. 1994. The Archeology on the Farm Project,
Improving Cultural Resource Protection on Agricultural Lands: A
Vermont Example. Lake Champlain Basin Program
Demonstration Reports, Report Number 3. Crown Point, New
York: Lake Champlain Basin Program.
Andrews, David, ed. 1999. Diggings: News, Views and Recently
Noted; Excavating the Public Mind, Poll Finds Misconceptions,
Support for Protecting Sites. Common Ground: Archeology and
Ethnography in the Public Interest Winter:4-5.
Annotation: See the extended results of this poll exploring public perceptions and attitudes about archaeology at the Society for
American Archaeology web site. The report from Harris
Interactive shows the importance of archaeology and its inclusion into school curriculums. Online at:
http://www.saa.org/Education/publiced-poll.html
Archaeology, Society for American. 1995. Save the Past for the
Future II: Report of the Working Conference. Society for American
Archaeology, Washington, D.C.
102
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
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PAST
Bender, Susan J., and George S. Smith, eds. 2000. Teaching
Archaeology in the Twenty-First Century. Society for American
Archaeology, Washington, D.C.
Annotation: We are on the cusp of a change in archeology curriculum that should be reflected at all levels of education,
although this set of papers largely deals with education of future
archeologists for increased awareness of public responsibility
and cultural resource stewardship.
Henry, Susan L. 1993. Protecting Archeological Sites on Private
Lands. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of the
Interior, National Park Service, Cultural Resources Programs,
United States Government Printing Office.
Annotation: Legal tools and other methods for protecting our
nation’s rich and ancient heritage, particularly at a local level.
King, Thomas F. 1977. Introduction. In A Field Guide to
Conservation Archaeology in North America, edited by Georgess
McHargue and Michael Roberts, pp. 13-16. J. B. Lippincott
Company, New York, New York.
Lozner, Christine B., ed. 1986. Rural Preservation: Shaping
Vermont’s Future. Montpelier, Vermont: Vermont Division for
Historic Preservation, Agency of Development and Community
Affairs.
Annotation: An essential guide for towns, counties, and planners. Has descriptive information about preservation easements
and covenants. It lacks substantive information about archeology.
social studies, geography, civics, and other subjects. The associated web site has lesson plans, educational kits and professional
development materials and workshops. Web site:
http://www.nps.gov/nr/twph/.
Tilden, Freeman. 1977. Interpreting Our Heritage. Chapel Hill,
North Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press.
McNutt, Nan. 1991. Classroom Archaeology: Introducing
Archaeology in Existing Curricula; an Example from Louisiana.
In Protecting the Past, edited by George S. Smith and John E.
Ehrenhard, pp. 143-148. CRC Press, Inc., Boston,
Massachusetts.
Townsend, Jan, John H. Jr. Sprinkle, and John Knoerl, eds.
1993. Guidelines for Evaluating and Registering Historical
Archeological Sites and Districts. National Register Bulletin.
Washington, D.C.: United States Department of the Interior,
National Park Service, Interagency Resources Division, National
Register of Historic Places.
McCann, Anna Marguerite. 1991. High-Tech Link Up for Kids.
Archaeology 44(1): 44-45, 80.
Annotation: Part of a special series of three articles on archeology in the classroom, includes an excellent guide to resources for
educators and students at all precollegiate levels.
Vermont Department of Forests, Parks and Recreation, ed. 1991.
Stewardship for the Vermont Landowner: Responsible Management
for Vermont’s Forests. Waterbury, Vermont: Vermont Department
of Forests, Parks and Recreation, Agency of Natural Resources.
Annotation: Perhaps the best stewardship pamphlet in Vermont!
McClelland, Linda F., ed. 1991. How to Complete the National
Register, Registration Form. Edited by National Park Service US
Dept. of Interior, Cultural Resources. National Register Bulletin.
Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office.
Annotation: You may also want to visit the official National
Register of Historic Places web site. Online at:
http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/.
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation (VDHP). National
Life Building, Drawer 20, Montpelier, Vermont 05620-0501.
Telephone (802) 828-3211. Online at:
http://www.state.vt.us/dca/housing/HistPres/His-home.HTM.
Annotation: The Division is a clearinghouse for information on
historic buildings and villages, urban neighborhoods and downtowns, rural landscapes, and archeological sites. The Division
can provide inventories and/or maps of historic resources and
archeologically sensitive areas to local planners who are developing town plans. Staff also work with municipalities to protect
identified sites through local planning, zoning, and public education activities. The Vermont Historic Sites and Structures
Survey and the Vermont Archeological Inventory are major
Division programs to identify historic buildings and archeological sites in the state. The Division is legally required to evaluate
the more than 1,000 Vermont projects yearly that require a state
Act 250 permit and that are funded, licensed, or require a permit from the federal government.
National Livability Resource Center. 2000. Livable Communities.
Online at: http://www.livablecommunities.gov/toolsandresources/.
Annotation: The Clinton-Gore Administration’s Livable
Communities Website. Here you will find information about the
Administration’s Livable Communities Initiative and the work of
the White House Task Force on Livable Communities to coordinate federal agencies’ efforts to assist communities to grow in
ways that ensure a high quality of life and strong, sustainable
economic growth. You will also find information on and links to
specific programs, resources, guides, and tools offered by federal
agencies to assist your community. Building healthier, more livable communities for the twenty-first century, by working
together.
Public Education Committee. 1990-1998. Archaeology and Public
Education. Washington, D.C.: Society for American Archaeology.
Annotation: An excellent resource for educators that ran from
1990-1998, but the Society for American Archaeology, Public
Education Committee started a new educational monograph.
For educational resources on the web, see www.saa.org. The
publication has numerous activities for students.
Rolando, Victor R. 1992. 200 Years of Soot and Sweat: The
History and Archeology of Vermont’s Iron, Charcoal, and Lime
Industries. Burlington, Vermont: Vermont Archaeological Society.
Smith, George S. and John E. Ehrenhard, eds. 1991. Protecting
the Past. Boston, Massachusetts: CRC Press, Inc.
White House Millennium Council and the National Trust for
Historic Preservation. 2000. Save America’s Treasures. Online at:
http://www.saveamericastreasures.org/.
Annotation: A Partnership formed in 1998 to focus public attention on the importance of our national heritage and the need to
save our treasures at risk. Save America’s Treasures is a national
effort to protect America’s threatened cultural treasures, including significant documents, works of art, maps, journals, and historic structures that document and illuminate the history and
culture of the United States. Save America’s Treasures is dedicated to identifying and rescuing the enduring symbols of
American tradition that define us as a nation.
Young, Peter A, ed. 1991. A Sampling of Creative Initiatives.
Archaeology 44(1): 40-43.
Annotation: Examples of creative archeological programs for
elementary and middle school students in the United States and
Canada.
Smith, K. C. 1991. At Last, a Meeting of the Minds. Archaeology
44(1): 36-39, 80.
Annotation: Archeology education goes to schools nationwide
with a message of stewardship, educational skills, and interdisciplinary science.
Teaching with Historic Places. National Trust for Historic Places.
Washington, D.C.
Annotation: A series of pamphlets for teachers that use actual
historic places listed on the National register to teach history,
SECTION EIGHT: PROTECTING THE PAST
103
APPENDIX ONE
FACT
OR
FICTION?
Arti Fact’s Archeology Awareness Questionnaire
Assignment:
Circle the answer you think is correct. Compare your score on this questionnaire before completing
one, several, or all sections of the Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past curriculum unit to your score
after completing sections.
1. What do archeologists study?
A:
the remains of past
human cultures
A:
fossils, such as dinosaurs
B:
human bones, gold, and
other buried treasure
2. The four steps of the scientific
archeological method are:
A:
1. find treasure maps
2. dig for loot
3. clean it up
4. sell it
B:
1. archival research
2. fieldwork
3. laboratory analysis
4. reporting
C:
1. roll dice
2. dig sites with backhoe
3. piece artifacts together
4. report in newspapers
3. We know about Vermont’s
earliest Native American
inhabitants largely from
written history.
True
False
4. Archeologists use
characteristics such as
language, clothing, and
buildings to investigate
continuity and change in past
human cultures.
True
False
5. Archeological sites are rare
because the majority have
been transformed by cultural
and natural processes.
True
False
7. Archeologists dig stewarded
True
sites to recover notable artifacts.
False
8. Scientists such as archeologists
seldom think about ethics.
True
False
9. Compromises that allow
planned development include
determining site significance
and reaching public consensus.
True
False
True
False
6. Historic and Precontact Era
sites are often located at the
same spot near an important
waterway resource.
10. Archeologists need public
involvement to report and
steward Vermont’s important
sites for the future.
❑
PRECURRICULUM SCORE
104
❑
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POSTCURRICULUM SCORE
_________
Educator Preparation:
Please wait to provide, grade, or discuss any answers with students until they have taken this
questionnaire both as a pre-curriculum and post-curriculum assessment.
Pre-curriculum Assessment:
Use the answer key below to score student performance on Fact or Fiction? Arti Fact’s
Archeology Awareness Questionnaire before completing one, several, or all sections of the Rock
River Valley: Pathway to the Past curriculum unit.
Post-curriculum Assessment:
Use the answer key below to score student performance on Fact or Fiction? Arti Fact’s
Archeology Awareness Questionnaire after completing one, several, or all sections of the Rock
River Valley: Pathway to the Past curriculum unit.
Answer Key:
Score: each question correct rates 10 points out of a total 100 points.
1. A: The remains of past human cultures
2. B: Archival research, fieldwork, laboratory analysis, and reporting
3. False. Each unique archeological site adds time depth to history.
4. True
5. True
6. True
7. False. Archeologists first try to preserve sites. If stewarding sites in place is not possible,
archeologists unearth knowledge from artifacts and context through careful fieldwork and
recording.
8. False. Archeologists, like other scientists, hone ethics along with their trowels
9. True
10. True
APPENDIX ONE: FACT OR FICTION?
105
APPENDIX TWO
RUBRICS
Activity 1A:
Criteria
Running Late
Demonstrates ways time has
been organized
On Time
Ahead of Time
Identifies time line on poster as
linear organization of time.
Identifies Shy One as conceiving of time as cyclical, in her
reference to the Abenaki “seasonal round” Alternately identifies Catherine Saxe who mentions Abenaki who camp seasonally on their farmstead and
talks about her family who
hunts and farms seasonally
Identifies time line on poster
as linear organization of time.
Identifies Shy One as conceiving of time as cyclical, in her
reference to the Abenaki “seasonal round” Also identifies
Catherine Saxe mentioning
Abenaki who camp seasonally
on their farmstead, and talks
about her family who hunts
and farms seasonally
Incorrectly identifies B.C. or
A.D. or both. Does not present
an example of an alternate dating system
Correctly defines B.C. and A.D. Correctly defines B.C. and A.D.
Provides one example of an
Provides more than one examalternate dating system
ple of an alternate dating system
Criteria
Time line contains a sequence
of historical eras
Running Late
Time contains less than three
eras. Dates or eras incorrectly
sequenced
On Time
Contains three eras (one of
which is the present), in correct sequence or more than
three eras but some incorrectly
sequenced. All or nearly all
dates are correctly sequenced
Ahead of Time
Contains more than three eras,
all correctly sequenced. All
dates are correctly sequenced
Time line identifies characteristic transitions between eras,
and makes connections to the
present
Transitions between eras are
not defined by an event, date,
or cultural/technological
change. Or, characteristics are
inappropriate
Transitions between each era
up to the present are typified
by an event, date, or
cultural/technological change
Transitions between each era
up to the present are typified
by an event, date, and cultural/technological change
Students research, examine,
and analyze historical data to
identify local, state, national,
or world events and dates
Students provide one local
event from own experience, or
do not provide at least one
example of all of the following: community, state, national, and world events/dates
Students provide evidence of
research and analysis by identifying at least one example of
a key local community, state,
national, and world event/date
for their time line
Students provide evidence of
extensive research and analysis by identifying several key
local community, state, national, and world events/dates for
their time line
Time line presentation
Writing is not neat and/or recognizable, no color or graphics
Writing is neat and recognizable, some use of color or
graphics
Writing is neat and recognizable, extensive use of color
and graphics
Demonstrates knowledge of
various dating systems
Activity 1B:
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Activity 2A:
Criteria
Novice Historian
Qualified Historian
Excellent Historian
Table demonstrates student’s
understanding of clothing
styles and language as an indicator of ethnicity
Student identifies one clothing
example and language accurately from one time period.
Cannot determine ethnicity of
characters
Student identifies at least one
clothing and language example
accurately from each time period, as well as accurately determines ethnicity of two characters
Student lists several clothing
examples and the languages
accurately from each time
period, as well as accurately
determines ethnicity of all
characters
Table demonstrates student’s
understanding of activities
through characteristic artifacts
Student identifies one or no
characteristic artifacts, nor is
able to determine activities
from associated time periods
Student identifies two characteristic artifacts indicating at
least one activity from each
time period
Student identifies three or
more characteristic artifacts
indicating two or more activities associated with each time
period
Student identifies one or more
characteristic buildings and/or
other structures from each
time period, type of construction, and function of those
buildings correctly
Student identifies three or
more buildings and/or other
structures, types of construction, and all associated functions correctly from each time
period
Table demonstrates student’s
Student identifies at least one
understanding of buildings and building from each time period
other structures characteristic
correctly
of different time periods
Table demonstrates student’s
ability to identify modes of
transportation characteristic of
different time periods
Student identifies one form of
Student identifies one form of
transportation associated with a transportation associated with
specific time period correctly
each time period correctly
Student identifies more than
one form of transportation
associated with each time
period correctly
Table demonstrates student’s
understanding of landscape
changes
Student accurately describes
two landscapes with comparisons and contrasting evidence
Student accurately describes all
four landscapes from different
time periods and can deduce
how those landscapes differ
Student accurately describes all
four landscapes from different
time periods and can deduce
how and why those landscapes
differ
Table presentation and organization
Writing is illegible, information
is not presented in tabular
form, inappropriate or inconcise headings
Writing is neat and recognizable, information is presented
in tabular form, most headings
are appropriate and concise
Writing is neat and recognizable, information is presented
in tabular form, all headings
are appropriate and concise
Novice Historian
Qualified Historian
Excellent Historian
Student identifies a significant Exhibits difficulty identifying
contribution to existing knowl- significant contribution to
edge or new invention
existing knowledge or new
inventions, or misattributes the
associated time period
Correctly identifies a significant contribution to existing
knowledge or new invention
that helped shape a selected
time period
Correctly identifies multiple
contributions to existing
knowledge or new inventions
that helped shape a selected
time period. Makes comparisons to other time periods,
the present, or the future
Student demonstrates a comprehension of the impact of
new knowledge and inventions
to community, state, and world
Student notes population
movement, economic growth
or decline, community identity,
or other factors associated with
new knowledge or invention.
Also links the new knowledge
or invention to specific local,
state, or worldwide events
Student notes population
movement, economic growth
or decline, community identity, and other factors associated
with (two or more) new
knowledge and inventions.
Also links the new knowledge
or invention to specific local,
state, and worldwide events
Activity 2B:
Criteria
Student identifies at least one
positive or negative impact
associated with at least one
new knowledge/invention
APPENDIX TWO: RUBRICS
107
Activity 3A:
Criteria
Students demonstrate an
understanding of archeological
terms: artifact, feature, and site
Students list less than six artifacts for each time period, do
not identify features for each
time period, or incorrectly
label the archeological site
number/name
Students list six artifacts for
each time period, at least one
feature (grouping or activity),
and correctly label the archeological site number/name
Students list more than six artifacts for each time period, two
or more features, and correctly
label the archeological site
number/name
Students demonstrate understanding of archeological classification by material types
Students correctly reclassify
less than 80% of artifacts by
material type
Students correctly reclassify at
least 80% of artifacts by material type
Students correctly reclassify
more than 80% of artifacts by
material type
Students predict how artifacts,
features, and sites might be
altered through time
Students identify one or no
site transformation process.
Students predict its effects on
one or no material class, feature, or site
Students identify at least two
site transformation processes.
Students predict their effects
on at least two material classes, features, and sites
Students identify three or
more site transformation
processes. Students predict
their effects on three or more
material classes, features, and
sites
Student selects an unfamiliar
historic or modern event or
place
Student selects a familiar historic or modern event or place
Student selects a familiar historic or modern place and
associated event
Students demonstrate an
understanding of archeological
sites: artifacts and features
Student depicts 20% of the
historic or modern event or
place as archeological artifacts
and features
Student clearly depicts 80% of
the historic or modern event
or place as archeological artifacts and features
Student clearly depicts more
than 80% of the historic or
modern event or place as
archeological artifacts and features
Students are able to identify
archeological site transformation processes
Students identify at least one
site transformation process
correctly
Students identify three site
transformation processes correctly
Students identify three site
transformation processes correctly and apply them to the
site they have just described
Table presentation and organization
Writing is illegible, archeological artifacts and features are
not depicted clearly or marked
Writing is neat and recognizable, depicted artifacts and
features are easily distinguished. Most artifacts and
features are accurately marked
with text
Writing is neat and recognizable, depicted artifacts and
features are easily distinguished. All artifacts and features are accurately marked
with text
Activity 3B:
Criteria
Students identify an event or
place familiar to them as a
potential archeological site
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Activity 4A:
Criteria
Students answer geographical
questions correctly
Apprentice Cartographer
Less than 10 correct
Journeyman Cartographer
11-16 correct
Master Cartographer
17 or greater correct
Disoriented Archeological
Explorer
Archeological Explorer on
the right path
Archeological Explorer
makes great discovery
Using historic maps, students
Students list less than 80% of
accurately predict the location all mapped structures or feaof historic structures or archeo- tures
logical sites in a project area
Students list at least 80% of all
mapped structures or features
Students list more than 80% of
all mapped structures or features
Students understand the relationship between archeological
sites and natural resources by
forming reasonable hypotheses
Students are not able to link
any or only one cultural
resource to one natural
resource.
Hypothesis: Buildings are
located along waterways
Students link at least one cultural resource to at least two
natural resources.
Hypothesis: Buildings and/or
roads are located: along waterways, often near intersections
of waterways or at falls, and
on level ground or in valleys
Students link two cultural
resources to three natural
resources.
Hypothesis: Buildings and/or
roads are located: along waterways, often near intersections
of waterways or at falls, and
on level ground or in valleys.
Cultural resources (e.g., buildings are located along roads)
are linked as well
Students create a map depicting archeological sensitivity
for their project area
Map includes three or fewer of
the following: title, scale,
north arrow, and key (symbols). Archeological sensitivity
does not relate to historic
maps or hypotheses.
Map includes title, scale,
north arrow, and key (symbols). Concentrations of
standing structures or other
types of sites should be
labeled as high archeological
sensitivity.
Map includes title, scale,
north arrow, and key (symbols). Concentrations of
standing structures or other
types of sites should be
labeled as high archeological
sensitivity. Specific sites (from
the historic map, town history,
or oral history) are labeled
Activity 4B and 4C:
Criteria
APPENDIX TWO: RUBRICS
109
Activity 5A:
Criteria
Students understand that
archeological sites are a
resource, similar to natural
resources, human resources, or
capital goods
Lone Artifact
Students arrive at less than
three answers for Question 1
similar to the Exemplar, or less
than 2 answers to Question 4
Rare Site
Students arrive at 3-4 answers
for Question 1 similar to the
Exemplar, or 2 answers to
Question 4
Historic District
Students arrive at more than 4
answers for Question 1 similar
to the Exemplar, or more than
2 answers to Question 4
Students demonstrate an
understanding of cultural
resource management and
human demands on natural
and cultural resources
Students arrive at less than
three answers for Question 2
similar to the Exemplar, or
less than 5 answers to
Question 3, or less than 2
answers to Question 4
Students arrive at 3 answers
for Question 2 similar to the
Exemplar, or 5 answers to
Question 3, or 2 answers to
Question 4
Students arrive at more than 3
answers for Question 2 similar
to the Exemplar, or more than
5 answers to Question 3, or
more than 2 answers to
Question 4
Students demonstrate and
understanding of an archeologists roles, responsibilities,
and training
Students arrive at less than 2
answers for Question 5 similar
to the Exemplar, or less than 3
answers to Question 6
Students arrive at 2 answers
for Question 5 similar to the
Exemplar, or 3 answers to
Question 6
Students arrive at more than 2
answers for Question 5 similar
to the Exemplar, or more than
3 answers to Question 6
Students understand the
importance of archeology
Students arrive at less than 3
answers for Question 6 similar
to the Exemplar
Students arrive at 3 answers
for Question 6 similar to the
Exemplar
Students arrive at more than 3
answers for Question 6 similar
to the Exemplar
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Activity 5B:
Criteria
Students understand why they
are “excavating” a classroom
rather than an endangered
archeological site
Lone Artifact
Student is not able to contribute one reason
Rare Site
Student contributes one reason
Historic District
Student contributes more than
one reason
Students explain the origin of
natural resources, cultural
resources, and artifacts.
Notebook text does not differentiate between natural
resources, cultural resources,
or artifacts.
Notebook text accurately differentiates between natural
resources, cultural resources,
and artifacts, as well as postulates reasonable origin or relationship
Notebook text accurately differentiates between natural
resources, cultural resources,
and artifacts, as well as postulates reasonable origin and
relationship
Students explain the relationship between natural
resources, cultural resources,
and artifacts.
Notebook text does not
explain the relationship
between natural resources,
cultural resources, or artifacts.
Notebook text postulates a
reasonable relationship
between natural resources,
cultural resources, and artifacts (e.g., sites near water)
Notebook text postulates several reasonable relationships
between natural resources,
cultural resources, and artifacts
Students understand the concept of excavating down
through stratigraphic layers of
history, recognize the law of
superposition
Notebooks clearly associate
artifacts within each level with
a specific time period, drawing
from the time line developed
in Activity 1. Students identify
lowest layer as oldest
Students use inductive or
deductive reasoning to explain
feature and artifact locations
within a site
Students are not able to use
inductive or deductive reasoning to explain feature and artifact locations within a site
Students use either inductive
or deductive reasoning to
explain feature and artifact
locations within a site (e.g.
deductive: a cluster of stones
in a wet area = a historic well)
Students use examples of both
inductive or deductive reasoning to explain feature and artifact locations within a site
(e.g., inductive: students recall
an existing well, recognize a
ring of stones = historic well)
Students create hypotheses to
interpret features and artifacts
they “excavate,” and gather
appropriate data to draw conclusions
Features and artifacts are
explained in terms of various
activity areas, using only one
or none of the following: time
period, context, or types of
artifacts
Features and artifacts are
explained in terms of various
activity areas, using: time period, context, or types of artifacts
Features and artifacts are
explained in terms of various
activity areas, using: time period, context, and types of artifacts
Students assess the condition
of cultural remains
Research team products represent group effort
Notebook text indicates if a site
is disturbed or not, and why
Research teamwork not cohesive; notebook, plan view, and
oral report does not represent
group consensus
Research team works well
together, produces notebook,
plan view, and oral report
Students understand the spatial organization of archeological site grid (N and E = x, y
coordinates)
Students “excavate” correct
unit and consistently label
grid unit coordinates correctly
in notebooks, on artifact
envelopes, and on site plan
Students accurately graph a
site plan for each excavated
layer/time period
Site plan should be scaled
accurately (comparable to the
educator’s plan). It should also
be neat and include the names
of the research team members,
date, class period, scale, north
arrow, and key
Students comprehend why
archeological site excavation is
phased, and why all of a site is
not excavated
Students are unable to supply
any reason for phasing fieldwork and only excavating part
of a site. Cards are not traded
to yield archeological data
Students supply at least one
reason for phasing fieldwork
and only excavating part of a
site. They use card trading to
focus around features and artifacts
Research team works well
together, produces excellent &
detailed notebook, plan view,
and oral report
Students supply several reasons for phasing fieldwork
and only excavating part of a
site. They use card trading to
focus around areas that can
answer their hypotheses
APPENDIX TWO: RUBRICS
111
Activity 6:
Criteria
Students design ethical laboratory investigation
Data collection plan is incomplete or does not address all
research questions or harms
artifacts; students unresponsive
to peer comment
Data collection plan addresses
research questions and does
not destroy artifacts; students
adjust plans to peer comment
Student’s data collection plan
incorporates materials analysis
and seriation and artifact
chronology
Students identify what materials artifacts are made of, or
seriate items, or assess time
period/function
Students are able to physically
represent their laboratory
interpretations
Drawing, models, diagrams,
diorama, or photographs are
to scale (or show scale). The
reconstruction accurately represents the intended object
and a reasonable interpretation of past use based on student’s research
Students develop a management plan that shows they
understand that 1) artifacts
and sites are a community
resource, 2) address preservation of material types, and 3)
specify ethical curation of
assemblages
112
Student’s management plan
Student’s management plan
includes no or only one criteria includes 2 out of 3 criteria
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Data collection plan addresses
multiple research questions
and does not destroy artifacts;
students adjust plans to peer
comment
Student’s management plan
includes all 3 criteria, with
good explanations or recognition of future importance
Activity 7:
Criteria
Citizen
Citizen of the Community
Citizen of the Community,
State, & World
Students perform effectively on
selected teams to identify a
suitable location for a proposed
development and consider the
concerns of others
Each student participates conscientiously as a team member;
and identifies a location for the
proposed development
Students work effectively as a
team to accurately play their
role in the landuse planning
process and contribute rational
arguments for the location of a
proposed project. Team listens
to others.
Students work effectively as a
team to accurately play their
role in the landuse planning
process and contribute a number of rational arguments for
the location of a proposed project. Team arguments immediately address the concerns of
other teams.
Students interact respectfully
with different teams
Presentation of the team’s position is unclear because team
speakers interrupt each other
or interrupt other groups
A team’s position is presented
by one speaker. Positions are
presented persuasively, students listen to others and do
not interrupt others who are
already speaking
A team’s position is presented
by one coordinating speaker.
Team positions are persuasively presented by individual
group members who listen to
others and do not interrupt
persons already speaking
Team development plan
demonstrates a balance
between natural and cultural
resources and the proposed
landuse changes
Team development plan avoids
natural or cultural resource
areas
Team development plan avoids
natural and cultural resource
areas; site areas are specifically
avoided
Team development plan avoids
natural and cultural resource
areas; site areas are specifically
avoided, team proposes written conditions for natural and
cultural resource preservation
Teams demonstrate an understanding of other groups position(s):
Team clearly identifies and
articulates the position of
another group
Team clearly identifies and
articulates the position of
another group. A demonstrated effort is made to consider
the concerns of others in their
landuse plan
Team clearly identifies and
articulates the position of
another group and responds
immediately. The concerns of
others are addressed in their
landuse plan and by drafting
development conditions
Teams agree on where to locate Team negotiates by trading con- Team negotiates by overt perthe proposed development and cerns, or conditions
suasion and compromise; lisoutline specific conditions
tens to concerns of other teams
and incorporates at least one
idea into final development
location and conditions
Team negotiates by subtle persuasion and consensus building; listens to concerns of
other teams and incorporates
more than one idea into final
development location and
conditions
Activity 8:
Criteria
Novice Archeological Site
Steward
Qualified Archeological Site
Steward
Excellent Archeological Site
Steward
Students work actively to steward Vermont’s past for future
generations; through informed
personal decisions and considering environmental impacts,
particularly impact to archeological sites
Student chooses one stewardship project and makes good
progress toward its completion; Written report contains
two out of three required components; Site forms are completed to a 50% accuracy level
and site management plan
includes either measures for
protection or interpretation
Student chooses and successfully completes one stewardship project to a basic level;
Written report contains a site
location hypothesis, methodology for locating sites, and
results with figures; Site forms
are completed to a 80% accuracy level and site management
plan includes measures for protection and interpretation
Student chooses and exceptionally completes one or
more stewardship project(s);
Written report contains a site
location hypothesis, methodology for locating sites, and
results with figures; Site forms
are completed to a 90%+ accuracy level and site management plan includes measures
for protection and interpretation; plan is implemented
APPENDIX TWO: RUBRICS
113
APPENDIX THREE
ACTIVITY 5B
Sample Grid Template
210 EAST
209
208
207
206
205
204
203
202
114
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101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
NORTH 110
201
Sample Artifact/Feature Key
tree/woods
hammerstone/fragment
storage pit
stone flake
(byproduct of stone tool manufacture)
river/stream
glass bottle/fragment
rock outcrop/ledge
nail
rock
brick/fragment
disturbed context
charred nut shell/fragment
decayed wood
window glass/fragment
decayed post/post hole
metal button
animal bone/fragment
dated coin (read each coin for date)
charcoal
Euro-American ceramics/fragments
projectile point/fragment
modern house
Native American pottery/fragment
modern roadway
modern bridge
APPENDIX THREE: ACTIVITY 5B
115
Sample Surface Layer Grid
210 EAST
209
208
207
206
205
204
203
202
116
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101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
NORTH 110
201
Sample Excavated Layer 1 Grid
210 EAST
209
208
207
206
205
204
203
202
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
NORTH 110
201
APPENDIX THREE: ACTIVITY 5B
117
Sample Excavated Layer 2 Grid
210 EAST
209
208
207
206
205
204
203
202
118
APPENDIX THREE: ACTIVITY 5B
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
NORTH 110
201
APPENDIX THREE: ACTIVITY 5B
119
APPENDIX FOUR
VERMONT ARCHEOLOGICAL INVENTORY SITE FORM
VERMONT ARCHEOLOGICAL INVENTORY
SITE SURVEY FORM (rev. 1999)
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation
National Life Building, Drawer 20
Montpelier, Vermont 05602-0501
1. Site No ________________ Site Name ____________________ Town ____________________ County _____________________
Project Name __________________________________ Submitted by __________________ Date Submitted
Site Found by ______________________ Date Found
/
/
/
/
Finders Address _____________________________________
2. Study Phase ______________________ Level of Documentation _____________________ Site Type ________________________
USGS Quad ______________________ USGS Series _____ UTM Zone _____ Easting ___________ Northing______________
Directions to Site ______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Landowner Name and Address ___________________________________________________________________________________
Owner Type _________________ Located By ________________ How Located _________________________________________
3. Prehistoric Context ________________________________________ Prehistoric Time Range ________________________________
Historic Context __________________________________________ Historic Time Range __________________________________
4. Site Description and Environmental Setting:_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Data Found (describe relationship of all cultural materials and features): _____________________________
____________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
6. Total Artifacts _________ Artifact Distribution _____________________ Loci Size ______________ Number of Loci _________
Depth range _____________ Materials not collected ________________________________________________________________
Data collection Methodology _________________________
______ Positive Units Excavated _____ Total Units Excavated ______
Site length _________________ Site Width _____________ Site Area _____________ Total Area Excavated _________________
Dating methods: C-14 Dates/Lab Numbers _________________________ Other Dating Techniques ________________________
Diagnostic materials _____________________________________________________________________________________________
Artifact/Data Repository _____________________________________________________________________________________________
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VERMONT ARCHEOLOGICAL INVENTORY
SITE SURVEY FORM (rev. 1999)
Site Number ____________________________
7. Statement of Significance
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
State Register Status _____________________________________ National Register Status ____________________________________
8. Topographic setting ___________________________________________________________________ Slope ___________________
Elevation __________ Aspect __________ Original landform ________________________________________________________
Present land use ________________________________ Current setting _________________________________________
________
Past land use ___________________________________ NRCS soil map series ___________________________________________
9. Watershed Affiliation ___________________________________________________________________________________________
Closest drainage __________________________________________________ Distance _______________ Type _______________
2nd Closest drainage _______________________________________________ Distance _______________ Type _______________
3rd Closest drainage _______________________________________________ Distance _______________ Type _______________
Site elevation above drainage _____________ Subject to flooding ______________
10. Site Integrity __________________________________________ Site threats __________
___________________________________
Other site information/ Previous collections or Historic Map References _________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Associated Documents: Continuation Sheet [
] Artifact Catalog [
] Site Maps [
] Historic maps [
] Digital Photographs [
]
///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// | VDHP USE ONLY |\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
VDHP date entered
/
/
Environmental Review Number ______________ Act 250 Permit Number ________________
Federal Fiscal Year Entered ________ HP Funds Used _________ 36 CFR 61 Certified _________ Updated Site Form _________
Report Meets Standards __________________ Date Site Verified
/
/
Management Status/Conservation Easements and Holders _____________________________________________________________
APPENDIX FOUR: VERMONT ARCHEOLOGICAL INVENTORY SITE FORMS
121
VAI Form instructions for 1999 version as modified by
GEOARCH, 7/10/01
er(s) may be contacted. Provide telephone numbers and email if applicable.
Indicate if the landowner is unknown.
The accompanying site survey form is used to document or record archeological sites of all time periods located through surface remains or by professional
excavation. We encourage you to locate archeological sites through archival
research, surface remains, or artifact collections. Remember, don’t dig or
remove artifacts! (Leave any form fields that don’t apply blank). Please submit
completed forms to the Vermont Division for Historic Preservation, National
Life Building, Drawer 20, Montpelier, Vermont 05620-0501. If you have questions about the 1999 site form, call the State Archeologist, Giovanna Peebles:
(802) 828-3050. Thank you for stewarding Vermont’s endangered heritage.
Owner type. Indicate if the land is a privately owned by an individual person, family, or corporation, or publicly owned municipal, state, or federal
land. Indicate if the land is bound by any private or public conservation easements. Specify any other type of land ownership not mentioned. Indicate if
the owner type is unknown.
1. Site no. Enter the next sequential number for a site listing in the specific
county in which it is located. You get this number by calling the Vermont
Division for Historic Preservation office in Montpelier at 802-828-3211.
Site name. Enter the common name of the site, sometimes the property
name, landowner name, or nickname used by survey crew, etc.
Town. Enter the name of the town where the site is located.
Located by. Enter who located the site: CRM professional or survey crew,
independent researcher, informant, collector, VDHP staff, or specify other.
How located. Enter in what setting the site was located: plowed field, streambank, sand blow, pond/lakeshore, subsurface test, or specify other.
3. Prehistoric Context. Indicate which Vermont Prehistoric or Precontact period Native American context(s) applies(y) to the site or site component:
Paleoindian, Early Woodland, Early Archaic, Middle Woodland, Middle
Archaic, Late Woodland, Late Archaic, or Undetermined Native American.
Prehistoric time range. Enter time range as:
County. Enter the name of the county where the site is located.
Paleoindian (11,500-9000 BP or 9500-7000 BC), Early Archaic
(9000-7500 BP or 7000-5500 BC)
Site found by. Provide the name(s) of the person(s) who identified or found
the site.
Middle Archaic (7500-6000 BP or 5500-4000 BC), Late Archaic
(6000-2900 BP or 4000-900 BC)
Date found. Indicate the date the site was identified. Use 2 digit fields for
month and day, and four digits for the year field. If the site was independently found by different persons at different times, clearly annotate the form,
specify who identified the site when.
Early Woodland (2900-2100 BP or 900-100 BC), Middle Woodland
(2100-900 BP or 100 BC-1050 AD), Late Woodland (900-350 BP or
1050-1600 AD), or Undetermined.
Finders address. Provide address(es) where the person(s) who identified the
site may be contacted. Provide telephone numbers and email if applicable.
2. Study Phase. Indicate the level of archeological work completed. Enter how
the information was obtained such as: Random find, Unprovenienced collection, Non professional surface collecting, Non professional digging,
Professional Archeological Resource Assessment (Formerly called Field
Inspection or Pre Phase 1), Professional Phase 1, Professional Phase 2, or
Professional Phase 3 study.
Level of Documentation. Enter the level of documentation conducted at the
site as either minimum or intensive.
Site Type. Enter the site type as either: prehistoric, historic, prehistoric and
&historic, or underwater.
USGS Quad. Provide the name(s) of the United States Geological Survey
(USGS) quadrangle map(s) or National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) lake chart(s) on which the site is located. Photocopy
part of the map(s) or chart(s) that shows the site, draw a point on the site
location and draw a small circle around that location. Attach the annotated
photocopy to the VAI form.
USGS Series. If a USGS map is used to locate the site, enter the quadrangle
map series as either a 7.5 Minute, 7.5x15 Minute, or 15 Minute. If a lake chart
is used to locate the site, enter NOAA.
UTM zone. When locating the site on a USGS quadrangle map, indicate the
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid system Zone, as either 18 or 19,
depending on where the site is located in Vermont. Repeat this information
on another form or sheet of paper if the site extends on one or more other
maps. If you need more information on using the UTM grid system to record
historic sites, get a copy of National Register Bulletin 28 from the National
Park Service or the Vermont Division for Historic Preservation office in
Montpelier at 802-828-3211.
Easting. When locating the site on a USGS quadrangle map, indicate the 7
digit UTM Easting coordinates. If using an orthophotograph or Global
Positioning System/Geographic Information System to specifically locate the
site, enter the 6 digit VCS NAD 83 Eastern Coordinates. Repeat this information on another form or sheet of paper if the site extends on one or more
other maps.
Northing. When locating the site on a USGS quadrangle map, indicate the 7
digit UTM Northing coordinates. If using an orthophotograph or Global
Positioning System/Geographic Information System to specifically locate the
site, enter the 6 digit VCS NAD 83 Northern Coordinates. Repeat this information on another form or sheet of paper if the site extends on one or more
other maps.
Directions to site. Provide a written narrative describing how to get to site,
and whom to contact if necessary.
Landowner name and address. Provide address(es) where the site landown-
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Historic Context. Indicate which Vermont Historic period context(s)
applies(y) to the site or site component: Contact, War and Peace,
Exploration, Tourism, Conflict, Transportation, Early Settlement, Culture
and Government, Industry and Commerce, Housing and Community,
Agriculture, Undetermined Historic period.
Historic time range. Enter time range as: Contact (ca 350 BP or 1600 AD),
1600-1700, 1700-1770, 1770-1800, 1800-1850, 1850-1900, 1900-1950, post
1950, or undetermined.
4. Site Description and Environmental Setting. Provide a written narrative
describing the site, its physical and spatial characteristics, function, and environmental setting. If a prehistoric site is present, then enter it as a small
extractive camp, small seasonal habitation site, large village site, cave/rockshelter, quarry, petroglyph, burial/cemetery, transportation related, sunken
vessel, trail or portage, traditional cultural place, military site/battle location,
or specify other type of site. Also indicate if any of the Precontact period
Native American sites is exposed at the surface, for example plowing might
have exposed a hearth, or fire pit. Indicate if there is insufficient data to indicate the site’s function.
If a historic site is present, enter it as a residence/farmstead, residence/other
than farmstead, tavern, hotel, guest house, public building, school, church,
etc., transportation, road, railroad, maritime, wood products industry, logging
camp, saw mill, chair or butter tub factory, etc., agricultural processing industry, grist mill, butter or cheese factory, farm co-op, stone, sand, gravel and
clay products Industry (slate, granite, marble, limestone, iron, lime, charcoal,
clay), quarry, finishing mill, brick or glass manufactory, pottery, etc., burial/cemetery, military site/battle location/fort, or specify other type of site.
Also indicate if any of the historic period properties are standing structures,
surface ruins, or completely buried. Identify specific features such as cellar
holes, wells, stone walls, stone chambers, or underwater shipwrecks, etc.
Indicate if there is insufficient data to indicate the site’s function.
5. Data Found. Describe and list all data observed and or recovered from a
Prehistoric period site. Enter the types and quantities of lithic, ceramic, faunal, floral, cultural features or other remains documented at the site. Describe
and list all data observed and or recovered from a Historic period site. Enter
the types and quantities of ceramics, nails, glass, brick, metal, stone, or other
artifacts documented at the site. List the structural or other features observed,
such as walls, wells, privies, etc.
6. Total artifacts. Enter the total number of artifacts collected from the site.
Provide subtotals for Prehistoric period artifacts, Historic period artifacts,
faunal remains, floral remains and other categories if appropriate.
Artifact Distribution. Enter the distribution of Prehistoric period artifacts
across the site as: isolated find, widely scattered, partially clustered, clustered,
or tightly clustered. Then describe the distribution of Historic period as: isolated find, widely scattered, partially clustered, clustered, or tightly clustered.
This field is intended to estimate the relative density and distribution of arti-
facts within a site. An artifact cluster defined for this question contains a minimum of 15 artifacts within an approximately 40x40 foot area. “Partially clustered” might have 9-14 artifacts per 40x40 foot area, “Clustered” will have
from 15-150 artifacts per 40x40 foot area and “tightly clustered” should contain over 150 artifacts per 40x40 foot area. You may also combine your entry.
For example, widely scattered with 1-3 loci or widely scattered with 4+ loci,
or specify other.
Loci size. Enter the approximate size(s) of the locus or loci identified for
Prehistoric period artifacts, and then Historic period artifacts.
Number of loci. Enter the number of loci observed for Prehistoric period artifacts, and then Historic period artifacts.
Depth range. Indicate the greatest depth at which artifacts or features were
found: Surface, 0–20 centimeters, 20 –40 centimeters, 40 – 60 centimeters,
60 – 80 centimeters, 80 –100 centimeters, or >100 centimeters.
Materials not collected. Describe any artifacts and features observed at the
site, but not collected.
Data collection methodology. Indicate if the data was collected using a surface collection, subsurface testing, backhoe trenching, underwater diver survey, or another method. If another method was used, specify what it was.
Positive units excavated. Enter the number of shovel test pits or excavation
units positive with artifacts and their area in square meters. Provide subtotals
for test pits positive with Prehistoric period artifacts, and then test pits positive with Historic period artifacts.
Total units excavated. Enter the number of shovel test pits or excavation
units positive with artifacts and their area in square meters.
Site length. Provide the sites’s length as closely as possible in meters.
Site width. Provide the site’s width as closely as possible in meters.
Site area. Fill in the total area of the site in square meters, whether be it a single component Precontact period Native American, or Historic period site, or
a multi-component site. Provide subtotals for Prehistoric period artifacts, and
then Historic period artifacts if applicable.
Dating methods: Indicate the method(s) used to date the site. Attach supporting information if requested or if additional space is required.
C14 Dates/Lab Numbers. Write the uncalibrated date or date ranges, the lab
numbers and send a photocopy of the lab results to VDHP .
Other dating techniques. List any other site dating technique used. For
example, oral history, archival sources.
Diagnostic materials. List diagnostic artifacts used to date the site.
Artifact/data repository. Indicate where the site data is kept. Site files, artifacts, samples and other information. Provide addresses, phone numbers and
email if possible.
7. Statement of Significance. Prepare a narrative on why the site is or is not significant. Use site data, contexts established by the Vermont Division for
Historic Preservation and other historic or contextual material to support
your position.
State Register Status. Indicate the State Register of Historic Places status of
the site as already listed, eligible, not eligible, or there is insufficient information on which to base a decision. Recent changes to the State Register have
made the requirements for listing identical to those of the National Register
of Historic Places.
National Register Status. Indicate the National Register status of the site as
already listed, eligible, not eligible, or there is insufficient information on
which to base a decision.
8. Topographic setting. Enter the topographic setting(s) of the site as: first, second or third terrace, lakeside, pondside, streambank, floodplain (levee or
swale), relict drainage, rise/knoll, edge of wetland, lake/stream confluence,
river/stream confluence, upland (mountain or ridgetop), side of draw, head of
draw, Valley edge, outcrop/ledge, not obvious or specify another setting.
Slope. Enter the slope of the site as: 0-3%, 3-8%, 8-15%, or >15%.
Elevation. Indicate the site’s mean elevation in meters above mean sea level.
Aspect. Choose the site’s aspect. Indicate as north, northeast, east, southeast,
south, southwest, west, or northwest. Write none if area is completely level.
bottom sediments, Marine sea/lake delta complex, Pluvial sediments,
Bedrock, Holocene fluvial deposits, Underwater, not obvious, or specify
other.
Present land use: Enter the present land use of the site as: agricultural, residential, commercial, industrial, recreational, conservation area, National
Forest, State Park/Forest, Underwater (sunken vessel or inundated site), or
specify other.
Current setting. Enter the current setting of the site as: Crop land, pasture,
Quarry/Sand or Gravel pit, Sand blow, Lawn/yard, Urban, Deciduous woodland, Coniferous woodland, Mixed woodland, Scrub/old field, Park, Beach,
Water’s edge, Underwater (sunken vessel or inundated site), or specify other.
Past land use. Enter the past land use if known.
NRCS soil map series. Enter the soil type or series mapped by the Natural
Resources Conservation Service in their county survey book. Describe the
soil color and texture. There is a different book or map for each county that
could be found at the USDA NRCS office near you. Enter the soil’s color and
texture. List all soil types or series that apply on a separate piece of paper.
9. Watershed affiliation. Choose the watershed with which the site is affiliated:
St. Lawrence River (Lake Champlain), St. Francis River, Hudson River,
Connecticut River Choose one, unless the site is at a stream at confluence.
Then choose the drainage basin with which the site is affiliated. If St.
Lawrence River (Lake Champlain): Poultney – Mettawee, Otter Creek – Little
Otter – Lewis, Lower Lake Champlain, Upper Lake Champlain – LaPlatte –
Malletts Bay – St. Albans Bay – Rock – Pike, Missisquoi, Lamoille, or
Winooski. If Hudson River: Batten Kill – Walloomsac – Hoosic. If St. Francis
River: Lake Memphremagog – Black – Barton – Clyde – Coaticook. If
Connecticut River: White, Ottauquechee – Black, West – Williams – Saxtons,
Deerfield, Lower Connecticut – Mill Brook, Stevens – Wells – Waits –
Ompompanoosuc, Passumpsic, or Upper Connecticut – Nulhegan Willard
Stream – Paul Stream.
Closest drainage, distance, and type. Indicate the closest water source to the
site and write down its distance and type. Water types include, River,
Brook/stream, Seasonal flowage, Lake, Pond, Spring, Wetland, not apparent
or specify other type.
2nd closest drainage, distance, and type. Indicate the 2nd closest water
source to the site and write down its distance and type. Water types include,
River, Brook/stream, Seasonal flowage, Lake, Pond, Spring, Wetland, not
apparent or specify other type.
3rd closest drainage, distance, and type. Indicate the 3rd closest water
source to the site and write down its distance and type. Water types include,
River, Brook/stream, Seasonal flowage, Lake, Pond, Spring, Wetland, not
apparent or specify other type.
Site elevation above drainage. Write the approximate elevation of the site
above the nearest water source, the elevation of the nearest water source, and
the difference. Present all information in meters.
Subject to flooding. Indicate whether or not the site is subject to flooding,
and how often. For example, never, every year, every 5-10 years, every 25
years, every 50 years every 100 years, or every 150 years.
Site integrity. Indicate the site’s integrity. Enter the integrity of the site as:
Apparently intact from surface inspection, Verified as never plowed, Verified
as plowed, Apparently disturbed from surface inspection, Verified as moderately disturbed, Verified as heavily disturbed, Road present, Erosion
observed, Looting or other type of vandalism observed, Development
observed, not apparent or specify other.
Site threats. Indicate all known or anticipated threats to the site. Deep plowing, Other farm activity (e.g., farm expansion, manure pit), Logging, Sand,
gravel or rock quarrying, Proposed road, Recreation vehicles, Erosion,
Inundation or flooding, Looting or other type of vandalism, Proposed development, not apparent or specify other.
Other site information/Previous collections or Historic Map references.
Enter where additional information on the site can be located. List landowners, local historians, primary or secondary documents, informants, collectors,
VDHP files, archeological reports, or other sources. Provide names, addresses, telephone numbers and email addresses.
Associated Documents. Indicate what other forms or documents are attached
to the VAI site form or filed elsewhere at VDHP.
Original landform. Enter the original landform of the site as either:
Champlain Sea or other glacial lake shoreline, Glacial till and moraine sediments, Glacial fluvial sediments, Glacial kame deposits, Glacial esker
deposits, Glacial outwash deposits, Eolian deposits, Glacial marine sea/lake
APPENDIX FOUR: VERMONT ARCHEOLOGICAL INVENTORY SITE FORMS
123
APPENDIX FIVE
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
What is archeology?
Archeology is the study of people who lived in the past,
through the remains or clues left behind.
Do archeologists dig for dinosaur bones and
other fossils?
Not exactly. Paleontologists study the remains of animals
that lived in the past, including dinosaurs. Dinosaurs
became extinct 65 million years ago, long before humans
evolved. Paleontologists may become part of the archeological team to study bones and fossilized parts of other
ancient animals that did coexist with humans, such as
whales, mammoths, giant sloths, and short-faced bears.
How long have people lived Vermont?
Archeologists refer to the first people who lived in what is
now the political unit of Vermont as the Paleoindians.
Vermont’s earliest inhabitants arrived about 11,500 years
ago as the glaciers were receding and whales swam in the
salty Champlain Sea. Since then, Vermont’s residents have
adapted to dramatic environmental shifts, from windswept tundra to dark hemlock forest, from small forest
clearings to soccer fields.
can be maintained for recreational opportunity as public
historic areas or preserved as open landscapes. Some sites
may connect a culture to a traditional cultural place.
Locations, such as burial grounds, may be considered too
sacred to disturb. Laws, government agencies, regulations, scientific archeology, and your active stewardship
protect access to mutual heritage held in trust for the
public and future generations.
What evidence do archeologists look for to
find traces of past people?
Archeologists know they have found traces of past people
when their education, training, and experience allow
them to recognize clues such as artifacts, features, and
sites. Sometimes these clues are subtle. For example, a
single flake of stone can indicate a place where early
Native Americans lived and manufactured stone tools.
Larger clues, such as a historic military road may require
interpretation of entire landscapes.
What is the most important archeological site
or artifact discovered in Vermont?
All Vermont sites and artifacts are important. Each irreplaceable site, by definition, is unique, rare, and may contain new information about our past. Every artifact, environmental sample, and the surrounding matrix is a valuable clue for reconstruction of past human lifeways.
Archeological technology of the future will only add to
our ability to extract important information in nondestructive ways from Vermont’s irreplaceable site contexts.
Why do archeologists refer to themselves as
detectives of time?
Why are archeological sites important?
Archeological sites, and historic properties in general,
hold many different and sometimes conflicting values to
diverse people. They may possess informational, economic, recreational, and sacred or traditional importance. For
example, the stewarded Saxe Farmstead and Mill (VT-FR325) has the potential to yield information about rare
water-powered technology crucial to Vermont’s early
industrial innovation. Archeological sites may offer
untapped economic advantage in heritage tourism. Sites
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Archeologists scrutinize patterns of evidence, comprised
of surviving clues at rare sites, to interpret a sequence of
events that happened long ago. Separating natural from
cultural, or human, occurrences that altered sites is critical. Without an investigative method, neither archeologists nor detectives would successfully reconstruct past
events from altered site contexts. Archeologists rely on a
scientific archeological method comprised of four steps,
reminiscent of methods used by detectives: archival
research, careful fieldwork, laboratory analysis, and public reporting.
What characteristics show us that past cultures changed over time?
Archeologists study continuity and change of past peoples
using cultural characteristics such as ethnicity, language,
environment (including landforms, plants, and animals),
transportation or modes of travel, subsistence or foodways, structures, and artifacts. For instance, similarity in
fluted Paleoindian projectile points, or spear-heads,
appears to signal extraordinary cultural continuity or
longevity. Rapid changes in transportation, circa 1823,
mark a transition from the Euro-American Settlement
Period to the Industrial Period. A site that you, as an
archeological steward, identify and record may protect
evidence of the longest occupied Archaic Period Site, first
cultivated Western Abenaki corn, the earliest marble mill
in Vermont, or another significant event that can change
time lines and history books.
How do archeologists know where to dig?
Development projects and other landuse changes dictate
the majority of archeological research locales in Vermont
and across the nation. Most archeologists choose to excavate (a type of controlled dig) only if sites are unavoidably threatened by planned destruction. Increasing population currently threatens vast numbers of archeological
sites, undisturbed archeological sites are rare, and their
scientific investigation is time-consuming. Even then, cultural resource management (CRM) archeologists phase
archeological fieldwork to seek ways of avoiding and preserving, rather than excavating and destroying, nonrenewable archeological resources. As an archeological
steward, you can encourage your community to avoid
harming known sites, and to preserve them in place,
undisturbed, as our legacy to future generations.
Is archeology required by law before any
ground disturbance, development, construction, or other landuse changes occur?
The National Historic Preservation Act, Vermont’s Act
250, and some municipal ordinances require archeological review for many planned development projects.
Projects proposed on federal or state land, those that rely
on government funding, or require a permit typically trigger archeological review to determine whether any significant Precontact or Historic Era sites might be harmed.
Federal and state agencies such as the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers and the Vermont Division for Historic
Preservation coordinate project review. Developers must
hire consulting archeologists to assist with archeological
studies. Most ground disturbance, particularly on private
property, does not receive any archeological review. Small
impacts, such as ditching along town roads or building
single homes, can damage archeological sites too. In the
latter case, it is up to the private landowner to recognize
and steward archeological resources. Presently, there are
few government or non-profit programs in place to assist
private landowners with archeological inventories of their
property as a way to manage small construction impacts
to Vermont’s important sites.
Will finding an archeological site stop planned
development or construction?
Very rarely. Federal and state laws are designed to encourage advance planning and avoid any work disruption
after construction is underway. During the heyday of salvage archeology, it was common to monitor construction
and halt progress to hastily document any important
finds. Such last-minute archeology proved far more costly
than investigating the sensitivity of project areas far in
advance of proposed construction. Enough lead time
allows archeologists to coordinate with engineers, others
on the development team, and the public through various
forums. Site avoidance may require project redesign or
mitigation to make up for any unavoidable site damage.
Management of cultural resources through archeology can
be as costly as review for any single environmental
resource. Most conscientious developers start planning
years in advance of actual construction, attempt to avoid
sites through redesign, and adequately budget for responsible archeological investigation of sites that can’t be
avoided.
Why does archeology take so much time and
cost so much?
Archeology is a scientific study, mandating proper and
ethical methodology. It requires a four-step process of
archival research, careful fieldwork, laboratory analysis,
and public reporting. Fieldwork is phased, allowing plenty of time for project teams to preserve archeological sites
in place. If preservation is not possible, archeologists document sites through careful, but similarly destructive,
archeological excavation. As a scientific study, archeology
is time-consuming and labor-intensive. Fielding a crew of
trained archeologists for one day of excavation is preceded by weeks of planning and archival research, and followed by weeks of laboratory analysis, as well as a
responsibility to thoroughly report findings to the public.
High-tech field and laboratory procedures such as 3dimensional computer plotting of artifacts, plant pollen
analysis, and iron artifact conservation add expense. Even
negative findings are reported, ensuring that future archeological databases come to hold increasing validity for
prediction of broad human settlement patterns.
How do artifacts get buried?
Artifacts and archeological sites become buried through
natural or cultural processes. For example, leaf litter and
earthworm castings can cover objects in natural settings.
In addition to these soil formation process examples,
other natural agents such as water, wind, gravity, and ice
APPENDIX FIVE: FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
125
possess the power to bury artifacts and sites.
Archeologists commonly find artifacts and sites under
cultural deposits, such as layers of trash in wells or middens. Layers of soil, sediment, or cultural deposits are
called strata, and the study of such strata is called stratigraphy.
What clues do archeologists examine to tell
how old a site is?
Traditionally, archeologists relied on stratigraphy, or diagnostic artifacts, to determine how old a site is. For example, the Law of Superposition implies artifacts found in
deeper layers will be older than those in overlying,
younger strata. Ability to interpret site age from stratigraphy depends on careful delineation of strata during fieldwork and keeping records of associated artifacts. Artifact
typologies that sort objects into a chronological series
during laboratory analysis allow archeologists to date
their relative age and associate those dates with certain
strata. Archeologists can use diagnostic artifacts, such as a
certain shaped projectile point, to interpret site age.
Historic sites may yield absolute dates in the form of a
minted coins or ceramics marked with a specific manufacture year. Other ways to determining site age include
radiocarbon dating of organic samples or dendrochronology (tree ring dating) of timbers.
Do archeologists get to keep the artifacts that
they find?
“Professional archeologists do not keep, buy, sell, or trade
any artifacts. They believe that objects recovered from a
site should be kept together as a collection to be available
for future study or
display. By law,
artifacts recovered
from federal or
state lands belong
to the public and
must be maintained on behalf
of the public”
(Public Education
Committee of the
Society for
American
Arti Fact encourages stewardship
Archaeology
of Vermont’s artifacts and sites
1995:4). Artifacts
for the future
recovered from
private property
belong to the
landowner. Presently, there are few government or nonprofit programs to assist private landowners with inventorying private artifact collections or sites as a means of
stewarding Vermont’s rich and heritage.
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What should I do if I think I have found a
site? Should I dig up some artifacts and bring
them to an archeologist for identification?
If you believe that you have identified an archeological
site, the best thing to do is to leave all artifacts and other
features undisturbed, intact, and in place (in situ).
Archeological sites should be excavated only when threatened by destruction, and only by qualified archeologists
who are trained to recognize stratigraphic features; such
as post molds, analyze bones in the laboratory, and report
findings to the public. By law, artifacts on federal or state
lands belong to the public and must be maintained on
behalf of the public. Permission to access archeological
sites on private property must be granted by the
landowner. You can help steward Vermont’s important
archeological resources by notifying the Vermont Division
for Historic Preservation of your discovery on the
Vermont Archeological Inventory site forms enclosed in
Appendix Four. It would be helpful if the site form was
accompanied by a brief report about conditions at the
site. Taking photographs, marking the site on topographic
and historic maps, and researching site history in local
archives, would be an added benefit.
I’d like my students or community group to
learn about archeology and artifacts... can you
direct us to a good site to dig?
No. “Digging,” or excavating, archeological sites destroys
important contextual information, thus irrevocably
destroying public heritage. Most schools and community
organizations do not have adequate resources to ethically
conduct archeological excavation. Archeological excavation is only part of a scientific process that requires access
to a qualified archeologist, adequate funding, familiarity
with hi-tech laboratory analyses, and commitment to
months of technical and public reporting. Archeological
excavation requires the supervisory experience of a qualified archeologist. Someone who once learned proper field
methods, an archeologist on the board of directors, or an
archeologist visiting the site briefly is not sufficient to
ensure the public’s rights to valued cultural resources.
Although it may appear that there are many Precontact
Era or Historic Era sites, these unique, rare, non-renewable locales represent only a fraction of the human past.
New discoveries may hold local, state, national, or even
global relevance. Each site and artifact preserves important stories. Sites should not be “dug” now before they
deteriorate, because in reality, they reach a state of equilibrium with their surrounding environment. Vermont’s,
and the nation’s, heritage survives best if stewarded in
place, through your example!
Where can I learn more about stewarding for
the future Vermont’s unique, rare, and irreplaceable sites that are on my property or in
our community?
A book called Protecting the Past introduces archeological
stewardship and the federal periodical Cultural Resource
Management reviews types of resources that we should
protect. Organizations such as the Society for American
Archaeology and the Vermont Archaeological Society, Inc.
allow you to join others interested in archeological stewardship. Excellent local archeological educational opportunities are offered through the Lake Champlain Maritime
Museum, Vermont Division for Historic Preservation historic sites like Mount Independence, the Vermont
Archaeological Society, the U.S. Forest Service’s “Passport
in Time,” and various field schools like New Hampshire’s
State Conservation & Rescue Archeology Program.
Government agencies and other organizations that may
assist stewardship of sites on private land include the
Archaeological Conservancy; Vermont Department of
Forests, Parks, and Recreation; Vermont Division for
Historic Preservation; Vermont Land Trust; Preservation
Trust of Vermont; Vermont Housing and Conservation
Board; and the Vermont Archaeological Society. The
movement to protect, rather than dig, archeological sites
in Vermont and nationwide is just beginning. Exemplary
efforts in other states include the archeological site registry in Kentucky, archeological volunteer training programs in Arkansas and Texas, and Arizona’s certified site
stewardship program. Implementation of similar archeological site awareness programs in Vermont awaits your
leadership!
What can I do with my students or community
group to help preserve Vermont’s rich and
ancient heritage for the future?
You are in an excellent position to increase archeological
literacy, encourage archeological citizenship, become an
archeological educator, and enhance archeological stewardship. Without you, a lone archeologist may someday
record the destruction of the last site in Vermont. George
Perkins, an nineteenth century advocate of archeology,
mourned the disappearance of Vermont’s Native American
sites and artifacts. Today, site loss continues to accelerate
at an alarming rate due to a variety of cultural and natural causes. We can’t begin to protect sites that we have not
yet inventoried. We have not begun to assess site significance in coordination with local community members.
Local public and private artifact collections from
Vermont’s sites are extremely vulnerable. The lesson and
activities near the end of Section Eight suggest ways to
blaze a pathway to the past, involving your students and
community in the effort to preserve our public legacy for
the future.
APPENDIX FIVE: FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
127
APPENDIX SIX
ADDITIONAL RECOMMENDED RESOURCES15
See also Recommended Resources for each Section
Directories and Resource Guides
Bassett, T. D. Seymour, ed. 1981. Vermont: A Bibliography of Its
History. Edited by John Borden Armstrong. Bibliographies of
New England History. Boston, Massachusetts: G. K. Hall & Co.
Annotation: This information is currently being placed on a web
site: http://nebib.uvm.edu.
Federation of Historical Services, ed. 1987. Historic Resources of
the Upper Hudson, Champlain and Mohawk Valleys: A Handbook
for the Counties of Albany, Clinton, Columbia, Essex, Fulton,
Greene, Montgomery, Rensselaer, Saratoga, Schenectady, Schoharie,
Warren, and Washington. Troy, New York: Federation of
Historical Services.
Hadsel, Christine, ed. 1988. Vermont Museums, Galleries &,
Historic Buildings. Shelburne Vermont: Vermont Museum &
Gallery Alliance.
Historic Preservation Program. 2000.Vermont Heritage Network
(VHN). Email: [email protected]. Online at:
http://www.uvm.edu/~vhnet/.
Annotation: This online network stimulates awareness and
appreciation of Vermont’s cultural heritage and built environment. This site was designed in 1996 by the University of
Vermont Historic Preservation Program as a working framework
of information for residents, tourists, teachers and students.
Lake Champlain Basin Program and the University of Vermont
Historic Preservation Program, ed. 1998. Around the Lake:
Historic Sites on Lake Champlain. Crown Point, New York: Lake
Champlain Basin Program.
National Park Service. 2000. Links to the Past. Online at:
http://www.cr.nps.gov/.
Annotation: One of the more extensive sites about American
archeology, filled with useful resources.
Plunkett, Thomas and Jonathan Lizee. 1999. ArchNet. Online at:
http://www.archnet.asu.edu.
Annotation: ArchNet serves as the World Wide Web Virtual
Library for Archaeology. This server provides access to archaeological resources available on the Internet. Information is categorized by geographic region and subject.
Sharrow, Greg and Amy Demarest, eds. 1993. Discovering the
History and Heritage of the Champlain Basin: A Resource Guide for
Teachers. Middlebury and Vergennes, Vermont: Vermont Folklife
Center and Lake Champlain Maritime Museum.
[email protected], website http://www.lcmm.org.
Annotation: The Lake Champlain Maritime Museum offers a
wide range of educational programs about history, ecology, nautical archeology, and materials conservation. Digging, Diving, and
Documenting is one of Vermont’s best participatory archeological
stewardship programs offered for grade school students. Other
archeology programs at the museum include What’s on the
Bottom of Lake Champlain? and Archaeology and Conservation.
While there is a charge for most programs, the museum works
to find corporate, foundation, and community partners that
enable schools to participate free of charge. Schools are offered
free programs on the basis of funds available. Be sure to call,
email, or view their web site to check out their latest programs.
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation. 2000. Vermont State
Historic Sites. Online at:
http://www.state.vt.us/dca/historic/hp_sites.htm.
Annotation: The Division owns and maintains a comprehensive
statewide system of historic sites illustrating the full range of
Vermont’s history and heritage. Interpretive exhibits and programs in archeology, architecture, and historic events enhance
the understanding and enjoyment of these sites, which are
staffed and open to the public from mid-May through midOctober. For information telephone (802) 828-3051.
USDA Forest Service. 2000. USDA Forest Service: Recreation,
Heritage & Wilderness Resources, Passport in Time. Telephone:
(800) 281-9176. Online at: http://www.fs.fed.us/recreation/heritage/pit_ie.shtml.
Annotation: Passport In Time, also known as “PIT”, is a volunteer program, inviting the public to share in the thrill of discovery through archaeological and historic research. Forest Service
archaeologists and historians guide volunteers in activities ranging from archaeological excavation to historic building restoration.
New Hampshire State Conservation & Rescue Archeology Program
(SCRAP). New Hampshire Division of Historical Resources, P.O.
Box 2043, Concord, New Hampshire 03302. Telephone: (603)271-3483 or 3558. Email: [email protected]. Online at:
http://www.seacoastnh.com/history/prehistoric/scrap.html.
Pamphlets and Brochures
Careers in Historical Archaeology. Tucson, Arizona: Society for
Historical Archaeology.
Annotation: Free pamphlet from the Society for Historical
Archaeology, describing what historical archeology is, why it is
worth doing, how to become a historical archeologist, and what
career opportunities exist in this field.
Organizations Offering Educational Programs
Lake Champlain Maritime Museum. 4472 Basin Harbor Road,
Vergennes, Vermont 05491. Telephone (802) 475-2022, email
15
25 Simple things you can do to promote the public benefits of
archaeology. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of the
Interior, National Park Service, National Register of Historic
All websites were verified when this educator’s guide was printed. Over time, some may no longer be active.
128
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Places, Society for Historical Archaeology, and Society for
American Archaeology.
Annotation: Free pamphlet from the United States Department
of the Interior, National Park Service.
Historic Preservation Easements: A Historic Preservation Tool with
Federal Tax Benefits. Washington, D.C.: United States
Department of the Interior, National Park Service, National
Center for Cultural Resource Stewardship & Partnerships,
Heritage Preservation Services, and Technical Preservation
Services.
National Wildlife Refuges: Conserving Habitat and History.
Washington, D.C.: United States Department of the Interior,
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Annotation: Free pamphlet from the United States Department
of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Identifies the
location of all National Wildlife Refuges (including the
Missisquoi National Wildlife Refuge in Swanton) and presents
an overview of historic and archeological sites.
Open Space, Helps Balance Municipal Budgets. Chepachet, Rhode
Island: Southern New England Forest Consortium, Inc.
Annotation: Free pamphlet about a study Cost of Community
Services for Southern New England which shows that the services
used by residential development cost more than the tax revenue
generated by that land use.
The National Register of Historic Places. Washington, D.C.:
United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service,
National Register of Historic Places.
Annotation: Free pamphlet describing the purpose of the
National Register of Historic Places and how historic properties
can be nominated to the register.
Participate in Archeology. Washington, D.C.: United States
Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Bureau of
Reclamation, Federal Highway Administration, Department of
the Army, U.S. Forest Service, and the Bureau of Land
Management.
Annotation: Free pamphlet describing the value of archeology,
why sites should be preserved, and a wide variety of archeological videos, educational materials, magazines, journals, and
books.
canarchaeology.com/aawelcome.html.
Archaeology of Eastern North America. Augusta, Maine: Eastern
States Archaeological Federation (ESAF). ESAF, P.O. Box 386,
Bethlehem Connecticut 06751-0386. Online at:
http://www.newwave.net/~martin/esaf.html.
Annotation: The scholarly journal, Archaeology of Eastern
North America (AENA) is published annually by ESAF.
Bulletin of Champlain Valley Archaeological Society. Fort
Ticonderoga, New York: Champlain Valley Archaeological
Society.
Annotation: A short-lived organization that scientifically excavated Native American sites in the Champlain Valley and published their results in this and other journals. The Champlain
Valley Archaeological Society was a precursor of the Vermont
Archaeological Society.
Cobblestone: The History Magazine for Young People.
Peterborough, New Hampshire: Cobblestone Publishing, Inc.
Annotation: Each volume is dedicated to a different subject,
many of which address archeology and related studies of the
past. Cobblestone Publishing Company, 30 Grove Street, Suite
C, Peterborough, New Hampshire 03458. Telephone (800)-8210115. Online at: http://cobblestonepub.com/pages/contact.html
CRM: Cultural Resource Management. Washington, D.C.: United
States Department of the Interior, National Park Service,
Cultural Resources.
Annotation: A magazine published by the National Park Service
that provides information for parks, federal agencies, Indian
tribes, states, local governments, and the private sector that promotes and maintains high standards for preserving and managing cultural resources.
Historic Roots. Middlebury, Vermont: Historic Roots.
Annotation: A magazine of Vermont history for young audiences, with articles by many of Vermont’s interdisciplinary historic researchers.
Reaching Kids through Archaeology. Washington, D.C.: Society
for American Archaeology.
Annotation: Free pamphlet describing resources in public education offered through the Society for American Archaeology.
Historical Archaeology. Tucson, Arizona: The Society for
Historical Archaeology (SHA). P.O. Box 30446, Tucson, Arizona
85751. Telephone 520/886-8006. Email [email protected].
Online at: http://www.sha.org/.
Annotation: Formed in 1967, the SHA is the largest scholarly
group concerned with the archaeology of the modern world
(A.D. 1400-present). The main focus of the society is the era
since the beginning of European exploration. SHA promotes
scholarly research and the dissemination of knowledge concerning historical archaeology.
Vermont Landowners Guide To Stewardship. Rupert, Vermont:
Vermont Stewardship Committee and the Merck Forest and
Farmland Center.
Annotation: Free pamphlet encouraging land stewardship with
the assistance of county foresters, but unfortunately, historic
properties are not mentioned. County forester telephone numbers are listed.
The Journal of the Society for Industrial Archeology. The Society
for Industrial Archeology, Social Sciences Department, Michigan
Technological University, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI
49931-1295. Online at: http://www.ss.mtu.edu/IA/sia.html.
Annotation: The SIA is made up of over 1,600 members, worldwide, who have a strong interest in preserving, interpreting and
documenting our industrial past and heritage.
Magazines and Journals
The Journal of Vermont Archaeology. Burlington, Vermont:
Vermont Archaeological Society.
Annotation: Website
http://www.uvm.edu/~vhnet/hpres/org/vas/vas.htm.
American Archaeology. Archaeological Conservancy.
Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Annotation: American Archaeology is the only consumer magazine devoted to the excitement and mystery of archaeology in
the United States, with additional coverage of Canada and Latin
America. In four issues each year, American Archaeology’s colorful features and departments present the research breakthroughs, persistent puzzles, and unique personalities making
news in this fascinating field. Also online at: http://www.ameri-
Northeast Anthropology. Albany, New York: SUNY Albany.
Annotation: Formerly known as Man in the Northeast, this
anthropological journal predominately contains articles on
archeology.
Northeast Historical Archaeology. Council for Northeast
APPENDIX SIX: ADDITIONAL RECOMMENDED RESOURCES
129
Historical Archaeology (CNEHA). Online at:
http://www.smcm.edu/Academics/soan/cneha/home.htm.
Annotation: Founded in 1967 as a non-profit organization dedicated to archaeological scholarship in the American Northeast,
including the Canadian Provinces.
general information: (802) 457-3368, tour reservations: (802)
457-3368 extension 22. Online at: http://www.nps.gov/mabi/.
Annotation: Marsh-Billings Rockefeller National Historical Park
is the only national park to focus on conservation history and
the evolving nature of land stewardship in America.
Archaeology and Public Education. Washington, D.C.: Public
Education Committee, Society for American Archaeology.
Annotation: An excellent resource for educators that only ran
from 1990-1998, but the Society for American Archaeology,
Public Education Committee is starting a new monograph
Teaching with Archaeology and has resources on the web. Online
at: http://www.saa.org.
Billings Farm and Museum. P.O. Box 489, River Road,
Woodstock, Vermont 05091. Telephone (802) 457-2355. Online
at: http://www.billingsfarm.org/.
Annotation: The Billings Farm & Museum is a museum of rural
Vermont life featuring a working dairy farm where visitors can
learn about the science of modern dairying, as well as the
achievements of Frederick Billings nineteenth-century farm
operation. Extensive farm life exhibits use artifacts, oral histories, and photographs to depict the seasonal round of activities
that shaped the lives and culture of rural Vermonters. The 1890
Farm House, restored and furnished to its nineteenth-century
heyday, served as the hub of the farm and forestry operation a
century ago and features the farm office, family living quarters,
creamery, and ice house.
Scientific American Discovering Archaeology. Leach Publishing
Group LTD., 1205 N. Oregon, El Paso, TX 79902. Telephone
toll free (877) 347-2724.Online at: http://www.discoveringarcheology.com/.
Vermont Archaeological Society Newsletter. Burlington, Vermont:
Vermont Archaeological Society, Inc.
Annotation: Website http://www.vtarchaeology.org/.
Places to Visit (Museums/Galleries)
The Abenaki Tribal Museum and Cultural Center. 100 Grand
Avenue, Swanton, Vermont 05488.
Annotation: Open weekdays 9 to 4 by chance or appointment.
Telephone (802) 868-2559.
Chimney Point State Historic Site. Route 17, Addison, Vermont
05491. Telephone (802) 759-2412. Online at:
http://www.cit.state.vt.us/dca/historic/hp_sites.htm.
Annotation: Open Wednesday through Sunday, late May
through mid October, 9:30a.m.-5:30p.m.
Lake Champlain Maritime Museum. 4472 Basin Harbor Road,
Vergennes, Vermont 05491. Telephone (802) 475-2022. Email
lcmm@sover,net. Online at: http://www.lcmm.org.
Mount Independence. Orwell, Vermont. Telephone (802) 7592412. Online at: http://www.discoveringarcheology.com/.
Annotation: Open daily late May through mid October,
9:30a.m.-5:30p.m.
Pointe-à-Callière, the Montrèal Museum of Archaeology and
History. 350, Royale, Vieux-Montrèal (Quebèc) H2Y 3Y5.
Telephone (514) 872-9150, Online at: http://musee-Pointe-aCalliere.qc.ca/indexan.html.
Annotation: Located on the birthplace of Montrèal, Pointe-àCallière tells the story of Montreal from the days of Amerindians
right up to the present in a lively and entertaining way. All in
all, more than 1,000 years of history! Pointe-à-Callière is a new
museum with a wonderful multimedia show and modern
exhibits about Quebèc’s Native American and European cultures. Archeology is highlighted. Definitely worth the trip,
group tour by appointment.
Vermont Folklife Center. 2 Court Street, Middlebury Vermont
05753. Telephone (802) 388-4964. Email: [email protected]. Online
at: http://www.vermontfolklifecenter.org.
Annotation: The Folklife Center produces classroom materials,
exhibits, workshops, in-service training, and houses an an oral
history and folklife archive of over 3,000 tape-recorded interviews. Gallery exhibits of contemporary folk and traditional arts
and a heritage shop featuring contemporary Vermont folk art.
Marsh-Billings-Rockefeller National Historical Park. P.O. Box
178, 54 Elm Street, Woodstock, Vermont 05091. Telephone for
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Government Agencies and Other Organizations
Advisory Council on Historic Preservation. 2000. 1100
Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Suite 809, Old Post Office Building,
Washington, DC 20004. Email: [email protected]. Telephone:
(202) 606-8503. Online at: http://www.achp.gov./
Annotation: The Advisory Council on Historic Preservation is
an independent Federal agency that provides a forum for influencing Federal activities, programs, and policies as they affect
historic resources. The goal of the National Historic
Preservation Act (NHPA), which established the Council in
1966, is to have Federal agencies as responsible stewards of our
Nation’s resources when their actions affect historic properties.
The Council is the only entity with the legal responsibility to
balance historic preservation concerns with Federal project
requirements.
Archaeological Conservancy. 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite
1218, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87108-1517 Telephone: (505)266-1540. Online at:
http://www.americanarchaeology.com/aaabout.html
Annotation: The Archaeological Conservancy, established in
1980, is the only national non-profit organization dedicated to
acquiring and preserving the best of our nation’s remaining
archaeological sites. Based in Albuquerque, New Mexico, the
Conservancy also operates regional offices in Georgia, Virginia,
Ohio, and California.
Association of Vermont Conservation Commissions HC 32 Box 36,
Adamant, Vermont 05640. Telephone (802) 223-5527. Email
[email protected]. Online at:
http://www.uvm.edu/~envprog/epic/avcc.html.
Annotation: As of 1996, 65 Vermont towns (25%) had established conservation commissions or similar local committees.
Conservation commissions sow the seeds of Vermont’s future by
establishing community responsibility for natural resources,
including historic sites.
Conservation Study Institute. P. O. Box 178, 54 Elm Street,
Woodstock, Vermont 05091. Telephone (802)457-3368 extension 17. Online at: http://www.nps.gov/mabi/csi/.
Annotation: The Conservation Study Institute is a new National
Park Service program created to enhance leadership in the field
of conservation. The Institute was established in partnership
with Marsh-Billings-Rockefeller NHP to further the park’s educational and outreach initiatives on its primary message of conservation stewardship. In collaboration with academic and nonprofit partners, the Institute provides a forum for the National
Park Service, the conservation community, and the public to
discuss conservation history, contemporary issues and practice,
and future directions for the field.
Jeffords, James. 2000. Online at: http://www.senate.gov/~jeffords/.
Lake Champlain Basin Program. P.O. Box 204, 54 West Shore
Road, Grand Isle, Vermont 05458. Telephone: (802) 655-6382
or 1-800-468-LCBP (New York and Vermont). Email: [email protected]. Online at: http://www.lcbp.org.
Annotation: The Lake Champlain Basin Program (LCBP) is a
federal, state and local initiative to restore and protect Lake
Champlain and its surrounding watershed for future generations.
Leahy, Patrick. 2000. Online at: http://www.senate.gov/~leahy/.
Library of Congress. 2000. United States Legislative Branch. May
26, 2:54. Online at: http://lcweb.loc.gov/global/legislative/congress.html.
Annotation: Information on how to locate your federal representative.
National Livability Resource Center. 2000. Livable Communities.
Online at: http://www.livablecommunities.gov/toolsandresources/.
Annotation: The Clinton-Gore Administration’s Livable
Communities Website. Here you will find information about the
Administration’s Livable Communities Initiative and the work of
the White House Task Force on Livable Communities to coordinate federal agencies’ efforts to assist communities to grow in
ways that ensure a high quality of life and strong, sustainable
economic growth. You will also find information on and links to
specific programs, resources, guides, and tools offered by federal
agencies to assist your community. Building healthier, more livable communities for the twenty-first century, by working
together.
National Park Service. 2000. Links to the Past. Online at:
http://www.cr.nps.gov/.
Annotation: One of the more extensive sites about American
archeology, filled with useful resources.
National Park Service. 2000. National Register of Historic Places.
Online at: http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/.
National Trust for Historic Preservation. 1785 Massachusetts
Ave, NW, Washington, D.C 20036. Telephone (800) 944-6847or
202-588-6000. Online at: http://www.nationaltrust.org/.
Annotation The National Trust for Historic Preservation, chartered by Congress in 1949, is a private, nonprofit organization
dedicated to protecting the irreplaceable. It fights to save historic buildings and the neighborhoods and landscapes they
anchor. Through education and advocacy, the National Trust is
revitalizing communities across the country and challenges citizens to create sensible plans for the future. It has six regional
offices, 20 historic sites, and works with thousands of local
community groups nationwide.
Natural Areas Center. University of Vermont, 153 South Prospect
Street, Burlington, Vermont 05405. Telephone (802) 656-4055.
Online at: http://www.uvm.edu/~envprog/naturalareas/nacmain.html. Annotation: The University of Vermont Natural
Areas Center provides educational opportunities, professional
development, research support, and outreach services to individuals and groups within and beyond the University concerning the identification, protection, and management of natural
areas and other conservation lands.
Preservation Trust of Vermont. 104 Church Street, Burlington,
Vermont 05401. Telephone 802-658-6647. Online at:
http://www.ptvermont.org/.
Annotation: A charitable, nonprofit organization designed to
assist the continuing statewide effort to preserve and use our
historic architectural resources, the cultural landscape, and fabric of our communities.
Register of Professional Archaeologists (ROPA). 2000. 5024-R
Campbell Blvd.
Baltimore, Maryland 21236. Email: [email protected]. Telephone:
(410) 933-3486. Online at: http://www.rpanet.org/.
Sanders, Bernie. 2000. Online at: http://www.capweb.net/classic/State/VT/Member.morph?memberCode=H106VT00.
Society for American Archaeology (SAA). 900 Second Street NE
#12, Washington, D.C. 20002-3557. Email:
[email protected]. Telephone: (202) 789-8200. Washington,
D.C. Online at: http://www.saa.org/.
Annotation: An international organization dedicated to the
research, interpretation, and protection of the archaeological
heritage of the Americas. With more than 6,600 members, the
society represents professional, student, and avocational archaeologists working in a variety of settings including government
agencies, colleges and universities, museums, and the private
sector. Since its inception in 1934, SAA has endeavored to stimulate interest and research in American archaeology; advocate
and aid in the conservation of archaeological resources; encourage public access to and appreciation of archaeology; oppose all
looting of sites and the purchase and sale of looted archaeological materials; and serve as a bond among those interested in the
archaeology of the Americas.
Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, Department of Forests,
Parks and Recreation. 2000. Forestry Division: Forest Resource
Management. Online at:
http://www.state.vt.us/anr/fpr/forestry/index.htm.
Annotation: Information on the Vermont Forest Legacy
Program, stewardship and Vermont County Foresters. The
Vermont Forest Legacy Program provides funding to further
conservation of environmentally important forest areas that are
threatened with conversion to no-forest uses. Typically, funding
is used by the Department to acquire conservation easements on
forestland properties.
Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, Enforcement Division.
2000. Enforcement Division. 103 South Main Street, Building 2
South, Waterbury, Vermont 05671-0410. Telephone (802) 2413820. Online at: http://www.anr.state.vt.us/anrenf/.
Annotation: The Enforcement Division enforces the environmental laws and regulations administered by the various regulatory programs within the Agency of Natural Resources and provides investigative services for the Environmental Board (the
administrators of Act 250, Vermont’s land use law).
Vermont Archaeological Society, Inc. P.O. Box 663, Burlington,
Vermont 05402-0663. Online at: http://www.vtarchaeology.org/.
Annotation: Formed in 1968, The Vermont Archaeological
Society (VAS), is a non-profit organization comprised of professionals and non-professionals, committed to archaeology.
Vermont Association of Planning & Development Agencies. Online
at: http://www.access-vermont.com/vapda/.
Annotation: VAPDA is devoted to sound planning principles
that will enhance the quality of life for Vermont residents.
Through a combination of environmental and economic planning strategies, VAPDA fosters a community environment that
provides for the needs of both residents and our natural sur-
APPENDIX SIX: ADDITIONAL RECOMMENDED RESOURCES
131
roundings, today and for generations to come.
Vermont Department of Housing and Community Affairs. 2000.
National Life Building, Drawer 20, Montpelier, Vermont 056200501. July 10, 1998. Telephone (802) 828-3211. Online at:
http://www.state.vt.us/dca/housing.
Annotation: If you’re interested in Vermont’s land use planning,
historic preservation, community development or housing programs, you’ve found an important resource. This site brings
together everything you need to increase your expertise and
enables you to make informed decisions.
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation (VDHP). National
Life Building, Drawer 20, Montpelier, Vermont 05620-0501.
Telephone (802) 828-3211. Online at:
http://www.state.vt.us/dca/housing/HistPres/His-home.HTM.
Annotation: The Division is a clearinghouse for information on
historic buildings and villages, urban neighborhoods and downtowns, rural landscapes, and archeological sites. The Division
can provide inventories and/or maps of historic resources and
archeologically sensitive areas to local planners who are developing town plans. Staff also work with municipalities to protect
identified sites through local planning, zoning, and public education activities. The Vermont Historic Sites and Structures
Survey and the Vermont Archeological Inventory are major
Division programs to identify historic buildings and archeological sites in the state. The Division is legally required to evaluated the more than 1,000 Vermont projects yearly that require a
state Act 250 permit and that are funded, licensed, or require a
permit from the federal government.
Vermont Department of Public Safety: Vermont State Police.
2000. Online at: http://www.dps.state.vt.us/vsp/index.html.
Vermont Environmental Board. 2000. National Life Records
Center Building, Drawer 20, Montpelier, Vermont 05620-3201.
Telephone (802) 828-3309.
Annotation: The mission of the Environmental Board is to provide a public, quasi-judicial process for reviewing and managing
the environmental, social and fiscal consequences of major subdivisions and developments in Vermont. Online at
http://www.state.vt.us/envboard/.
Vermont Governor Howard Dean. 2000. 109 State Street,
Montpelier, Vermont 05609. Telephone: (802) 828-3333.
Governor’s Info./Referral line (within Vermont): 1-800-649-6825
Online at: http://www.state.vt.us/governor/index.htm.
Vermont Housing and Conservation Board. 149 State Street,
Montpelier, Vermont 05602. Telephone: (802) 828-3250. Online
at: http://www.vhcb.org/.
Annotation: An independent, state-supported funding agency
providing grants, loans and technical assistance to nonprofit
organizations, municipalities and state agencies for the development of perpetually affordable housing and for the conservation
of important agricultural land, recreational land, natural areas
and historic properties in Vermont. Since it was established in
1987, VHCB has committed more than $121 million to projects
that will result in the development of more than 5,600 units of
affordable housing and the conservation of more than 83,000
acres of agricultural land and more than 230,500 acres of forestland, natural areas and recreational lands. In that same period,
VHCB has administered over $35.4 million in federal funds
through different housing and conservation programs.
Vermont Land Trust (VLT). 8 Bailey Avenue, Montpelier, Vermont
05602. Telephone (802) 223-5234. Online at:
http://www.vlt.org/.
Annotation: Vermont Land Trust is a member supported nonprofit land conservation organization, operating offices through-
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out the state. Since 1977, VLT has conserved over 335,000
acres, including over 240 operating farms. VLT provides technical and legal assistance to individuals, communities, and local
land trusts, helping them achieve local conservation
objectives.
Vermont Legislature. 2000. Legislative Directory. Online at: State
Legislators
http://www.leg.state.vt.us/legdir/legdir2.htm.
Vermont Natural Resources Council (VNRC). 9 Bailey Ave,
Montpelier, Vermont 05602. Telephone (802) 223-2328. Email:
[email protected]. Online at: http://www.vnrc.org/.
Annotation: Vermont’s leading statewide environmental organization dedicated to protecting our natural resources and environment through research, education and advocacy. VNRC was
organized in 1963 by a group of forward-looking foresters, educators, farmers, and outdoor enthusiasts who cared deeply about
Vermont and its future, and wanted to preserve its working
landscape. VNRC is a membership-based nonprofit 501(c)3
educational organization.
White House Millennium Council and the National Trust for
Historic Preservation. 2000. Save America’s Treasures. Online at:
http://www.saveamericastreasures.org/.
Annotation: A Partnership formed in 1998 to focus public attention on the importance of our national heritage and the need to
save our treasures at risk. Save America’s Treasures is a national
effort to protect America’s threatened cultural treasures, including significant documents, works of art, maps, journals, and historic structures that document and illuminate the history and
culture of the United States. Save America’s Treasures is dedicated to identifying and rescuing the enduring symbols of
American tradition that define us as a nation.
APPENDIX SEVEN
ABOUT
THE
AUTHORS
AND
ARTIST
Kathleen E. Callum
GEOARCH, Inc.
GEOARCH, Inc., was
established in 1991 to
serve businesses, government agencies, and nonprofit organizations that
need assistance with the environmental regulatory review
processes, in compliance with laws such as Section 106 of
the National Historic Preservation Act and Criterion 8 of
Vermont’s Act 250. The firm is a WDBE, or womanowned business, on State Historic Preservation Office lists
in New Hampshire, New York, and Vermont (Maine
application pending). GEOARCH, located on historic
Lake Dunmore in Leicester, is one of only three consulting archeological firms based in Vermont. Company personnel travel throughout Vermont and the nation to furnish expertise in compliance archeology, geoarcheology,
and heritage discovery. GEOARCH’s facilities include a
first-class research library with rare Vermontiana; equipment for fielding three crews simultaneously, a high-end
MacIntosh computer network, and specialized geoarcheological and laboratory investigative tools. GEOARCH first
began working as historic preservation consultants for
Vermont Gas in 1994. In addition to the System
Expansion Project, GEOARCH staff has been involved in
investigation of proposed natural gas projects and energyrelated development elsewhere in Vermont, as well as
Indiana, Kentucky, New York, Ohio, and West Virginia.
The firm has successfully completed over 20 archeological consulting reports, 40 geoarcheology consulting
reports, and countless End-of-Field Letters, for more than
60 clients. GEOARCH maintains a strong commitment to
archeological stewardship and public reporting. Staff regularly involve sixth grade students in heritage discovery
at Addison County Field Day, speak to historic societies,
and volunteer as officers for the Vermont Archaeological
Society, Inc. The Vermont Advisory Council on Historic
Preservation and the Division for Historic Preservation
recently cited GEOARCH’s staff for exemplary establishment and coordination of Vermont Archaeology Week,
allowing over 10,000 Vermonters to annually learn about
the state’s rich and ancient heritage.
Kathleen Callum is President and founder of GEOARCH,
Inc. She is a 36CFR800 qualified archeological consultant. In 1994, she received a Master of Science degree in
Quaternary Studies, an interdisciplinary program featuring geology, archeology, and paleoecology, from University
of Maine, Orono. Kathleen obtained Bachelor of Arts
degrees in Geology and Anthropology from University of
Montana in Missoula in 1984. Prior to enrolling in graduate school, she worked as an archeological technician on
sites all over the United States. Kathleen graduated from
Otter Valley High School in Brandon, Vermont with an
interest in books, rocks, and artifacts. Kathleen’s mother,
Jean (Laber) Callum, is an avocational genealogist who
inspired her daughter’s pride in a French-Canadian and
Scottish heritage. Her father, fisheries biologist David
Callum, introduced her to conservation of natural and
cultural resources. Kathleen’s current research interests
include archeological stewardship, geoarcheology, and
Northeast archeology. Kathleen has been certified by the
National Park Service for Geophysics Techniques in
Archeology, studied U.S.D.A. soil taxonomy, and assisted
with creation of the Northeast Lithic Database. She is a
past President of the Vermont Archaeological Society, Inc.
and member of the Society for American Archaeology,
Society for Archaeological Science, Vermont Geological
Society, and Toastmasters International. Kathleen’s commitment to public reporting is reflected by hundreds of
presentations, publications, and exhibits, including: a
professional publication “Fire on the Plains:
Paleoenvironmental Data from the Hedden Site,” a book
discussion “Images of Archeology from Popular Fiction”
for library patrons in Bristol, and editing Archeology &
Vermont Education for public archeology week audiences.
Kathleen and her eight-month old son, Jozef Callum
Sloma, are currently helping steward a 120-acre farm,
with an active maple sugaring operation, stonewalls, and
cellarholes in Unity, New Hampshire. This property that
has been in the Callum family for over five generations.
APPENDIX SEVEN: ABOUT THE AUTHORS AND ARTIST
133
Robert Sloma
Artist Reed Prescott III
Robert Sloma is Vice-President and Chief Project Manager
of GEOARCH, Inc. In 1989, he graduated with a B.A. in
Anthropology and a minor in Archeology from State
University of New York, College at Plattsburgh. Prior to
joining GEOARCH in 1997 as a corporate officer, he
supervised archeological investigations as Program
Archaeologist for the University of Vermont’s Consulting
Archaeology Program and worked as an independent consultant. Robert has worked as an photographic archival
consultant for the Clinton County Historic Museum,
attended an advanced underwater archeology field school
sponsored by William and Mary College in St. Eustatius,
and excavated a Colonial period Mayan site in Belize. He
graduated from Bishop Ludden High School in Syracuse,
New York. Robert’s parents, Zofia and Jozef Sloma, emigrated from Poland to the United States, and fostered their
son’s interest in Polish culture, language, and history.
Robert’s father strongly valued academic achievement and
ethnic identity, especially after living through the bombing
of Warsaw, forced labor in Germany during the second
World War, and eventual displacement from his homeland. From his father, a steelworker, Robert also gained an
appreciation of early industry and technology evidenced in
the sprawling manufacturing geography of Syracuse. His
attention to detail and patience, necessary for an archeologist, is a gift from his mother. Robert learned to treasure
the stories books tell from his high school English teacher
David Stobnicke, while English teacher Linda Bowka persuaded him to write his own interpretive tales. Royal
Ontario Museum archeologist Elizabeth Graham first
showed Robert how to geometrically grid archeological
sites and he learned about scientific method from SUNY
Plattsburgh Professor Mark Cohen. Robert applied artifact
typologies espoused by Professor Gordon Pollard, understood the importance of public reporting from far-sighted
colleagues, weighed the merits of historic preservation law
through self-study, and gained other archeological skills
from a wide variety of educators and colleagues. Robert
has served as President, officer, and on the board of directors of the Vermont Archaeological Society, Inc,; is an
associate member of the Center for Research on Vermont;
a member of the Society for Historical Archaeology, the
Vermont Historical Society, and the Vernacular
Architecture Forum. Some of his professional papers and
public presentations include: “If Those Mute Stones Could
Actually Speak: Methodological and Interpretive
Consideration of the Old Burying Ground in St.
Johnsbury, Vermont,” “Archaeology and Vernacular
Architecture in Vermont: Expect the Unexpected”, an
exhibit at Frog Hollow State Craft Center “Nouveau
Flintknapping” encouraging stewardship of Native
American quarry resources, and staffing the Arbor Day
“Land Over Time” station for Rutland elementary students. Robert enjoys traveling Vermont’s pathways to the
past with his eight-month old son, Jozef Callum Sloma.
Vermont artist Reed Prescott III,
best known as the artist of two
Vermont Duck Stamps, started
his career as the illustrator of several books for naturalist writer
and WVPR personality Ronald
Rood. Since that beginning in
1987, he has created work for companies doing everything from paintings used for wallpaper borders to pen
and ink drawings that are laser engraved on maple products and sold around the world. In 1999, he illustrated a
book produced by the International Association of Fish
and Wildlife in Washington, D.C. This book was given to
every United States House and Senate member to show
how money spent on wildlife had either a positive or negative impact on particular species, and areas that need
attention as we head into the new millennium. His love is
to capture on canvas the ever-changing Vermont landscape. Reed enjoys spending time with the great artists
found in Vermont school systems. He will show examples
of his work, talk about requirements of various projects,
and take the time to lead classes step by step through
drawings of their own in an effort to show both teacher
and student their true artistic potential. He lives in
Lincoln, Vermont with his wife Lisa and two sons, Issac
and Spencer.
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GLOSSARY
A.D. – An abbreviation under the Gregorian calendar for anno
Domini which translates from Latin as “In the year of our Lord.”
absolute dating – Also known as chronometric dating, methods
of determining the age of a given object or event using a specific
time scale such as days, hours or years. Often reported as years
before present, B.P.
Act 250, see also Criterion 8 – Vermont’s monumental landuse
regulation law designed to protect the environment; balance
development with local, regional and state issues; and provide a
forum for neighbors, municipalities and other interest groups to
voice their concerns. Created by the legislature in 1970 as Title
10, Vermont Statutes Annotated, Chapter 151.
activity, see human activity
antiquarian – A person interested in the history and items of
long ago.
Archaic Period – An archeological term for a stretch of time
from 7000-900 B.C. characterized by environmental and cultural stability. In the Northeast, Native Americans during this time
were still largely mobile, but had begun to settle into an environment similar to the one we live in today.
archeological process, see scientific archeological method
Archeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA) – Legislation
established in 1979 to bolster apparent failings of the 1906
Antiquities Act. The new legislation strengthened penalties for
looting and procedures for scientific investigation of archeological sites on federal lands.
archeological salvage, see salvage archeology
archeologically sensitive area – A piece of land that archeologists think may contain historic properties, historic landscapes,
or traditional cultural properties based on results of archival
research through historic documents, maps, oral history, landform interpretation, and known reported sites. Assessing the
archeological sensitivity of a specific piece of land may require
an on location visit.
archeologist, qualified, see also consulting archeologist – A scientist who uncovers and studies the buried remains of the past.
Under federal Section 106 and Vermont State guidelines archeologists must be 36CFR61 qualified that is, possessing at least a
Master’s Degree in archeology, supervisory experience, field
expertise, and a demonstrated commitment to public reporting.
Whether an archeologist has a professional degree or is an avocational volunteer, they must observe scientific methods.
archeology (archaeology) – The scientific study of past human
cultures by analyzing material remains (sites, features and artifacts) people left behind.
archival research – The first step in the scientific archeological
method. Critical and exhaustive investigation of the places
where information and past records are kept in order to formulate hypotheses that can be tested. Archival research may
involve searching the repositories of institutions such as
libraries, museums, as well as personal collections and gathering
individual oral histories.
ARPA, see Archeological Resources Protection Act
artifact – Any portable object made, used, or modified by people. For example stone tools, pottery, and glass.
assemblage – Artifacts that are found together and that presumably were used at the same time for similar or related tasks, by a
specific individual or group of people.
assessment, student – The process of quantifying, describing,
gathering data about, or giving feedback about student performance in regard to Vermont’s Framework of Standards and
Learning Opportunities. Assessment helps to identify where we
might need to improve instructional practices for students,
focus professional development for teachers, and supply new or
different instructional resources for learners.
association – The physical or spatial relationship between sediment, artifacts and other remains that are found together in a
site, usually within the same matrix. For example, a Paleoindian
site may contain spear points in the same stratum as the bones
of an extinct mammoth. Also refers to the proximity of certain
types of cultural resources to natural or other types of cultural
resources.
attribute – A minimal characteristic or property of an object
that cannot be subdivided further, such as raw material, weight,
size, or color.
avocational archeologist – A person who has an interest in,
and/or participates in scientific archeology, but does not make a
living through this work. Most avocational archeologists belong
to one or more non-profit archeological societies, such as the
Vermont Archaeological Society, Inc., which endorse ethical, scientific, standards for archeological research and provide a forum
for public reporting.
avoidance – The act of keeping away from, or staying clear of
something. Cultural resource stewardship requires archeologists
avoid disturbing sites to preserve them for the future.
B.C. – An abbreviation under the Gregorian calendar for Before
Christ.
B.C.E. – An abbreviation for before the Common Era, meaning
Before the present time.
B.P. – Abbreviation for years before present, the point at which
dates are calculated from 1950
GLOSSARY
135
bedrock – The layer of solid rock that lies under the soil, sand,
clay, gravel and loose material on the earth’s surface. Bedrock
may be exposed if the soil has eroded away.
Bering land bridge (Beringia) – The landmass that once joined
Asia and North America. Archeologists hypothesize that people
first reached the Western Hemisphere by crossing Beringia.
building, see also structure – A structure created to shelter any
form of human activity, such as a house, barn, church, hotel, or
similar edifice. The term building may refer to a historically
related complex such as a courthouse and jail, or a house and
barn.
CRM, see cultural resource management
calendar – A system of reckoning time with an years marked in
arbitrary or fixed beginnings, lengths, and divisions. The
Gregorian calendar, for example, counts days and organizes
them into specific units of years, months, and weeks.
conservation movement – A trend toward restricted or wise use
of natural resources such as soil, forests, wildlife, wetlands, and
waterways. Cultural Resource Management of archeological sites
and other historic properties developed out of the conservation
movement.
consulting archeologist, see also archeologist qualified – A qualified professional who oversees and implements scientific archeology projects for a fee. Private sector developers, engineering
firms, government agencies, and non-profit organizations regularly hire consulting archeologists.
context – The physical surroundings, conditions and circumstances in which archeological materials are deposited and subsequently discovered. The spatial and chronological setting of a
culture. An artifact’s context usually consists of its matrix (the
surrounding material, or sediment), its provenience (horizontal
and vertical position in the matrix), and association with other
artifacts (occurrence with other archeological remains, usually
in the same matrix). Site context typically refers to the surrounding natural and cultural landscapes.
cartesian coordinates – A three dimensional mapping system,
named after French philosopher and mathematician Renè
Descartes (1596-1650), that measures the distance from a single
point equally along three intersecting planes.
continuity – An uninterrupted condition marked by characteristic similarities.
cartographer – A person skilled in the art and science of map
making.
Criterion 8, see also Act 250 – A specific component of Act 250
that addresses aesthetics, historic sites and rare or irreplaceable
natural areas. Criterion 8 is actually referenced as Title 10,
Vermont Statutes Annotated, Section 6086 (a)(8).
C.E. – An abbreviation for Common Era, meaning the present
time, now.
ceramic – pottery, fired clay.
change – Transformation, the process of altering, to become different.
chronological (n. – chronology) – Arrangement of events in the
order in which they occurred.
citizenship – The status of a person who maintains loyalty to a
country, state, or region. The rights, duties and privileges associated with this office.
classification – A systematic arrangement of artifacts into
groups or categories according to specific criteria, or shared
attributes.
clock – An instrument for measuring, or indicating time, especially a mechanical device.
composite artifact – An item made by a human being using two
or more material classes.
compliance, see legal compliance
compromise – Settling differences by making concessions on
each side.
conflict resolution – A method of settling disagreements
through discussion, consensus, and compromise.
cross-mend – The archeological process of fitting fragments
together during laboratory analysis in order to see the form of a
whole object.
culminating activity – A task through which students demonstrate their learning of most or all standards identified as a
focus. Part of Vermont’s Framework of Standards and Learning
Opportunities.
cultural characteristics – The outward expressions of a person
or group’s identity. Cultural characteristics include, but are not
necessarily limited to: language/ethnicity, landscape or environment, modes of transportation, foodways/subsistence, buildings
and other structures/building styles, clothing, material
goods/artifacts, and other activities.
cultural processes – The ways by which people create sites, or
threaten the quality of archeological site evidence. For example,
construction, quarrying, and looting.
cultural resource – Archeological sites, buildings or structures,
cultural landscapes, traditional cultural places, and artifacts of
all time periods and cultures. Like natural resources, cultural
resources may hold multiple values for different people. They
are rare, unique, and non-renewable.
cultural resource management (CRM) – One method of historic
preservation or more correctly, conservation, that balances saving significant sites, buildings or structures, landscapes, traditional cultural places, and artifacts with the need for development and associated data recovery of these important historic
properties.
consensus – General agreement.
conservation, see also conservation movement – Specialized
cleaning and treatment given to artifacts to ensure their survival. Also refers to the wise use of natural and cultural
resources
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culture – The way of life of a specific group of people, their collective consciousness, learned beliefs, customs, traditions, language, values, and behavior.
cyclical time – A way by which people view the passage of
events as a regular or repeated interval.
curate (n. – curation) – To responsibly care of something held
in trust for other people.
curator – A trained expert who manages and preserves archeological collections according to professional museum and
archival practices.
data recovery – Gathering of information about archeological
resources through scientific research methods such as controlled
site excavations and systematic survey.
age or period.
erosion – The group of processes whereby sediment or rock
material is loosened or dissolved and removed from any part of
the earth’s surface.
ethical (n. ethics) – The moral behavior of archeologists based
on professional standards and scientific methods.
ethnicity – A group of persons sharing common ancestry, historical territory, language, and/or culture.
database – A compendium of information organized for analysis
in order to reach an educated decision. Typically refers to
numerical information, like an artifact catalog, stored in a computer.
eurocentrism – An prejudicial attitude that European or
Western traditions, customs, languages and values are the only
right way and that other cultures are inadequate or wrong.
dating system – A method of marking an exact moment or
event in time.
excavation – The controlled, systematic, scientific, digging and
recording of an archeological site as part of a scientific process.
decay – To decompose, rot.
exemplar – A benchmark paper or performance under Vermont’s
Framework of Standards and Learning Opportunities. Exemplars
provide a clear and stable reference point for giving feedback to
students, educators, and the public in relation to standards.
Exemplars give students a clear picture of the targets they are
aiming for; and define levels of performance in concrete, meaningful, and public ways.
deductive reasoning – A thinking process based forming general hypotheses about human behavior and try to prove those theories with particular scientific data or site evidence.
deposition – The circumstances that led to the creation specific
stratum, or the circumstances that led to an artifact’s placement
or position within a specific stratum.
democratic (n. democracy) – Government by the people, exercised either directly or through elected officials.
development – In CRM, refers to any proposed construction or
other project that will change or alter the existing natural or
cultural landscape in any way. Commonly refers to a group of
dwellings built by a contractor, or the specific process of building such structures that involves changing the existing landscape. Also initiation or growth, such as a new development in
agriculture, and agricultural development.
diagnostic artifact – An item that is indicative of a particular
time and/or cultural group.
experimental archeology – Scientific studies designed to discover what processes produced and/or modified sites and artifacts.
fauna – Animals or animal remains.
feature – Groups of items or large non-portable artifacts.
Common Precontact Period or “Era” features include firepits,
shelters, and storage pits. During the Historic Period, typical
features included elements of residences, outbuildings, watersystems and transportation routes.
fieldwork – The second step in the scientific archeological
method. The careful and systematic process of gathering data or
substantive evidence from archeological sites to test and refine
hypotheses. This information can be used to construct general
theories about human behavior.
disintegrate – To separate into components, decay, or rot.
disturbed site, see site, disturbed
electrolysis – An archeological conservation process for cleaning metal artifacts.
enabling activity, see learning activity
environment – Natural surroundings or natural landscape. Can
refer to cultural surroundings or cultural landscape.
environmental movement – A trend toward the preservation of
natural landscapes and resources such as topsoil, forests, wetlands, and waterways through avoidance, reduced use, recycling, and other means. A trend toward the preservation of historic cultural landscapes with natural landscapes through
enhanced awareness, landuse planning, and increasing public
stewardship.
environmental regulatory review – The process by which development projects are scrutinized by panels, staff or volunteers
representing federal, state and local agencies.
era – A term that marks continuous intervals exhibiting common characteristics. Occasionally synonymous with the terms
flake – A chip, usually of stone, that is a byproduct of tool manufacture or use.
flora – Plants or plant remains.
focusing question – One or more questions that concentrate a
student comprehension of a specific standard or set of standards
outlined in an activity based on Vermont’s Framework of
Standards and Learning Opportunities.
foodway – The pattern of food gathering, preparation, and discard that a cultural group follows.
graver – A stone flake artifact with one or more spurs chipped
into the edges and used for delicate cutting and engraving.
Gregorian Calendar – The dating system that we still use today,
devised by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582. The Gregorian calendar
features uneven months and an odd number of weeks in each
month; it is an improvement on the earlier Julian calendar.
grid – a network of uniformly spaced squares that divide a project area or site into units; used to measure and record provenience of archeological materials.
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heritage – Cultural or personal legacy, history.
heritage tourism – Travel directed toward experiencing history,
the arts, or the special character of a place.
Historic Era – An interval of time after the advent of written
language. In North America this interval describes time after the
arrival of Europeans. European contact by representatives of
various nations exploring and exploiting the New World’s
resources occurred in different places at different times.
historic landscape (cultural landscape) – A term that includes
significant viewsheds in historic sites, historic designed landscapes, historic vernacular landscapes, and ethnographic landscapes.
historic map – A graphic representation of the earth that is no
longer in common use because it is outdated. Historic maps
include topographic maps, railroad design plans, atlases, and
engineering plans.
historic preservation – The movement to save or set aside specific places and objects that are considered important aspect of
the public’s heritage. Today, the term historic preservation
broadly refers to individuals and organizations working together
to steward our nation’s heritage through the protection of archeological sites and other historic properties.
historic properties – Districts, sites, buildings, structures, and
objects that are significant in American history, architecture,
archeology, engineering, and culture. Historic landscapes and
traditional cultural properties are two newly added historic
property types under Federal regulation 36 CFR PART 60 that
pertains to the National Register of Historic Places.
human activity (pl. – activities) – The smallest observable component(s) of an archeological site. The area(s) where some type
of task took place.
hypothesize (n. – hypothesis) – To form a reasoned assumption
or explanation that may account for observed facts that can be
tested by further investigation.
information is used to construct general theories about human
behavior.
landform – One of the many natural features that make up the
earth’s diverse topographic surface. Major examples include
plain, plateau, or mountain. Minor features include hill, valley,
slope, and alluvial fan.
landuse – Past and present ways that people have manipulated
the natural landscape to serve their purposes. Traces of these
activities form the cultural landscape.
landuse planning, see also democratic and public trust—
Outlining how a piece of property should be preserved or
altered in advance, and for what purposes.
Law of Superposition – A general scientific law upon which
geologic and archeological chronology is based. This law states
that in any sequence of layered rocks, sedimentary or extrusive
volcanic, that has not been overturned, the youngest stratum is
at the top and the oldest is at the base; each bed is younger than
the bed beneath, but older than the bed above it. This law was
first clearly stated by Nicolaus Steno in 1669.
learning activity – A task through which students learn and/or
demonstrate the knowledge, skills, and habits of mind needed
to attain the identified standards. These activities are designed
to take students systematically from where they are to the
desired learning outlined in Vermont’s Framework of Standards
and Learning Opportunities.
legal compliance – Conforming to, or following laws, rules, or
requests. The phrase compliance archeology is often used synonymously with cultural resource management.
legal easement (conservation easement) – A legal document
that restricts the use of land to farming, open space, or wildlife
habitat. A landowner may sell or donate an easement to a government agency, non-profit organization, or a private land trust.
legislation – The act or procedure of making laws.
lifeform – A living organism, plant, or animal.
impact – Damage to an archeological site or historic property.
in situ (Latin for in place) – The original place, or location,
where an artifact is found. Also refers to preserving an unaltered
site in its original location or context.
inductive reasoning – A thinking process that uses a series of
specific observations to derive general conclusions.
interdisciplinary – Across or involving several professions.
Archeology is interdisciplinary because it involves the methods
and support of various other professions or fields of study.
interface – The area of contact between strata, or cultural features.
introductory activity – Task to stimulate student interest in the
topic and to motivate students to participate actively in learning
outlined in Vermont’s Framework of Standards and Learning
Opportunities.
laboratory analysis – The third step in the scientific archeological method. To examine methodically. The process of methodically examining artifacts, features and sites. Like careful fieldwork, laboratory analysis gathers data or substantive evidence
from archeological remains to test and refine hypotheses. This
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lifeway – The pattern of living that a cultural group follows.
Lifeways include the things that people make in order to get
food and use other natural resources. For example, moving from
place to place in search of wild plant foods is part of a lifeways
pattern. Archeologists tend to study specific cultural lifeways, or
broader cultural systems.
linear time – A way by which people view the passage of events
as points along a continuous unending interval.
lithic – Stone, or made of stone.
looting – The act of removing artifacts from sites for other than
approved scientific reasons, such as to sell or add to a private
collection. Looting is illegal on federal property and on
Vermont’s state lands. Private landowners stewarding archeological sites may also prosecute looters for vandalism and trespassing.
lunar – Of, involving, or caused by the moon. Lunar may refer
to measurements based on revolutions of the moon (i.e., lunar
month, or year).
management plan – An administrative guide. Archeologists and
other site stewards write management plans that balance growth
and development with protection and preservation of archeologically sensitive areas and known sites for future generations. A
management plan typically describes the purpose of the plan,
individual or organization developing the plan, locates the area
on a modern topographic or other map, and outlines landowner’s goals for short- and long-term management of natural and
cultural resources. Archeological sites and other historic properties are identified, preferably through non-destructive means
such as archival research and surface survey. The management
plan notes any potential threats to cultural resources being stewarded in their natural setting, and develops ways to address
goals and to maintain or improve resource condition. Federal
and state government agencies, as well as non-profit organizations may be available to assist with management plan development.
manufacture – The process of converting raw materials into finished products, or capital goods. For example hardening clay
and sand temper in a kiln to produce pottery.
map – A two or three dimensional representation of the earth.
map key – A set of answers used to decipher symbols or graphics on a chart or illustration, also called a legend.
and support public and private efforts to identify, evaluate, and
protect our historic and archeological resources. The Advisory
Council on Historic Preservation maintains the National
Register of Historic Places, reviewing archeological sites and
other historic properties proposed for nomination.
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act
(NAGPRA) – Legislation passed in 1990 primarily to protect
Native American Graves on Federal and tribal lands, suppress
the illegal trafficking of Native American cultural items, require
museums to inventory human remains and associated funerary
objects, and outline a way that such items may be returned to
related tribes or descendants.
natural processes – The ways by which nature, through time,
forms, preserves or threatens the quality of archeological site
evidence. For example, erosion, flooding, and burial in acidic
soil.
natural resources – A material or living source of wealth that
occurs in a natural state, such as forests, water, and metallic or
non-metallic minerals. References to natural resources often
explicitly or implicitly assume a limited supply.
NEPA, see National Environmental Protection Act
map scale – A calibrated line, or marks at a regular interval that
indicate proportions and can be used to measure objects or distances.
map symbol – A printed or illustrated sign that represents an
object, idea, or quantity.
non-renewable, site – evidence of unique human activity that
cannot be duplicated or replaced. Synonym: irreplaceable.
Generally used in conjunction with resources (e.g., non-renewable natural and cultural resources).
observation – Recognizing or noting a fact or occurrence.
matrix – The material, sediment, or soil that makes up a site,
stratigraphic layer, or surrounds an artifact or feature.
midden – Cultural refuse associated with the human occupation
of sites. Any place people heaped trash, food remains, or other
discarded items.
oral history – A method some people use to convey their past,
stories, traditions, myths, and personal or collective memory
based on first hand experience and the experiences of others.
This phrase also refers to the method of gathering this spoken
information from others.
multi-component site – An area of the landscape where more
than one distinct episode of past human activity occurred based
on the material remains deposited there.
organic materials – Artifacts that were once living. For example
wood, shell, bone, leather, and other items that humans fashioned into artifacts out of once living materials.
NAGPRA, see Native American Graves Protection and
Repatriation Act
orthophotograph – A photograph that has the position and
scale qualities of a map. The orthophotograph also has the
abundant imagery of a conventional perspective photograph,
showing great detail.
National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA) – Legislation
first established in 1969 primarily to protect the natural environment. This act indicates federal agencies must consider the
impact their project, funding, or permitting will have on historic
properties in the course of environmental regulatory review.
National Historic Preservation Act, Section 106 – Legislation
first established in 1966 and amended through 1992 aimed at
initiating a comprehensive program for the preservation of historic properties throughout the nation. This effective legislation
established the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation,
National Register of Historic Places, State Historic Preservation
Officers, and in addition to historic property stewardship, lead
to vast improvements in management of cultural resources such
as archeological sites. Section 106 of this act states that the head
of every federal agency must take into account the effect a proposed project will have on historic properties before authorizing
any funds or permits.
National Register of Historic Places – This is the official list of
the nation’s cultural resources now considered worthy of preservation. Authorized under the National Historic Preservation Act,
the National Register is part of a national program to coordinate
Paleoindian Period – An interval of time that followed the end
of the last ice age around 11,500 B.P, or 9,500 B.C. to 7,000
B.C., during which humans first inhabited what is now
Vermont. The Paleoindian period is archeologically characterized by a similarity of artifacts through the New World, their
technology was adapted to making a living in an arctic tundra
environment.
period – Vermont’s archeologists use period to mean an interval
of time with common characteristics. Vermont’s educators
define period as a time of rapid change. Geologists and many
other disciplines of study variously employ period to refer to a
general time or specific time unit.
permit – Written authorization. Permits for proposed development or other projects may be required by federal and state
agencies, as well as local municipalities. There are a multitude
of permits that may be required for any given project; building
permits, permits to move human remains, archeology permits,
utilities permits, landuse permits are some examples.
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139
pH [p(otential of) H(ydrogen)] – A measure of the acidity or
alkalinity of a solution. Neutral value is numbered 7, increasing
for alkalinity, and decreasing for acidity. Preservation of archeological materials varies with sediment or soil acidity. For example, acidic soil, common in northeastern North American, can
accelerate decay of organic materials in archeological sites.
Phase I Site Identification – The archeological process of finding evidence of past human activity through archival research
and fieldwork, followed by laboratory analysis and public
reporting.
Phase II Site Evaluation – The process of determining the
national, state and local importance of a specific historic property through archival research and fieldwork, followed by laboratory analysis and public reporting.
Phase III Site Mitigation – Making up for any damage to evidence of past human activity through archeological excavation,
stewarding similar archeological sites elsewhere, educational
programs, or other means. Today, destructive data recovery
excavation is the most common form of archeological Phase III
Site Mitigation. Incorporates archival research, laboratory analysis, and public reporting.
phenomena – Any occurrences of fact or events that are directly
perceptible to the senses. This word sometimes refers to unusual, sensational, or unanswerable accounts or occurrences.
population pressure – The stresses that develop when the
inhabitants of a given area increase beyond the region, or community’s carrying capacity, or the ability to provide basic
resources like clean water, food, shelter, and employment.
Historians and archeologists can often link social misfortunes
like past wars, environmental degradation, famine, and plagues
to population pressure.
Precontact Era – An interval of time characterized by Native
American occupation of North America before the arrival of
Europeans.
predictive model – A tentative idea used to test or predict
where archeological sites are located. Such hypotheses are usually based on the relationship between natural resources and settlement patterns, but can just as easily be formed around other
concepts, like sacred landscapes. Although there are many predictive models currently being applied in CRM archeology, the
acceptance of a predictive model should be based on statistical
analysis that verifies hypothesis validity. Unfortunately, a limited
data set precludes adequate scientific testing of many predictive
models (e.g., multi-variant statistical analyses; multiple archeological sites of one type are rare and the many variables influencing locations need to be accounted for individually).
Computer databases, geographic information systems, and high
quality archeological settlement pattern research have the potential to change these technological limitations.
prehistory – Many archeologists broadly refer to the entire
human past as history, similar to geologists referring to the
study of earth’s past as geologic history. To some archeologists
there is an inherent division between the period of time when
societies left no written records of themselves (Prehistory) and
the time after the introduction of written records (History).
However, the origins of written records vary tremendously
through time and by geographic location. Whatever region of
the globe, the over reliance on written records de-emphasizes
interpretation of the past through native oral traditions, artwork, objects, and archeology. A few archeologists have proposed less value-laden alternatives for studying North American
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time, such as Precontact Period, Contact Period, and Historic
Period. The authors prefer this latter dating system.
preservation – Protection of natural or cultural resources from
damage or destruction by setting them aside or maintaining
them in existing or better condition. This differs from conservation, or the wise use of limited resources.
preservationist – A person dedicated to saving historic properties for the future. In the United States, this term historically
referred primarily persons interested preserving old buildings of
importance.
primary source – Original written or other archival documents
from the time period being studied. For example newspapers,
census records, photographs, diaries, letters and maps. An
archeological site, first-person oral account, object, and artwork
from the time period being studies are also invaluable primary
sources.
projectile point – A general term for stone, bone and wooden
points that were often hafted to darts, spears or arrows. Many
people often incorrectly call these different tools arrowheads,
whereas only some were fixed to arrow shafts. Modern projectiles have continued to evolve from musket balls to nuclear
weapon warheads.
provenience – Spatial location or context. The three-dimensional, horizontal and vertical position of sites, artifacts, and matrix
found during excavation or survey.
pseudo-science – The unscientific or trivially scientific theory,
methodology, or activity that appears to be or is presented as
scientific. Unfortunately, pseudo-science or fantastic explanations for archeological evidence can be more popular than actual scientific explanation or oral traditions perhaps due to low
archeological literacy.
public forum – A community gathering or meeting democratically open to any member of the population.
public reporting – The fourth, and final, step in the scientific
archeological method. To share what has been learned from
archeological investigation, as mandated by public trust.
Archeological reports combine all information from archival
research, fieldwork and laboratory analysis to reach specific theories or even scientific laws about human behavior. May refer to
published papers, archeological consulting reports, oral presentations, web sites or many other types of reporting.
public trust – An individual or group responsibility to protect
other people’s rights to heritage values and to the tangible
things (artifacts, environmental samples, and sites) that embody
these values.
reconstruction – To rebuild, or replicate, or theorize past artifacts, features, lifeways, and cultures through scientific archeological study.
record keeping – Documentation like written archeological
records, photographs, and illustrations.
relative dating – Placing objects in an approximate order along
a time continuum without reference to any absolute point or
calendric date. For example A is older than B.
rescue archeology, see salvage archeology
research design – A plan, prior to beginning any work, with sci-
entific reasoning clearly outlined. Archeological research designs
include: 1.) defining the problem or question, 2.) constructing
an appropriate hypothesis, 3.) developing one or more ways to
test the hypothesis, 4.) deciding on what data collection techniques will provide the necessary information, 5.) ensuring that
all archeological steps are ethical, and 5.) enlisting people and
equipment that will gather the data in the most efficient and
economic ways.
rubric – An established set of parameters for scoring or rating
student performance on specified tasks. Good rubrics consist of
a fixed measurement scale (e.g., 1-10 points), a set of clear criteria, performance descriptions for each criterion at each point
of the scale, and sample responses (anchors) that illustrate various levels of performance related to Vermont’s Framework of
Standards and Learning Opportunities.
salvage archeology – Archeological methods historically used to
quickly retrieve important information that would have been
destroyed due to natural or cultural threats. Today, the phrase
often negatively refers to large public works projects where
there is little advance planning or adequate funding for standard
quality archival research, fieldwork, laboratory analysis or public reporting.
sample – A portion or piece representative of the whole.
sampling strategy – A process or method of selecting a sample.
The objective is to draw reliable general conclusions about a
whole site or region from small areas sampled, usually employing statistical methods. Sampling strategies are either based on
probability or intuition.
pattern typically addresses site location with respect to natural
and other types of cultural resources.
shard, see sherd
sherd – A piece of broken pottery or glass.
significance – Importance, the term used to indicate an archeological site’s, or other historic property’s, eligibility for the
National Register of Historic Places as defined under federal law.
single-component site – An area of the landscape where one
distinct episode of past human activity occurred, as interpreted
from the material remains deposited there.
site, archeological – Any area of the landscape where past
human activity occurred and material remains were deposited.
site, disturbed – A site where the original stratigraphy and
archeological materials have been mixed by natural or human
action, for example erosion or bulldozing.
site form – A document or questionnaire, usually pre-printed,
which a person may complete in writing to describe an archeological site. The questionnaire usually asks who found the site,
how it was found, when, the sites location, contents, condition,
and any impending threats to the site. A standardized format
lends itself to creating a computerized database.
site formation processes – The ways in which a site is made,
including human activity through deposition of artifacts and
creation of features, and natural process such as burial or arid
conditions that help to preserve archeological evidence.
scientific method, see scientific archeological method
scientific archeological method – A condensed description of
the archeological process (e.g., archival research) and cognitive
inquiry (e.g., observation and formulating questions and
hypotheses) that succinctly addresses Vermont’s Framework of
Standards and Learning Opportunities standards presented in the
Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past curriculum unit.
season – A period of time marked by characteristic events. For
example, a recurrent period marked by certain occupations, festivals, or crops. Alternatively, one of the four equal natural divisions of the year, spring, summer, fall, and winter as indicated
by the earth’s orbit in relation to the sun.
site transformation processes – Events that lead to the alteration or destruction of archeological sites, namely parent material, climate, plants and other organisms, topography and time.
soil formation processes – Events that produce or alter sediment, namely parent material, climate, plants and other organisms, topography and time. These circumstances can change
sites and artifacts after burial in sediment. Soil formation
processes create soil strata.
solar – Of, pertaining to, or proceeding from the sun.
Section 106, see National Historic Preservation Act
State Register of Historic Places – This is the official list of the
State of Vermont’s cultural resources now considered worthy of
preservation. The criteria for nominating significant state sites
to the register are identical to the guidelines established for the
National Register of Historic Places. This State Register of
Historic Places is maintained by the Vermont Division for
Historic Preservation.
sediment – A layer of rock particles which are no longer in the
place where it formed geologically, but has been moved from its
original location. May also refer to weathering of rock into soil
parent material or chemical precipitation at a particular place.
Weathering, chemical precipitation, or redeposition may be the
result of natural or cultural processes.
standard – One of a set of consistent procedures for administering and scoring student assessment according to Vermont’s
Framework of Standards and Learning Opportunities. The goal of
standardization is to ensure that all students are assessed under
uniform conditions so that interpretation of their performance is
comparable and not influenced by differing conditions.
seriation – A method of arranging archeological sites or assemblages in time according to similar or dissimilar frequencies of
certain artifact types. Also a relative dating technique.
steward – A person who protects archeological sites from cultural threats such as vandalism and looting, as well as natural
threats like erosion, plant growth and animal activity. It is optimal to steward both cultural and natural resources in their original, unaltered setting.
secondary source – Information that someone compiled from
original historic documents and other resources. History books
are a common secondary source of information.
settlement pattern – A phrase archeologists use to describe
where groups of sites, associated with a particular time period
or culture, are located. The geographic analysis of settlement
stewardship – “Taking good care of the land” and all natural
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and cultural resources associated with that land. There are many
ways citizens can actively steward archeological sites for future
generations.
stratigraphy – The study of sediment or soil layers in archeological sites for different scientific purposes. For example, soil layers can be use to reconstruct a site’s past environment, or provide a relative chronological sequence through successive sediment layers containing oldest deposits at the bottom and more
recent deposition at the top.
stratum (pl. – strata) – An individual layer of sediment or level
in an archeological site. Archaeological strata form when the
cultural remains and natural sediments of a site are buried over
time.
structure, see also building – Although commonly used synonymously with the word building, structure has a specific
meaning under federal preservation law. Federal regulation 36
CFR PART 60 that pertains to the National Register of Historic
Places, defines structure as a work made up of interdependent
parts in a definite pattern of organization. It often refers to a
large scale engineering project constructed by humans. The
term may include dams, bridges, houses, and other related edifices.
subsistence – Diet. What people eat, how they obtain, prepare,
consume, and discard food.
test pit – Small or limited trial unit excavations undertaken
prior to actual excavation of an archeological site, or in place of
broader unit excavation if the site will only be sampled.
time – The interval or duration in which events occur along a
continuum in apparently irreversible succession from the past
through the present and to the future. The way in which people
view the duration of events and relate them to other intervals.
time line – A visual representation of events in chronological
order.
time scale – An arbitrary chronologic arrangement or sequence
of events used to measure the relative or absolute duration of
any age or part of any time, and usually represented in the form
of a chart.
topography – The variable contour of the earth’s surface, or the
elevation of a particular area, either natural or cultural.
Alternatively, the cartographic skill of depicting such natural or
cultural features on a map.
traditional cultural places – A historic property whose significance is derived from the role the property plays in a community’s historically rooted beliefs, customs, and practices. Examples
include a location associated with the traditional beliefs of a
Native American group (like Ojihozo, the primal Transformer in
Abenaki mythology, now on Rock Dunder a bedrock island in
Lake Champlain) or an urban neighborhood that is the traditional home of a particular cultural group.
transportation – The act or process of moving persons, goods,
and/or cargo from one place to another. The mode or method of
moving these items.
type – The set of attributes used to distinguish a group of artifacts.
typology – Systematic organization of artifacts into types on the
basis of shared attributes. Groups of projectile points, for exam-
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ple, may be organized by shape and size to form a typology.
Typologies cannot be used alone as a dating technique, however
they can aid relative dating if supported by absolute dates from
other sites.
vandalism – The willful or malicious destruction or public or
private property, in this case archeological sites or other historic
properties.
verifiable – Provable or confirmable. The scientific method is
designed so that others may confirm the procedure and results
to test conclusions independently.
Vermont Archeological Inventory, see also site form
Vermont Division for Historic Preservation – The Vermont
Division for Historic Preservation was created as part of
Vermont’s Historic Preservation Act of 1975 to coordinate historic preservation activities on behalf of the state (Section 2. 3
Vermont Statutes Annotated ß 2473, and Section 4. 22 Vermont
Statutes Annotated, Chapter 14, Subchapter 3, ß 721). A unit of
the Agency of Commerce and Community Development’s,
Department of Housing and Community Affairs. The overall
mission of Housing and Community Affairs is to further sustainable development of Vermont Communities: to coordinate,
consolidate and operate, to the extent possible, state housing
programs, to administer federal grants, to be the central state
agency for local and regional planning, to identify, protect and
promote the state’s public and private historic and archeological
sites, and to administer programs designed to promote the economic health of Vermont’s traditional commercial centers.
Vermont Historic Preservation Plan – This evolving document
produced by the Vermont Division for Historic Preservation outlines the state’s goals of protecting and promoting Vermont’s
important historic and archeological resources during the next
decade. Prepared during various years, in 3-ring binder format.
Vermont Historic Preservation Act (Section 4. 22 Vermont
Statutes Annotated, Chapter 14, Subchapter 3, § 721) –
Vermont’s state historic preservation legislation enacted in 1975
to establish an Advisory Council on Historic Preservation and
Division for Historic Preservation, the latter with a Director and
State Archeologist. This act requires state agencies to cooperate
with the Division, and state licensed or contracted projects to
preserve or recover archeological data in the public interest.
Vermont’s Framework of Standards and Learning Opportunities –
The general guide local schools and districts can use to develop
their own specific curricula. It also makes explicit what may be
included in statewide assessments of student learning.
Western Abenaki – Vermont’s largest Native American group
still occupying traditional territory in modern day Vermont,
southeastern Québec, New Hampshire, northern Massachusetts,
and western Maine.
Woodland Period – A general time period, initiated by the
appearance of pottery around 900 B.C., that follows the Archaic
Period and ends with Samuel de Champlain’s excursion to Lake
Champlain in 1609.
RECOMMENDED RESOURCES
Champion, Sara. 1980. Dictionary of Terms and Techniques in
Archaeology. Everest House, New York, New York.
Core Connections Technology Group. 1998. Standards-IntoAction: A Professional Development Tool Kit for Standards-Based
Education. Vermont: Core Connections Technology Group,
Vermont/IBM Reinventing Education Partnership, The Vermont
Department of Education, The Vermont Institute for Science,
Math, and Technology, in coordination with the WEB Project
and the Vermont Middle Grades Initiative.
Fagan, Brian M., ed. 1996. The Oxford Companion to
Archaeology. Oxford University Press, New York, New York.
Annotation: Encyclopedic approach to archeology.
Jackson, Julia A., ed. 1997. Glossary of Geology. American
Geological Institute, Alexandria, Virginia.
Knudson, S. J. 1978. Culture in Retrospect: An Introduction to
Archaeology. Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc.
Morris, William, ed. 1973. The American Heritage Dictionary of
the English Language. New York, New York: American Heritage
Publishing Co., Inc. and Houghton Mifflin Company.
Renfrew, Colian and Paul Bahn. 1991. Archaeology: Theories,
Methods, and Practice. New York, New York: Thames and
Hudson, Ltd.
Landes, Robin S. and Joanna T. Moyar. 1996. Archeologists at
Work: A Teacher’s Guide to Classroom Archaeology. Alexandria
Archaeology Publications. Alexandria, Virginia: Alexandria
Archaeology, Office of Historic Alexandria.
RECOMMEND RESOURCES
143
INDEX
A
A.D., 5
Abenaki
border design, xiii
ethnicity, 14, 17, 18, 29
Missisquoi, 14, 28
Nation, 80
St. Francis, xviii
Tribal Museum and Cultural Center, 6
Western, 4, 17, 52, 69
absolute dating. See dating relative, artifact age, and site age
Achelis, Elizabeth, 4
Act 250, Criterion 8, viii, 77, 91
activity
educational. See Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past curriculum unit, activity, educational
educational alternate. See Rock River Valley: Pathway to the
Past curriculum unit, activity, educational alternate
educational culminating. See Rock River Valley: Pathway to
the Past curriculum unit, activity, educational culminating
human, xvii, 14, 27, 32, 70
Addison County, 88
Advisory Council for Historic Preservation, 54
agribusiness. See agriculture
agriculture, xvii, xviii, xx, 17, 41, 43, 53, 76. See also technology, agriculture
land, prime, 77
Alaska, 17
Anasazi, 52
Anglophone, xix. See also English
anthropology, 90
antiquarian, 90
antique store, 95
Antiquities Act of 1906, 90
Archaeological Conservancy, 95
Archaeology Research Center. See University of Maine,
Farmington, Archaeology Research Center
Archaic Period, 5, 18, 30, 78
archeological
consulting report, viii, 32, 40, 42, 54, 79, 91, 93. See also
public, reporting
dating. See artifact dating, dating absolute and relative
field school, 54, 96
fieldwork, xxii, 28, 53, 55, 56-57, 78
literacy, viii, 91, 127
presentation, 93. See also public, reporting
process. See scientific archeological method.
publication popular, 93. See also public, reporting
publication professional, ix, 54, 93. See also public, reporting
rescue. See archeological, salvage
resource, 40
salvage, 91
scientific method. See scientific, archeological method
144
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PAST
site. See site, archeological
standards, 54
technology. See technology
volunteer, 54, 92
volunteer training program, Arkansas, 95
volunteer training program, Texas, 95
Archeological Resources Protection Act, 91, 95
archeologically sensitive area, 40, 78
archeologist, qualified, viii, 41, 54
archeology, vii, xx, 3, 124
history of in United States, 90
low quality, 92
archeology library, xi, 52, 57
architecture, historic. See also historic architecture, historic
properties, building, outbuilding, and structure
archival research, xxii, 28, 40, 55, 68, 78
Arizona. See site, certified stewardship program, Arizona
Arkansas. See archeological, volunteer training program
ARPA. See Archeological Resources Protection Act
Arti Fact, xxi, 28, 40, 55, 69, 93, 96, 104
artifact, xx, 14, 28
age, 29, 69
analysis, 69
assemblage. See assemblage
catalog. See catalog
characteristics, 29
classification. See classification
collecting, vii
condition, 69
conservation, 69. See also site
context. See context
craftsmanship, 29
curation. See curate
dating, 69. See also dating, absolute and relative
documentation, 69
ethnic origin, 29, 69
function, 29, 69
identification, 69
in situ context, 56. See alsoin situ and context
material, 29, 69
provenience. See provenience
seriation. See seriation
shape, 29, 69
size, 29, 69
typology. See typology
artist, xvii, 32 See alsoPrescott, Reed III
assemblage, 69
assessment, student. See Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past
curriculum unit, assessment, student
assets, archeological sites as, 76
association, 56
attribute, 69
avoidance, xxi, 40, 56, 78, 79
B
B.C., 5
B.C.E., 5
B.P., 5
Babylonia, 4
Ballard Road, 79
barn, xix
beans, 68
Beaver Spirit Power Woman, xviii
bedrock, xviii, 41
Beers, Frederick W., 43
Bering land bridge, 17
Bill of Rights, 89
birth certificate, 42
Blackfoot Indians, 5
Boucher Cemetery, 52
Bradley Road. See Ballard Road
bridge
location, 41
stringer, xix, 69
building, 3, 14, 28, 30, 76, 88. See also historic architecture, historic properties, outbuilding, and structure
C
c.a., 2
C.E., 5
Caesar, Julius, 4
calendar, 4
Callum, Kathleen E., 133
camera, 70
Canada, 80
capital
good, 52
investment, 76
Carbon-14. See dating, radiocarbon
caribou, 32
cartesian coordinates, 56
cartographer, 43
catalog, artifact, 69, 96
cemetery marker, 42
census record, 42
ceramic, 29, 69
Champlain Samuel de, 3, 43
Champlain Sea, 17, 124
Champlain Valley, xix
change, 14
chemist, 54
chemistry, archeological site, 31
Chile, 17
China, 4, 52
chronological, 69
citizenship, 81, 95, 127
classification, 69
classroom expedition, xiv, 60
climate, 18, 31, 52, 89
clock, 4
collection
museum, 68
private artifact, 68, 90
Colonial Williamsburg, 52
comment card, xi, 151
composite artifact, 31
compromise, viii, 78
computer, 31
conflict resolution, 77
consensus, viii, 77
conservation. See artifact or site
conservation movement, 90
conservator, 54
consulting archeologist, xiii, 29, 68, 77-78, 92. See also
GEOARCH, Inc. and University of Maine, Farmington,
Archaeology Research Center
Contact Period, xvii, 5, 14, 29, 68
context, vii, 28, 56, 68
continuity, 14
contract archeology. See also archeology, archeologist, qualified,
consulting archeologist.
corridor, travel, xx, 5, 17, 41, 78
criminology, 28
CRM. See cultural, resource management
cross-mend, 69
cultural
characteristics, 14, 125
processes, 29
resource, viii, 40, 89
resource management, viii, ix, 40, 91, 125
culture, 14
curate, viii, 70, 92
curriculum. See Vermont’s Framework of Standards and Learning
Opportunities, Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past curriculum unit, development of standards-based
archeology, 95
Custer Battlefield National Monument, 52
cyclical time. See time, cyclical
D
data recovery, 79
database, 42, 69, 91
dating
absolute, 70
radiocarbon, 5, 31, 70
relative, 69
system, 5
decay, 30. See also disintegrate
deductive reasoning, 55
deed, property, 42
democratic, xix, 77, 94
deposition, 69, 70
detective, 28, 124
development, 77, 125
diary, personal, 42
dig, don’t!, vii, viii, xxi, 30, 92, 126. See also historic preservation, site preservation, and stewardship
Dillon, R. Scott, Survey Archeologist, 92
dinosaur, 92, 124
directional boring, 80
disintegrate, 31. See also decay
disturbed site. See site, disturbed
Dutch, ethnicity, xviii
E
Eastern States Archaeological Federation, 96
ecologist, 17
educator, x
archeology, 95, 127
educator’s guide, Rock River Valley
Pathway to the Past, xi
eel, 41
INDEX
145
Egypt, 4, 52
electrolysis, 70
employment, archeology, 81
England, 52. See also Great Britain
English
ethnicity, xviii, xix
language, xix
environment, 14
environmental
change, xviii, 42, 52
movement, viii, 91
regulatory review, viii, 40, 77
samples, 69
studies, 95
epoch, 5
era, xi, 5
erosion, 30
ethical, viii, 40, 54, 70, 126
ethnicity, xvii, 4, 14, 29, 96. See also English. See also Irish, ethnicity. See also French-Canadian. See also Dutch, ethnicity.
See also German, ethnicity. See also Abenaki. See also site
ethnographer, 54
Euro-American
Settlement Period, xvii, 41, 78
settler, xviii, xix, 41, 68, 78
European
land claims, 5
European colonists, xviii, xix
evidence, surviving archeological, 29
excavation, 53
exemplar
student. See Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past curriculum
unit, exemplar, student
experimental archeology, 31, 55, 70, 80
explorer. See scientific, explorer
F
FAQs. See Frequently Asked Questions
fauna, 17
feature, xviii, xx, 29
field school. See archeological, field school
fieldwork, archeological. See archeological, fieldwork
fire hearth, xviii, 30, 78
flake, 17
floodplain, 41, 80
flora, 17
focusing question, learning section. See learning section, focusing question
focusing question, unit. See Rock River Valley: Pathway to the
Past curriculum unit, focusing question
foodway, 14
forest, xix, 18, 30, 41, 53, 89
forester, county, 95
France, xviii, 14, 43, 52. See also French-Canadian
Francophone, xix. See also French-Canadian
Franklin County, x, xvii, 17, 53, 68, 78
French-Canadian, xviii, xix, 52. See also France
ethnicity, xix, 18, 52
language, xix
Frequently Asked Questions, xiii, 124
G
Gagne, Fernand, xx
game warden. See Vermont Department of Fish and Wildlife,
game warden
146
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PAST
GEOARCH, Inc., ix, x, 78, 133
geographer, 41
geography, 40
geologist, 17, 31, 54
geotextile, 80
German, ethnicity, xix, 18, 52
Germany, xix, 18, 52
glossary, xi, xiii, 135
goodwife, xix
Governor, State of Vermont, 96
graver, 17
gravity. See natural processes
Great Britain, xviii, 89. See also England, English
Great Depression, 121
Green Mountain State. See Vermont
Gregorian calendar, 4, 137
grid, 56
grist mill, xviii, xix, 6, 30, 31, 52, 78, 92
H
haus frau, xix. See also goodwife
Hebrew, 4
Helen of Troy, 52
heritage, vii, 52, 89
tourism, vii, 52, 71, 89, 124
Highgate, Vermont, 17, 52
historian, 54
historic
architecture, vii, 91
context, 78
landscape, viii, 76
map, xvii, 43
preservation, viii, 53-54, 70, 91
properties, viii, 77
property. See also historic architecture, historic properties,
building, outbuilding, and structure
road. See road, historic
theme, vii, xvii, 17, 75, 78
Historic Era, xx, 5
history
global, vii
local, vii, 42
national, vii
state, vii, 42, 78
history book, ripping pages from, 56
Hollywood western movies, white hat in, 70
human burials, 52
humidity, 31
hydroelectric dam, 91
hypothesis, 42, 55
hypothesize, 40, 55
I
Ice Man, 52
immigrant, xviii, 5, 17, 52, 69, 89. See also Abenaki, ethnicity,
Euro-American, and European
importance of sites. See site, importance
in situ, 40
site protection, vii, viii 40, 53, 80
Inca, 52
index, xi, xiii, 144
Indiana Jones, 90
inductive reasoning, 55
Industrial Period, xvii, 43, 53, 77
industry, early, xvii
interdisciplinary, vii, 31, 54
Interstate Highway 89, xx, 6, 17
Inuit, 17
Irish, ethnicity, xix
iron furnace, 96
Iroquois, 14
irreplaceable. See site, non-renewable
J
Jefferson, Thomas, 52, 93
Jesus Christ, 52
Julian calendar, 4
K
kiln, lime. See lime, kiln
King, John, xviii, xx, 16, 17, 30, 41, 70
L
LaBarre, Pierre, xviii, xix, 15, 17, 30, 41, 43, 80, 96
Laber, Peter. See Pierre LaBarre
laboratory analysis, xxii, 28, 55, 68, 79
non-destructive, 70
Lake Champlain, 3, 17, 70
Lake Champlain Basin, 92
Lake Champlain Maritime Museum, 96
land claims, European. See European, land claims
land trust, 95
landform, 14, 41, 68
landowner, 77, 89
landuse, xix, 40
landuse planning, viii, xxi, 80, 91
Laplander, 4
Law of Superposition, 57
learning section, xi, 1, 13, 27, 39, 51, 67, 75, 87
focusing question, xiii
lesson
vocabulary, xiii, 1, 13, 27, 39, 51, 67, 75, 87
objective, xiii, 1, 13, 27, 39, 51, 67, 75, 87
legal
compliance, viii, 78, 94
easement, 95
legislation, xx, 54, 94, 125
library, public, 52, 95. See also archeology library
lifeform, 14
lime
industry, xviii, 43, 44, 56, 68
kiln, 43, 44, 96
Lime Kiln Road, 43, 56
limestone, xviii, 31, 41, 43, 44, 56, 68
linear time. See time, linear
lithic, 29
log cabin, 42
looter boycott, 95
looting, vii, 30, 89
Louisburg, Québec, 52
lunar, 3
Lutheran, xix
M
manufacture, 69
map, 43
historic. See historic map
key, 43
orthophotographic. See orthophotograph
scale, 43
symbol, 43
marble, xviii, 56
mill, xix
Marsh Road. See St. Armand Road
mathematics, 95
matrix, 56
Maya, 4, 52
medicinal plants, 53
Mesa Verde National Park, 52
microscope, 69
midden, 69
mill. See grist, marble and saw
Missisquoi
Abenaki. See Abenaki, Missisquoi
River, 5
Missisquoi County, Québec, 43
Modern Period, xvii, 53, 77
Moslem, 4
Mount Independence State Historic Site, 52
multi-component site, xviii, 41
N
NAGPRA. See Native American Graves Protection and
Repatriation Act
National Environmental Policy Act, 91
National Geographic, 79
National Historic Preservation Act, Section 106, viii, 77, 91
National Park Service, 54, 89, 90
national parks, 90
National Register of Historic Places, 95
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, 90
natural gas, vii, 81
natural processes, 29
gravity, 30
water, 30
wind, 30
natural resource, 30, 40, 89
distribution, 40
Natural Resource Conservation Service, 88-89
navigational aid, 4
NEPA. See National Environmental Policy Act
Netherlands, xviii
newspaper, 42
non-renewable, site. See site, non-renewable
Notes on the State of Virginia., 93
Nova Scotia, 17
O
objective, learning section. See learning section, objective
observation, 54
oral history, xviii, 3, 17, 42, 52, 96
organic, 17, 31, 70
orthophotograph, xvii, 43
orthophotographic. See orthophotograph
outbuilding, xix
Machu Picchu, 52
management plan, 71, 80, 94, 96
INDEX
147
P
paleobotanist, 31
Paleoindian Period, xviii, 17, 124
paleontologist, 92, 124
parent, x
past. See archeology
pathway. See transportation and travel
Peebles, Giovanna, State Archeologist, 92
period, xi, 4
Perkins, George, 90
permit, 77, 81, 91
Peru, 52
pH, 31
Phase I Site Identification, 55, 78
Phase II Site Evaluation, 55, 78
Phase III Site Mitigation, 55, 79
phenomena, 30, 55
photograph, 42
pipeline, natural gas. See Systems Expansion Project
pollen, 69
Pope Gregory XIII, 4, 137
population pressure, 53, 81
post office, xix
poster, Rock River Valley
Pathway to the Past, xvii
potashery, xix
Precontact Era, xx, 4, 89
Precontact Native American Site (VT-FR-315), 80
predictive model, 42, 78
prehistory. See Precontact Era
Prescott, Reed III, xvii, 134. See also artist
preservation. See historic preservation, site preservation, and
stewardship
preservationist, 90
primary source, 42
professionalism, archeological, 54
projectile point, 17
property
deed. See deed, property
rights, 89
provenience, 56
pseudo-science, 92
public
forum, 53, 77, 81
reporting, xxii, 70, 93
reporting, global archeological, 93
support, lack of, 91
trust, 89
Q
quarry, xviii, 32
limestone, 43, 44, 56, 68
marble, 56
Quaternary Period, 4
Québec, xix, 43
R
radiocarbon, dating. See dating, radiocarbon
Rann, William, 88
rare site. See site, rare
Reagen Site, xviii, 17
real estate, premiums paid for historic property, 89
reconstruction, 31, 52, 68
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ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
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record keeping, 56
Registry of Professional Archaeologists, 54
relative dating. See dating absolute, artifact age, and site age
report, archeological consulting. See archeological, consulting
report and public, reporting
research design, 54, 68. See also scientific archeological method
reroute, Systems Expansion Project. See Systems Expansion
Project
rescue archeology. See archeological, salvage
resource, archeological. See archeological, resource
river of time. See time, river of
road
Ballard or Bradley. See Ballard Road
historic, 43
St. Armand or Marsh. See St. Armand Road
Rock River Valley, x, 78
Pathway to the Past curriculum unit
activity
educational, xii, xiii, 7, 8, 20, 21, 33, 34, 45, 46, 47,
58, 60, 72, 87, 95, 98. See also don’t dig!
educational alternate, 62, 73, 99
educational culminating, xiii, 75, 82
assessment
student, x, xiii, xiv
development of standards-based, xv
exemplar
student, x
focusing question, x
standard, xii
unit, x
Rolando, Victor, 96
Rome, 4
Route 1, Systems Expansion Project. See Systems Expansion
Project
Route 2, Systems Expansion Project. See Systems Expansion
Project, Route 2
rubric, xiii, 106
S
salmon, 41, 92
salvage archeology. See archeological salvage
sample, 55, 92
sampling strategy, 78
saw mill, xix, 41
Saxe
Brook, xx, 30, 41
Brook North Site (VT-FR-234), xviii, 28, 42, 78
Catherine, xviii, xix, 16, 17, 30, 41, 96
family, xix
Farmstead and Mill (VT-FR-325), xix, 29, 41, 78, 124
John, xix
John Godfrey (poet laureate), xix, xx
Saxe’s Mills, xix, 43
scientific
archeological method, xxi, 18, 28, 40, 55, 68, 70, 93, 125
explorer, 40
method. See scientific, archeological method
scientific reasoning. See archeological scientific method, deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning
season, 3, 41
secondary source, 42
sediment, 28, 41, 70
seriation, 69
settlement pattern, 41, 53
shard. See sherd
sherd, 70
shipwreck, 70, 92
shovel-test pit. See test-pit
Shy One, xviii, 14, 15, 17, 28, 41, 69, 96
significance, 78
single-component site, 41
site, vii, xx, 2, 14, 28, 52, 69, 76, 88
age, 69, 126
avoidance. See avoidance
certified stewardship program, Arizona, 96
conservation, 92. See alsoartifact
disturbed, 30, 53, 76
ethnicity, 69
form. See Vermont Archeological Inventory, site form
formation processes, 28, 56
function, 69
importance, vii, 40, 52, 53, 55, 78
loss of, vii, 30, 53, 88
non-renewable, vii, 52, 53, 96
preservation, vii, 40, 53, 92, 126
public value, 89, 124
rare, vii, xi, 28, 29, 44, 55, 96
transformation processes, 29, 56
trespass prosecution, 95
unique, vii, xi, 2, 14, 52
watch, 95
Sloma, Robert A., 134
Sloma, Jozef Callum, 133, 134
Smithsonian Institution, 90
Society for American Archaeology, 54, 94
soil, 41, 70
acidity. See pH
formation processes, 30
scientist, 54
solar, 3
St. Armand Road, xix
standard. See Vermont’s Framework of Standards and Learning
Opportunities and Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past curriculum unit
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 52
State Historic Preservation Officer, 82, 83
State Register of Historic Places, 95, 96
steward, vii, 53, 80, 91
stewardship, vii, 77, 93, 127
community level, 94
stone
chamber, 92. See also pseudo-science
culvert, xix, 80
Stonehenge, 52
stratigraphy, 57, 126
stratum, 57
structure, viii, 14, 28, 92
sturgeon, 92
subsistence, 14, 28, 41
agriculture, xviii, 76. See also agriculture
Sumeria, 4
Systems Expansion Project, vii, viii, ix, 40, 76, 77, 94
reroute, xviii, 79
Route 1, 78
Route 2, 80
T
Teaching with Historic Places, 96
technology, xix, 14, 52, 53, 76
agriculture, 52
archeology, 40, 68
geography, 43
Industrial Period, 78
Modern Period, 70
transportation, xix, 80
temperature, 31
test pit, 56, 78
Texas. See archeological, volunteer training program
time, viii, 2
cyclical, 3
line, 4
line, Rock River Valley History, xx
linear, 4
river of, 19
scale, 4
town meeting forum, xiv, 82
trade goods, European, 68
traditional cultural place, viii, 52, 77
transportation, xvii, 14, 78. See also technology, transportation
and travel
trespass, archeological site. See site, trespass prosecution
Tukano Indians, 4
Tutankhamen, 52
type. See also typology
artifact, 69
blood, 32
cultural resource, 78
material, 29, 71
rock, 31
significant property, 78
site, 39, 41, 78
soil, 43
typology, 69
U
unique site. See site, unique
unit. See Rock River Valley:Pathway to the Past curriculum unit
United Nations, 4
United States Army Corps of Engineers, 125
United States Congress, 89
United States Supreme Court, 89
University of British Columbia, 91
University of Maine, Farmington
Archaeology Research Center, ix, xx, 78
University of Vermont, 90
V
value of sites. See sites, public value
vandalism, vii, 30, 53, 57, 89, 90
verifiable, 70
Vermont & Canada Junction Railroad. See Vermont & Canada
Railroad
Vermont & Canada Railroad (VT-FR-316), xix, 6, 43, 52, 69
Vermont Archaeological Society, Inc., 54, 94
Vermont Archaeology Week, xx, 92, 96. See also public reporting
Vermont Archeological Inventory, site form, 42, 54, 96, 120-123,
126
Vermont Gas Systems, Inc., vii, x, 29, 40, 52, 68, 76
Vermont Historic Preservation Act, 95
Vermont Historic Preservation Plan, 78
Vermont [State of], 76, 88
Department of Education, xv
Department of Fish and Wildlife, game warden, 95
Department of Forests, Parks, and Recreation, 95
Division for Historic Preservation, ix, xx, 54, 76, 92
State Police, 95
Vermont’s Framework of Standards and Learning Opportunities, vii,
xv, 5
INDEX
149
vocabulary, learning section, lesson. See learning section, lesson,
vocabulary
volunteer, archeological. See archeological, volunteer
W
water. See natural processes
waterfall, 41, 53
waterway, xviii, 41
wetland, xx, 41, 53, 77
whale, 124
wigwam, 69
will, personal, 42
wind. See natural processes
Woodland Period, xviii, 18, 41, 68
X
x-ray, 69
150
ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
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PAST
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ROCK RIVER VALLEY: PATHWAY
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ROCK RIVER VALLEY
his Rock River Valley history poster and accompanying
educator’s guide are products of the Vermont Gas
Systems, Inc., System Expansion Project. Vermont Gas
provides natural gas fuel to homes and businesses
across Vermont. In the 1980s, Vermont Gas began planning a 24kilometer (15.5-mile) long expansion to improve service through
Franklin County. Good planning takes years. It embraces local citizens, town officials, engineers, biologists, architectural historians,
T
and archeologists. From planning through construction, Vermont
Gas upholds federal, state, and local laws that help preserve our
natural and cultural resources. Educational materials focusing on
cultural resources such as buildings, historic landscapes, and
archeological sites are one public benefit of the System Expansion
Project. Educators may use this poster and accompanying guide to
address Vermont’s Framework of Standards and Learning
Opportunities.
PATHWAY TO THE PAST
WHAT
A
IS
ARCHEOLOGY ?
rcheology is the study of past people through clues like sites, features, and artifacts.
Our nation’s sites are unique, non-renewable resources.Vermont’s rich and ancient heritage
is being lost at an increasingly alarming rate due to natural and human causes.
Follow “Arti Fact” and the archeologists as they travel along the Rock River’s
pathway to the past. Help investigate threatened sites through a process of:
archival research, careful fieldwork, laboratory analysis, and thorough reporting.
ROCK RIVER VALLEY HISTORY
ranklin County, Vermont is home to many beautiful and
historic places, including the valley of the Rock River.
This region is best known for its rich ethnic heritage,
diverse agricultural background, innovative transportation history, and thriving early industrial economy. Vermont Gas
F
explored the archeology and history of the Rock River Valley, a
microcosm of Franklin County, during its recent development project. Along its banks, you will meet Native American Abenaki, early
settlers, railroad construction crews, and modern residents. Welcome
to the historic Rock River Valley.
1609 Contact Period
1863 Industrial Period
Kuai (hello, pronounced kweye’)! I am Shy
Bonjour (Good day)! Pierre LaBarre is my
name, but the payroll clerk lists me as Peter
Laber. At eighteen, I left home to seek work
in the United States. Now I’m helping build
the new Vermont and Canada Railroad.
One. My family and I are Masipskoiak
(Missisquoi Abenaki). We share the name of
our permanent village Masip-skoiodanak
(Flint River village). Yesterday we set up
our wigiwôm (houses) on the Senitewk (Rock River).
1790 Euro-American
Settlement Period
2000 Modern Period
Hello! My name is John King. Archeologists
Guten Tag (Good day)! My name is Frau
(Mistress) Catherine Saxe, good wife to
John Saxe, the miller. The Saxe family will
be glad to have you as a new neighbor, here
in our frontier settlement.
working for Vermont Gas discovered an
Abenaki camp here on my family’s farm, dating to the Precontact era. Stewarding this and
other important archeological sites will provide
economic growth in the future.
Copies of the Rock River Valley: Pathway to the Past poster and educator’s guide are available from:
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Vermont Gas Systems, Inc.
P.O. Box 467
So. Burlington, Vermont 05402-0467
SECTION ONE: TIME FLOWS THROUGH VERMONT’S
TEL: (802) 863-4511
TEL: (800) 639-8081
FAX: (802) 863-8871
ROCK RIVER VALLEY
EMAIL: [email protected]
WEB: www.vermontgas.com