A Holistic Framework
for Leaders in a
Wicked World
John Rayment
Formerly principal lecturer, Lord Ashcroft International
Business School
Jonathan Smith
Senior lecturer, Lord Ashcroft International Business School
Address for correspondence: [email protected]
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Abstract
Wicked problems are those which have not been previously solved and attempts at solving
them may fail and even make the situation worse or have adverse affects on other issues.
The scale and scope of such problems faced by current leaders and decision makers is
growing such that there is pressure for systemic organisational and societal change. There
is also general acceptance that leaders must consider a broader spectrum of facets in their
decision making. There is, however, little guidance to those leaders as to which facets
should be considered and how they can be integrated.
This paper seeks to fill this void by introducing a comprehensive holistic framework validated through qualitative research with managers from business schools across the world.
The research confirms the validity and power of the framework as a comprehensive and
robust decision making tool, and the authors conclude by outlining how it can be used most
effectively by leaders, researchers and developers faced with wicked world problems.
Key words: Wicked problems, leaders and leadership, Global Fitness Framework, spirituality.
Introduction
Churchman (1967) introduced the concept that problems can be critical, tame or wicked. Critical
problems are those requiring immediate action, thus a command leadership style is suitable and likely to be accepted by followers. Tame problems are those that have been solved
before, thus tried and tested techniques can be applied.
Wicked problems are ones which have not been previously solved so attempts at solving
them may fail, make the situation worse, and have adverse affects on other issues. There is
a danger that leaders faced with wicked problems may treat them as critical, adopt a command leadership style which is accepted by their followers, then implement ill-conceived
‘solutions’ with the results indicated above.
Leaders in the modern world are routinely faced with this kind of wicked problem, a short
list including sustainability, population growth, poverty, climate change, balance of power,
food and water distribution, on-going and deepening global financial crisis, terrorism,
demographics and democracy in practice, but the reader would be able to add others such
that a much longer list could easily be produced - which is a wicked problem in itself.
This scenario has led to increasing calls for leaders to adopt a broader focus. The Globally
Responsible Leadership Initiative (GRLI, 2008:2) for instance argues:
The current financial crisis has shown that the ideal of a self-regulated system has led us to
failure on a global level, with long-term implications to economic development and human
well being. At the heart of this failure is a lack of both responsibility and leadership. We
need more responsible leadership to implement a more comprehensive model for sustainable development.
The Centre for Integrative Leadership (CIL, 2008) added:
In the 21st century, a new vision of leadership is needed to respond to local, regional, na-
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A Holistic Framework for Leaders in a Wicked World
tional, and global opportunities and challenges. More than ever, leadership must integrate
across diverse individuals; across organizational functions, levels, and geography; across
the sectors of business, government, nonprofits, media, academia, and the community; and
across local, state, and national borders. There is a vital need today for integrative leadership. There also is a vital need for scholarly work to understand and advance the proven
concepts inherent in integrative leadership.
Capra (1997, cited in Kriger and Seng, 2005:773) identifies:
The more we study the major problems of our time, the more we come to realize that they
cannot be understood in isolation. They are systemic problems, which means they are
interconnected and interdependent…There are solutions to the major problems of our time,
some of them even simple. But they require a radical shift in our perceptions, our thinking,
our values…
{Emphasis in all three quotations by the authors}
The kind of systemic problem to which Capra refers highlights that organizations are part
of a larger system; a system that is impacted on, and influenced by, its external environment (Czander, 1993:178). We agree with Bakan (2005) that there is still a widespread presence by leaders in organizations and governments of a short-term, narrow focus to their
decision making, underpinned by what have become outmoded business and social paradigms of thought.
These problems require a new type of leadership that sees all individuals, groups and societies in the world as interconnected and interdependent; a leadership which considers all
facets of each of these elements including physical, mental and spiritual; and a leadership
which goes beyond organisational, sectoral and national boundaries.
Although there are increasing calls for this new type of leadership, specific areas of activity required and how decision makers can integrate their work successfully in this way is
still largely unexplored. The issues are of such breadth and complexity that they cannot be
addressed using traditional approaches and ways of thinking. New approaches that take
into account the bigger picture and work across boundaries in integrative ways have to be
found.
This paper introduces the Global Fitness Framework (GFF) developed by the authors to
meet this need, and details research conducted to validate that framework. It then outlines
how the GFF can be used most effectively by leaders and identifies directions for further
research. The paper concludes with an invitation for interested parties to become involved
in GFF development and application.
The Global Fitness Framework
We now provide a brief overview of the GFF, the following section gives a more in-depth
explanation and discussion of the concept. The GFF (see Figure 1) allows consideration
of ‘fitness for purpose’ which Woodhouse (1999) sees as ‘a definition of quality that allows institutions to define their purpose in their mission and objectives… This definition
allows variability in institutions, rather than forcing them to be clones of one another’.
Vlãsceanu et al (2007) define fitness for purpose as being about conformity to sectoral standards ‘…such as those defined by an accreditation or quality assurance body, the focus being on the efficiency of the processes at work in the institution or programme in ful6
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A Holistic Framework for Leaders in a Wicked World
filling the stated, given objectives and mission. Sometimes quality in this sense is labeled as:
(i) a value for money approach owing to the (implicit) focus on how the inputs are efficiently
used by the processes and mechanisms involved or (ii) the value-added approach when
results are evaluated in terms of changes obtained through various educational processes
(e.g., teaching and learning processes). We use fitness for purpose as the requirement for leaders and decision makers, but also
the individuals, organizations and societies they lead, to be suited to the tasks they face.
We consider it by looking at strength, stamina and suppleness - terms commonly used for
physical fitness, and increasingly for mental, but here also applied to the spiritual dimension.
The GFF is presented in similar fashion to a Rubik’s Cube, the three axes each having three
sections, giving a total of 3x3x3 = 27 individual cells. Holistic depth includes physical, mental and spiritual factors, fitness for purpose considers strength, stamina and suppleness,
and organic level relates to whether individuals, groups or societies are the focus.
Figure 1: The Global Fitness Framework
The GFF’s modular nature enables users of the framework to home in on a particular cell,
core or slice. Figure 2 gives an illustration of some of the possible focus points:
Figure 2: Illustrative Focus Points in the Global Fitness Framework
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•
•
•
Focus 1 - the cell – this example represents physical suppleness of an individual. There
are 27 such cells in the framework;
Focus 2 - the core – this example covers physical, mental and spiritual stamina of a
society. 27 such cores are available;
Focus 3 - the slice – this example covers physical, mental and spiritual fitness of a
group. 9 such slices exist.
A great deal of valuable work has been carried out by researchers into areas represented by
some of the cells in the GFF. Cells toward the bottom front left as depicted in Figure 1 (individual, physical, strength) have tended to be given greatest attention while aspects covered
by cells towards the top back right (society, spiritual, suppleness) may have been relatively
neglected. The authors maintain however that it is these aspects and the overall interconnectedness of all aspects represented by cells throughout the framework that are of greater
and increasing importance for leaders in the modern world.
In the field of health, for example, attention tends to have originally focused on the physical strength of individuals, with increasing focus gradually being placed on stamina and
suppleness and general fitness; mental, spiritual and general health and overall wellbeing;
and application of these to groups and society as a whole. Even so, very little attention has
hitherto been given to the fitness for purpose of the spiritual aspects of humanity and how
these relate to humanity’s overall health and wellbeing.
In business a great deal of attention has been given to physical aspects including profitability, cash flow, products and services, staff levels and competences, facilities and equipment.
Mental processes of decision making and communication, exploiting such techniques as
statistical analysis, budgetary control and risk management, have been used in an attempt
to optimise physical performance through efficient and effective use of scarce resources.
Yet relatively little focus has, until recently, been given to the ultimate objectives, meaning, purpose and inter-connectedness underlying these mental processes and physical
performance. This is what the term spiritual relates to in the GFF, building on the concept
of fitness for purpose – while it is possible to speak in general terms about fitness specific purposes require very different types and levels of fitness. At an organizational level
the spiritual dimension impacts on relationships with employees including engagement
and motivation, and concern for numerous stakeholders including society at large and the
planet. Business leaders are becoming increasingly concerned with such factors and the
need to be aware of issues beyond their own organization and their specific role in it.
The early focus on areas covered by cells at the bottom front left may have been due to a
number of factors. Concepts like the physical strength of an individual may be easier to understand and assess than those such as the spiritual suppleness of a society, and the former
may be of more immediate concern in that it affects us directly as individuals. Consideration of cells with a societal element requires a broad focus which includes community,
culture, environment and the planet, thus challenges leaders to consider their own fitness
for purpose in assisting to resolve some of the urgent global issues and wicked problems
currently facing humanity.
Having provided a general introduction to the GFF, we now move to explain and develop
the terms used in the framework.
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Organic Level
This relates to whether an individual, group, or society is the focus of attention.
It is at the level of the individual that most attention has hitherto been focused when considering physical, mental or spiritual fitness for purpose. It may be the simplest level in the
GFF in that it is only concerned with one person, but there are still nine cells, and numerous possible combinations to consider.
Group is used to refer to any collection of people working together to achieve a common
objective. In an organizational setting, this can be anything from a small work team to the
whole organization. Since groups consist of a number of individuals, to get the best out of a
group, we need to consider both the fitness for purpose of the relevant individuals, and how
they gel together. Some groups may have members from a number of different societies
and cultures, this being increasingly common as globalization has developed. Large organizations are often international, with potential for conflict and confusion due to the need to
integrate individuals and groups from varied societies and circumstances.
A society will typically consist of many groups, with the individuals in the society each
being members of several groups. A particularly interesting type of society is that of the
nation state, which often consists of a number of, often disparate, individuals, groups and
sub-societies. To get the best from a society, we need to consider both the fitness for purpose of the relevant individuals, groups and sub-societies in its makeup, and how they gel
together, or react to each other.
Ultimately the societal level in the GFF brings in the natural world and the planet. As
Drewell and Aspling (2007) identify however the natural world is not a stakeholder in our
businesses, it is the ultimate foundation of the rules. It is at this ultimate level where urgent
global issues dominate, thus it is self evident that as globalization, population and expectations have mushroomed so has the scope and scale of wicked problems and consequent
need for leaders and decision makers to adopt higher levels of thinking and integration.
This is further support for our claim that it is in the realm of spiritual suppleness of societies where solutions to many of the world’s wicked problems should be sought.
Fitness Plane
As outlined above, fitness for purpose relates to an entity’s ability to carry out its objectives or mission, and should be considered at all three holistic levels, physical, mental and
spiritual. These different types of fitness are inter-related; physical fitness being ability to
physically carry out the desires of the mind, mental fitness the ability to make decisions and
solve problems so as to achieve objectives, and spiritual fitness relating to the establishment and achievement of high level objectives that may be in tune with the broader needs
and obligations of humanity.
The President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports (2000) quotes the U.S. Department
of Health & Human Services 1996 definition of physical fitness: ‘A set of attributes that people have or achieve relating to their ability to perform physical activity’ with the comment
that it is the most common currently used definition of physical fitness but also provided
the alternative definition by Howley & Franks (1997) ‘Physical fitness is a state of well-being
with low risk of premature health problems and energy to participate in a variety of physiJournal of Finance and Management in Public Services. Volume 11. Number 2.
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cal activities’. They continued that, while either is a good definition, most experts agree that
physical fitness is both multidimensional and hierarchical (Corbin, 1991) and introduced the
model shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Common Physical Fitness and Fitness Related Terms
From the President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports (2000)
While we agree with the validity of all three definitions and relevance of all 20 elements in
Figure 3, we believe that, when considering leadership fitness, they can be usefully condensed into three, strength, stamina and suppleness, seeing strength as the power that can
be applied to a task, stamina the ability to sustain application of power to a particular task,
and suppleness the ability to bend and flow, and apply, or resist, power in various ways,
without injury.
It is our contention that these summative aspects of fitness are also relevant to the study
of mental and spiritual fitness, and the next section of the paper brings together the fitness
plane and holistic level aspects of the framework.
Holistic Depth
This considers an entity’s physical, mental and spiritual aspects.
Physical
For an individual, physical refers to the attributes of their body, their limbs, torso, heart and
lungs, skeletal and muscular strength. When considering an individual’s fitness, particularly
in a competitive environment, it is also necessary to take account of physical resources at
their disposal. Tools, equipment, armour and weapons will all be pertinent here.
Correct diet plays an extremely important part in an individual’s physical fitness. Historically, many people in the Western world suffered from rickets and other ailments due to
malnutrition, which is still common in much of the world. They are now more likely to suffer from the affects of excess nutrition e.g. by being overweight or taking in too much salt,
exacerbated by an unhealthy life style, drug or alcohol abuse, or effects of smoking. Overall
physical fitness of western societies has been declining, with life expectancy of children
now lower than that of their parents.
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Physical fitness depends on what one is trying to be fit for, so would be very different for
example between a Sumo wrestler, ballerina, marathon runner, and global leader. What is
important is whether the type and level of fitness is right for the individual and their requirements, or the role they play in a group or society. For general wellbeing it is important
to aim for good all-round fitness – strength, stamina and suppleness.
This need to consider general wellbeing rather than focus on one element is fundamental to understanding the inter-connectedness of elements in the GFF. Individuals benefit
from good levels of physical, mental and spiritual fitness, but so do groups and societies,
and from a global level, fitness of individuals, groups and societies that make up humanity
should all be of concern.
At the group level, business decision making needs to consider the physical aspects of the
organization such as money, equipment and buildings, and the physical aspects of its employees. Physical fitness of a group, organization or society will depend on the resources at
its disposal, but also on how well these are combined and used by its constituent parts i.e.
the individuals and groups within.
Mental
As with physical fitness, we need to consider what we are trying to be mentally fit for: fitness for purpose. As a base level, we might look for the ability to make decisions and control
the physical body so as to implement them. Mental fitness goes further though in that we
not only need to be able to make decisions and solve problems, but also judge whether such
decisions and solutions are correct. This implies a need for an objective, which is the link
to the spiritual dimension. We argue that physical strength, stamina and suppleness will all
be important in enabling the entity to achieve its objectives, but efficient and effective use
will depend on mental fitness, and the objectives themselves will depend upon the entity’s
spiritual fitness.
As with the physical dimension, there are many different types of mental strength. At an
individual level this might include good memory, the ability to solve complex problems and
the ability to apply numerical analytical and reasoning techniques. Mental stamina could
include maintaining effort and belief in one’s ability and approach; continuing to act in a
consistent manner; remaining determined to succeed; continuing to argue for a cause; yet
being willing to debate and discuss issues repeatedly without becoming frustrated, annoyed
or demoralized.
Such qualities will often enable success in the long term, but there are potential disadvantages in having too much mental strength or stamina. The entity may be, or seem to be:
dogmatic, rigid, and stiff; tending to use traditional methods and solutions when circumstances may warrant change; unwilling to compromise, and slow to act. Winning an argument by attrition does not mean the decision is correct. This is particularly concerning
where the outcome is of a ‘win-lose’ nature, when a more flexible approach may have found
a ‘win-win’. This is where suppleness is important.
Mental suppleness includes openness to new thoughts and ideas, varied attitudes, approaches and beliefs, and a willingness to rethink one’s own views as change occurs to
the environment, knowledge, or personal circumstances. It fosters the ability to listen to
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other’s views with an open mind, consider their validity, reflect upon their consequences
and implications, and change one’s own views accordingly. Being too supple can be problematic however as there can then be a tendency towards indecisiveness, prevarication, and
inclusion of unnecessary factors.
Rayment (2001) considers the application of mental strength and stamina in decision making and problem solving by using logical, systematic approaches, then contrasts them with
magical approaches aimed at using mental suppleness.
Spiritual
Of all the aspects within the framework, it is the spiritual dimension which is the least understood, most contentious, and most often avoided aspect of leadership. There is a great
deal of confusion surrounding spirituality and its role. We agree with Fry (2003) when he
states:
A key reason for excluding questions of workplace spirituality from leadership and other
theories of management practice to date appears to be due to the confusion and confounding
surrounding the distinction between religion and spirituality.
Our view is that a focus just on the forms of spirituality that revolve around a relationship with higher power(s) or being(s) can be divisive and discourage those who do not have
such belief from involvement in development or consideration of a spiritual aspect to their
life, work and society. This may discourage working together to solve common problems,
despite the whole of humanity being faced with similar issues which require a solid decision framework and integrated solutions. A broad holistic view of spirituality is required
which embraces many different interpretations, including different religious perspectives.
The GFF adopts such a broad interpretation of spirituality which includes connectedness
(to self, others, nature or some higher being); provides meaning and purpose; and moves
beyond consumerism, human comfort and economic measures into factors such as service
for others. Smith and Rayment (2007b) offer the following broader definition of spirituality:
Spirituality is a state or experience that can provide individuals with direction or meaning, or
provide feelings of understanding, support, inner wholeness or connectedness. Connectedness
can be to themselves, other people, nature, the universe, a god, or some other supernatural
power.
They go on to explain that ‘inner wholeness’ means feeling complete and that all aspects of
a person - mind, body, and soul - are valued. Groups and societies are made up of individuals, and ultimately it is the wellbeing of individuals which determines the wellbeing of
humanity as a whole. This highlights the inter-connectedness of elements within the GFF
and in the world, and is a factor behind Smith and Rayment (2007b) giving connectedness
such high prominence in their definition.
We support the view of Milliman, Ferguson, Trickett, and Condemi (1999) that an organization’s goals and plans need to be informed by spiritual values. Often the objectives that
are set, such as to maximise profit, are only intermediate level objectives, not necessarily
resulting in achievement of ultimate goals such as long term sustainability, and contribution
to the common good. As objectives relate to the spiritual dimension, there is an implied
hierarchy in the GFF, with spirituality at the top covering ultimate objectives, philosophical
approaches, values, and inter-relationships. The mental processes of decision making and
problem solving are based on these, with the physical resources being influenced to a large
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extent by the mental processes. This hierarchy is illustrated well in the writings of Frankl
(1984:121) and Hoess (2000:133).
Ethical and moral decisions such as ‘what should the role of families be in modern society?’,
‘Should I care about the AIDS situation in Africa?’ and ‘What is my role in the global warming
crises?’ are wicked problems that cannot be answered by mental process alone. They must
be based on ultimate objectives, philosophical approaches, values and inter-relationships.
All such aspects of humanity are viewed by us as spiritual, making spirituality of relevance
and concern to all individuals, groups and societies. As decisions grow in significance and
effect, the importance of spirituality in achieving valid solutions grows.
A further aspect that drives our concern over the need to increase the attention paid to
spirituality is its complex nature. Physical and mental fitness can only be positive, the level
depending on how well strength, stamina and suppleness have been developed. We wonder
whether spirituality, in addition to being at the top of the holistic depth hierarchy, can also
be negative or non-existent.
Positive spirituality implies overall objectives, philosophies and values focusing on ‘we’, not
‘I’. Such an approach tends to lead to such things as fair treatment of others, and searching
for common ground and enlightenment.
Negative spirituality may imply deliberate exclusion of other faiths, philosophies and values;
misconstruing other’s beliefs or demonising their followers; being exploitative, prejudiced,
parochial, nepotistic, corrupt or hypocritical. People adopting such approaches may not be
aware that they are doing so, or may attempt to justify it to themselves and others. Some
traits, like being selfish and competitive, may not be easily classified as positive or negative,
or their classification may depend on circumstances and scale.
We argue that spirituality tends to be largely ignored in current business, particularly in
the West. It is a complex and contentious area but we believe that failure by leaders and
decision-makers to consider and adopt valid stances and approaches in these areas is a
root cause of many global and local issues.
To be fit for purpose, individuals, groups and societies must recognise this crucial role of
spirituality. Leaders must be brave, make tough decisions and follow them through. They
must be prepared to constantly make and accept fair criticism, and challenge themselves
and the validity of their beliefs, philosophies and values.
Spiritual Fitness
Bierly, Kessler and Christensen (2000) argue that the wisdom to strategically apply what is
known to make difficult strategic decisions is the highest level of organizational learning,
and that spirituality facilitates wisdom by strengthening the partnership between management and employees and by creating a strong sense of commitment to shared goals. Spiritual fitness, a term used by Warren (2005), reflects such wisdom.
The word spirit connotes breath or ‘life force’, and the latter term might be useful when
considering spiritual fitness. Life force represents the things most crucial to an entity’s
existence, the foundation of its motives, and its ability and determination to achieve them.
This is in line with our view that the spiritual dimension is on a higher level than the physiJournal of Finance and Management in Public Services. Volume 11. Number 2.
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cal and mental dimensions.
Turning to the three elements of spiritual fitness, spiritual strength reflects such factors
as depth and breadth of conviction, commitment, influence and power, clarity of beliefs
and the ability to resist attack on them. To some extent this may be influenced by knowledge, but upbringing and culture will also play a major role. An entity’s spiritual stamina is
its ability to maintain beliefs and act accordingly in the long term, be consistent, willing to
debate and discuss, but ready to stand up for its cause and beliefs. As with mental strength
and stamina, possible negative aspects of high spiritual strength and stamina include dogmatism and rigidity, being unwilling to compromise, and slow to act - all potentially lessening the prospects of a ‘win-win’ solution to a problem being found. Spiritual suppleness
considers the ability to listen to other views on spirituality with an open mind, consider
their validity, reflect upon them, and change one’s own views where relevant to allow for
new thoughts, ideas and changes to the environment or personal circumstances. It requires
the ability to understand and accept that there are very many attitudes, approaches and
beliefs, each of which may contain some truth. Excessive spiritual suppleness can, however,
cause problems of apparent indecisiveness, lack of a firm foundation to beliefs, and low
levels of conviction.
Having now described the GFF in some detail we move on to outline the research that has
been conducted to test and refine the framework and its use.
Research to validate the framework
The research conducted to validate the framework was a qualitative study involving 38
senior managers from 15 business schools in Brazil, India, Germany, South Africa, Tanzania, Scotland and England. It involved semi-structured interviews lasting between 50 and
120 minutes with an average of about 90 minutes each with Deans, or their equivalent, as
well as with two other senior managers in each of the business schools. They were based
around ten discussion themes.
The authors explored with these leaders their current and future focus, comparing their
views with those of other decision makers in the faculty, promotional and course material,
and relevant academic literature.
The mechanism used to analyse the GFF was to map the outcomes from our business
school research onto the GFF to ascertain whether its cells could be used to accurately
reflect the leaders’ focus or whether other elements or models could be used to more accurately represent the actual practice and thought process of leaders.
The study also extracted specific examples for each of the cells in the GFF to illustrate the
scope of each cell. In this way the study was used to test and refine the GFF and how it
might be used so that as comprehensive and robust a tool as possible could be offered to
assist leaders in their focus and actions, and act as a guide in the education of leaders for
the future.
In attempting to validate the GFF, one of our questions was whether the framework was
of practical benefit. The GFF includes three organic levels, three indicators of fitness and
three aspects of holistic depth, but are these sufficiently comprehensive and flexible to
cover all types of analysis that might be required while being rigid enough to be clear as to
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their scope and boundaries?
Research findings
A full report of the business school research can be obtained from the authors; here we
concentrate on how the study assisted in validating the GFF.
Application Issues
When using any theoretical model or tool in a practical situation it is necessary to determine the best way to apply it. The GFF has well delineated and universal breakdowns for
two of its three axes and we found these were readily applied in this study. The fitness
plane specifically relates to fitness for purpose and the strength, stamina and suppleness
indicators were all applicable, measurable and facilitated deeper analysis and drawing of
insightful conclusions.
Holistic depth considers physical, mental and spiritual aspects and we have discussed and
defined their scope in some depth above. This background provided the foundation which
enabled us to readily apply these concepts to the research and reports and the inclusion of
spiritual as defined in the GFF proved to be particularly enlightening as it provided much
greater depth, coverage and richer content than would have been available if factors under
that aspect of humanity had not been included. Consideration of the roles of and interrelationships between physical, mental and spiritual elements of humanity revealed common failure of leaders to view these holisticaIly and a general lack of attention to spiritual
factors, providing broad fields for future research, reflection and philosophical debate.
Organic level was the axes we felt may prove most difficult to apply in practice as the three
parameters used, individual, group and society do not have clear and universally applicable
definitions. The GFF was designed to be of benefit at all scales from an individual considering their own holistic fitness up to universal where the leader or researcher may be assessing the fitness of humanity world-wide. Did this desire for boundless application mean the
structure of the model was in fact impractical?
We approached this issue by considering whether the organic level parameters could be
defined for a specific application by relating them to the scale of the research being undertaken. Here, we considered the intended user of our reports, in this case the Dean of the
Business School.
We felt the Dean would have two main foci of attention, internal and external, so we decided to compile two GFF analyses for each business school, one for each of these foci. As
shown in Table 1, for the internal focus we defined the Dean as the individual, senior management team as the group, and the whole business school including direct stakeholders
as the society. For the external focus, we took the business school as the individual, sociogeographic region as the group and the global business community as the society
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Table 1: Organic Level perspectives used in this study
This approach had the additional benefit that using two perspectives enabled us to analyze
the interaction and communications between them, in this case between the internal and
external aspects of the schools. This reflected an important element of any Dean’s role but
also the fitness for purpose aspect of the GFF, with fitness being an internal parameter and
purpose the relationship with and effects on the external. The two GFF analyses are clearly
inter-woven as the society level of the internal focus is the individual level of the external
focus.
While they did not eliminate all decision making, the above approaches proved extremely
effective in that we were able to carry out innovative and insightful analysis and draw a
number of valuable conclusions which we believe may have been missed if an alternative
analytical approach had been adopted. It also established the flexibility of the GFF in that,
providing due care is taken suitable parameters can be identified to match the scale and
scope of a particular study. This has proved a valuable exercise as we have found the GFF to
be a very powerful and effective analytical tool.
Holistic Depth
The focus of this research was the current and future role of business schools, which comes
under the category of spiritual in our framework, so it came as no surprise that this was
the most complex and fruitful area of the study. It covers a large range of topics and in this
validation study the areas discussed included emotions, morals, ethics, vision, mission, spiritual beliefs, long term goals, meaning and purpose.
The spiritual dimension represents a slice of the GFF and as such can be split into nine cells
as illustrated in Table 2. This can enable a very specific and focused analysis of the spiritual dimension should that be required. Smith and Rayment (2007a) provide more details of
these nine categories that relate to the spiritual dimension.
Table 2: The nine categories of spiritual dimension highlighted by the GFF
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When analysing the business school research we kept to the broad focus and found this
sufficient for our purpose. This again illustrates the flexibility of the GFF and how it might
be used to aid leaders in their decision making. Varying depths of categorization and analysis can be utilized depending on the context and outcomes required.
Benefits and difficulties of the framework
Based on this validation research the main advantage of the framework appears to be that the
concept is easy to grasp and can be represented effectively in a visual format or physical
model. The GFF is an effective and simple way of presenting the concept of a holistic approach, and identifying potential areas of focus for leaders and decision makers.
As well as a simple visual representation however the GFF proved to be a comprehensive,
wide-ranging and detailed analytical tool covering the full span of aspects leaders need to
consider in their decision making.
The framework can have different focuses and be useful to different groups. An individual
may use the framework as a guide in their own personal and professional development. A
leader may use it as a tool to consider all aspects they need to take into account in their
leadership role. For an educator it may help guide their training provision to ensure all
aspects of global leadership are covered. The framework can be used at an organizational
level of focus and also for a particular social, national or international grouping.
Whilst the concept of the framework is easy to grasp it also clearly shows the complexity
of situations facing decision makers today. It highlights the interaction and connectivity of
all the 27 cells in the framework, and in decisions that have to be made. The possibility of
focusing on particular cells, cores and slices has been discussed, along with possible combinations of such foci.
As with any powerful tool, it takes time to understand and become skilled in use of the GFF.
Some of the labels are appropriate for the skilled and experienced analyst but could potentially confuse or mislead a novice. In particular, the term spiritual may have various connotations to different users, may be unfamiliar in the business context and the range and
complexity of topics covered under the spiritual dimension may be too much for a novice to
grasp immediately.
For these reasons we recommend that analysts may wish to avoid use of the term ‘spiritual’
in their discussions with people who are not familiar with and accepting of our broad definition. Similarly, they may wish to break down the content of their feedback into manageable chunks such as dealing separately with mission, motivation and emotions.
The main concern with practical value of the framework revealed by the validation study is
one that can be leveled at all models. By being a 3x3x3 matrix it simplifies the complex nature of each aspect being considered. For example, it is a simplification to describe fitness
for purpose and organic level as each consisting of just three elements.
Here we can begin to see the difficulties in representing a holistic approach in a way that
is easy to understand and use. A balance must be reached between simplicity and reality, a
main purpose of any model being to reduce the complexity of real life to a simplified repre-
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sentation that may help understanding of particular issues.
If we extended each element of the framework to include the level of detail discussed above
we could easily have a 6x6x6 framework, giving 216 cells, 72 cores and 18 slices, together
with a vast number of possible interactions between them. It is true that this complexity
could be modeled through computer generation but the ease with which individuals, leaders and decision makers could see and grasp the concept and use the framework may then
be lost. Inability to draw meaningful boundaries between each cell and its neighbours may
also weaken validity.
One of the objectives of our research was to assess whether having 3 aspects for each of 3
elements was too much of a simplification of the holistic approach for it to be useful. We
believe that it is not and the GFF strikes an appropriate balance between ease of understanding and comprehensiveness. This is particularly so when one considers the additional
flexibility in the framework to align the scale of the organic levels to the scale of activity
being investigated.
Directions for Future Research
As stated in the introduction to this paper, the modular nature of the GFF allows users to
focus on a particular cell, core or slice, or explore their inter-connectedness. Generic ways
in which the framework could be used include historical and longitudinal analysis, performance measurement and decision making.
Further research is now required to assess the fundamental factors concerning the structure and parameters of the framework, including whether the dimensions are valid and
useful. For example, is it helpful to describe spirituality in terms of strength, stamina and
suppleness? Is it desirable and possible to measure each of the categories in the GFF so that
some form of questionnaire or quantitative evaluation tool can be developed?
Four specific applications and possibilities for further research are now discussed in order
to highlight potential application, and whet the reader’s appetite for possibilities.
Team Performance
Since Belbin (1981) introduced the importance of team roles, increasing emphasis has been
placed on the need to have a balanced, well trained, team in sporting or work environments
if optimum performance is to be obtained. Physical, mental and spiritual attributes of team
members, the requirements of various roles, and the ability to gel together could all be
studied under the GFF umbrella. Clough (2005) uses the term Mental Toughness to cover
the ways in which the mind can be trained to cope with physical and mental stress, particularly in the workplace. We would argue that an important part of mental attitude stems
from a strong spiritual foundation, and a group that can develop strong shared spiritual
values is likely to perform better.
Performance of Organizations
Kaplan’s and Norton’s (2000) Balanced Scorecard is an attempt to ensure performance of
organizations is measured in more than purely monetary terms. They suggest four aspects
of performance, financial, customer focus, processes, and learning / growth, should be assessed in terms of objectives, measures, targets, and initiatives.
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While the Balanced Scorecard is valuable in encouraging wider performance measurement,
it has little to say on the spiritual level, and organizations are left with little guidance as to
how to set valid objectives and values, or motivate employees. Combining the GFF with the
scorecard might provide a more comprehensive analysis of strategies and performance of
organizations of all types. Further research could benchmark these organizations’ performances against each other to reveal any scope for their improvement in particular elements
of the framework.
Spirituality and the Workplace
This is a topical research area, but focuses predominantly on the spiritual aspect of organizations. While we are keen to see more focus on spirituality in general, the authors argue
that the study of spirituality in the workplace would benefit from being included as part of
a more holistic view which emphasizes the importance of the physical and mental dimensions. An approach that also links individual, group and societal spirituality as emphasised
in the framework would also seem beneficial.
The Place for Emotions
Our framework takes physical, mental and spiritual facets as representing holistic depth,
but many researchers include emotional as a fourth facet, following Goleman’s (1995) work
on Emotional Intelligence.
Our emotions are displayed, and we work with them, through our physical, mental and spiritual states. As an example, conflict can often cause strong emotional feelings that can result in an initial physical or mental over-reaction (an Amygdale Hijack, Goleman as cited in
Freedman, 2002). Short term emotions help individuals initiate the ‘fight or flight’ response
that may be necessary for survival. However, such extreme feelings tend to be short lived,
with more considered cognitive thoughts taking over once there has been sufficient time to
reflect upon the incident’s meaning and importance.
Are the long term aspects of emotions, such as love, faith, determination and fear part of
the spiritual dimension, while short term emotions and their handling depend on the entity’s current physical, mental and spiritual fitness? From this viewpoint, emotional intelligence may in part reflect the mental process by which we handle the short-term physical
aspects of emotions and make long term adjustments to our spiritual identity.
Conclusions
Pressure is growing for leaders and decision makers to work in new ways so as to effectively tackle urgent global issues and wicked problems. There is however a distinct lack of
up-to-date and accurate guidance and assistance to enable the leader to do this effectively.
This paper has introduced the Global Fitness Framework as a holistic framework that leaders and other parties can use to examine the physical, mental and spiritual fitness of individuals, groups, societies and humanity as a whole.
A small scale research project which focused on the current and future role of business
schools has been used to validate this framework and how it can be applied to practical
issues. This has shown the GFF to have enormous potential as a flexible and robust holistic
analytical tool.
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A Holistic Framework for Leaders in a Wicked World
Some generic applications of the GFF have been outlined but the authors are still developing the framework and how it might be applied and are keen to involve others in this development or see specific applications of the GFF.
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