CHAPTER III
NICARAGUA: GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, POLITY AND ECONOMY
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72
Geography:
Among five Central American countries 1 Nicaragua is the
largest with an area of 1, 33,000 Sq.
inhabitants.
Nicaragua
is
Kms.
and 3. 5 millions
essentially an agrarian economy,
which employs 67% of its population. It lies in the tropical
zone,
still temperature varies
from one
region to another.
Consequently, three distinct region* are found in Nicaragua the Caribbean
lowlands,
the
Central
highlands,
and
the
Western lowlands.
The Caribbean lowland region occupies nearly half of
the total land.
The area is warm and humid with an average
temperatue of 26°c,
is not hospitable to human inhabitation;
that is why only eight percent of the total population liyes
here.
The Central highland and the Western lowland regions
are considered favourable for human inhabitation due to
moderate seasonal temperature with an average of 28°c.
its
This
division is also marked by the different geographical
regions. It is divided by a string of mountains averaging 810
meters
in elevation running
about
Eastern frontier with Costa-Rica.
400
Kms.
1.
the
South
The second mountain range
runs in north easternly direction along
Honduras.
from
Its main rivers are the Loco -
the
border with
the greatest river
The Central America includes Honduras, El Salvador,
Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Gautemala. Some writers have
included Panama and Belize in the Central American region.
73
of Matagalpa, the Tuma, the Pninzapalka and the Rio-Juan. The
r
Nicaraguans have the freedom to participate
beliefs
and
90%
of
them
are
Catholics,
in religious
while
4%
are
Protestants. 2
History:
The history of
Nicaragua
has
1.1':
been
and interesting one in Central America.
major characteristics include
mass suffering,
and
foreign
the
most
turbulent
On the one hand
its
incredible elite exploitation,
interference,
on the other hand
it also includes a significant element of popular resistance,
national pride, and human nobility.
The Spanish began to colonize Nicaragua in the 16th
century.
2.
Later
English
colonizers
came
to
the
Atlantic
Henri Weber, Nicaragua: The Sandinista Revolution
{Great Britain:
Unwin Brothers Ltd., 1981), pp.1-2.
\v.
(i )
Thomas
Sandino
pp. 1-3.
Walker, Nicaragua: Th~ Land Q_f
(Colorado:
Westview Press, 1982),
(ii)
Thomas P. Anderson, Politics in Central
America: Guatemala, El Sal vodor
Honduras
and
Nicaragua
(USA:
Praegar Publishers, 1989),
pp.l49-150.
I
I
(iii)
"The Atlantic Coast and Autonomy", in Nicaragua1986, (Managua: Centre for International
Communication, 1986),pp.l-2.
( i v)
"Knowing Nicaragua", in
Nicaragua-1986,
(Managua:
Centre
for
International
Communication, 1986), pp. 2-3.
74
Coast.
Nicaragua became independent from Spain in 1821,
but
immediately fell under the U.S. domination.
Nicaragua,
like other countries of Central America was
conquered by Cortez's lieutenants during the year 1523. Most
of the Nicaraguan territory was covered by dense forests;
inhabited by Carib-Indians, who resisted Spanish enslavement
stubbornly
and
interestingly
never
allowed
subjugation. In these hard-to-reach areas,
lived untill
autonomy
the
based
organisation.
The
late 19th century,
on
their
Indian
community
coast enjoyed British support
occupation.
In
1522
the
during
Governor
of
Indian communities
in a
traditional
complete
state
mode
living
on
and
after
mainland,
of
of
the
semisocial
Atlantic
the
went
Spanish
off
to
subjugate Nicaragua and made t,he most wretched entry into the
region.
This
existing
small
the people.
tyrant with his companions destroyed
kingdom and
inflicted enormous atrocities
Like other Central American countries,
the
on
Nicaragua
fell under Spanish rule for three centuries. 3
Before coming into the clutches of Spanish colonialism
in 1522, Nicaragua was not an integral society. As mentioned
earlier, Nicaragua was inhabited by numerous distinct groups.
These
3.
groups
used
to
fight
among
Anderson, n.2 (ii), p.51.
themselves
continuously.
75
Under
these
circumstances,
Nicaragua was
attacked
by
Spain led by Gil Gonzalez in 1522. Nicaraguan people resistPd
this attack under the leadership of Dirianger.
This war
continued till 1524. Nicaragua organised the regional forces
but could not defeat the Spanish forces who had been
reorganised under Francisco Hernandez.
The Spanish rule,
established slavery there in 1524. Within
colonial
p~riod
one tenth.
3
few years of
the native Indian population was reduced to
The historians
suggest two causes of
it
-
one,
fight between native people on the one side and Spanish
expansionists on the other;
second,
some
fatal
diseases
in
which hundreds of thousands of Nicaraguan Indians perished.
Above all,
(
slavery was the major cause of the reduction of
Nicaraguan population. In 1530s there was a great demand for
slaves
in Peru.
Spain
supplied
native
Nicaraguans,
the
records of which are given by the archives and the writers of
these days.
It is due to these factors that Nicaragua today
is dominated by Mestizos and people speak spanish language.
Though the names of the cities and towns are
reflecting the culture of their founders,
Indian,
but few of the
people are aware of the meanings of the names and of original
inhabitants.
An important legacy of colonial period is the rivalry
between two cities beginning
Granada
(Conquistadores)
while
Leon and Granada.
was
inhabited
spanish
soldiers
by
of
From the very
aristocrats
lower
rank
ancl
76
social status were packed off to Leon,
Since then,
these two
cities have remained in the grip of cold war which sometimes
blasted openly and engulfed both the cities. 4
Spain colonized Nicaragua with two purposes.
extract
gold and
to
meet
the
demand
for
One,
slaves
to
to
its
colonies from this country. It resulted into the shortage of
manpower. Nicaragua became underdeveloped very soon.
INDEPENDENCE
The year 1821 is marked as the independence year in the
history of Nicaragua.
independence
in phases.
Agustin de-Iturbide,
In
fact,
As
a
Nicaragua
part
achieved
of Mexican
this
empire
it got independence in 1822.
of
But as a
member of Central American Federation it got it in 1823.
While as an individual sovereign state Nicaragua got it
in
1838. Throughout these years two cities of Nicaragua kept on
fighting for the dominence of the country,
eventually came to call
Granadinos -
Leonese,
themselves Liberals,
and
who
the
who championed the conservative causes,
squabbled and fought with each other.
In these years of
internal disturbance of 1840s the Britishers tried to capture
the Mestizo Coast by seizing the mouth of San Juan River, but
was checked by the US.
In 1850 the two countries signed
4. Walker, n. 2(i), pp. 10-11.
77
Clayton - Bulwar Treaty in which both agreed not to make any
unilateral attempt to colonize Central America. Here,
the US
played covert diplomacy by checking the English people.
US had made a declaration in 1823
America
(Latin America)
Doctrine.
It was a
which
regarding
the
The
Central
is popularly known as Monroe
sort of warning to
the European powers,
not to interfere in the internal affairs of the American
Continent. Since then, America was trying to put its steps in
this fertile continent and make
its backyard for decades to
come. 5
FIRST
~
INDIRECT INTERVENTION
Due to a continuous conflict between the Liberals and
the Conservatives the international politics tried to
influence the
things
according
to
their
own
interests.
The
Britishers favoured the Conservatives while the American gave
help to the Liberals.
to
a
came
In
San-Franc iso-based
in
1855
Liberals
he
in
a
1854,
soldier
very
captured
the Liberals turned for help
named
dramatic
the
the President of the country.
the
puppet
5.
(i)
Ibid., pp. 12
(ii)
Weber, n.2, p.7.
way.
conservative
mediated for a coalition government.
recognised
Will ian
the
area.
who
help
of
Finally
he
In July 1856, he became
Immediately the United States
Government.
& 13.
With
Walker,
In
1856
he
reimposed
78
slavery and English as an official language.
This generated
hatred among the Central American countrie.
countries
gathered under
Walker's forces.
one
banner and
made
All these
an
attack
on
In 1857, the United States very shrewdly
arranged a truce where Walker was compelled to surrender and
leave the country. Again in 1860, he uselessly tried,
which,
with the help of the Bri tishers,
he was
in
checked and
handed over to Honduras firing squad. This event is marked as
a great deed of patriotism in Nicaragua. 6
The Rule of the Conservatives - 1857 - 1893.
For three decades, Nicaragua enjoyed relative peace and
stability. Though in 1881,
several thousand Indians lost
their lives in a tragic war of the Comuneros. In this war the
indigenous people halted the takeOver of their ancestral land
by
weal thy
Conservative
other at
coffee
growers.
Presidents
regular
From
ruled
four-year
1857
the
to
1893,
country
interval,
thus
the
elected
succeeding
breaking
the
each
old
tradition of 'continuismo'.
The Issue of Interoceanic Canal and ZelaYa Government
In 1893,
the Liberals under the
leadership of Jose
Santoz Zelaya joined the dissidents of Conservative party and
overthrew the government of Robert Sacasa. After three months
6.
Nicaragua 1986, (Managua: Centre for
Communication, 1986), pp. 6-8
International
79
the
Liberals over.threw the dissident Conservative President
and placed Zelaya in power who ruled the country for the next
sixteen years.
prosperity.
This rule brought relative modernization and
The
Spanish-American war of
American hegemony outside
American
came
continent.
its
Zelaya's
zeal
into clash with the new
United States.
borders,
for
1898
gave way
especially
national
to
in South
integration
interventionist spirit of the
Nicaragua denied to build a canal across its
territory. According to the U.S. sources he is described as a
corrupt,
brutal,
mongering tyrant.
cruel,
greedy,
In 1909,
egocentric and a war-
President William Howard Taft
denounced him as "a blot on the history of Nicaragua".
But a
careful examination of the facts depicts totally a contrary
picture of President Zelaya.
He even checked the U.S.
government to invest money in Nicaragua,
thus nullified the
covert and overt efforts of the U.S. intervention.
President Zelaya
initiated many
reforms
in Nicaragua.
Under his presidentship, death penalty was abolished.
separated Church from state.
budget on education.
convening
Nicaragua,
a
He devoted ten per cent of the
He tried to reunify Central America by
conference
Honduras
confederation.
He
and
at
Amapala
El
in
1895,
Salvador agreed
in
to
which
form
a
But due to the malafied intention of the U.S.
government this idea could not be materialized. All these
incidents brought for Zelaya, a confronting U.S. attitude. In
1909,
when
the
revolt
finally
took
place
in
Bluefield,
80
Zelaya's "forces executed two confessed U.S. mercenaries. The
U.S. used this incident as an excuse to break off diplomatic
relations and to send troops to Bluefield to defeat the
Conservatives.
Before
his
highly respected Liberal
resignation,
from
Leon,
Zelaya
Dr.
Jose
appointed
Madoz,
a
to
succeed him. Washington did not recognise the new government
and a puppet government was established by the U.S.
August,
1910;
supported
by
conservatives
on 20
and
some
opportunistic liberals.
The abysmal situation into which Nicaragua had fallen,
offended the national pride of many Nicaraguas. In July 1912,
with the patriotic
feelings,
group of
Conservatives
dissident
Benjamin Zelodon,
and
rebelled
organised
against
a
the
puppet President, Adolfe Diaz.
But finally Zelodon was captured by Nicaraguan troops
and murdered. When his dead body was taken to the burial,
a
seventeen year old boy was looking the scene, whose blood was
boiling, who later on became a great hero.
His name was
Augusto Cesar Sandino. 7
In fact, the U.S.
intervention of 1909 aimed at not to
substitute an effective government but to
substitute
7. Dana G. Munro, The United States and the Caribbean Area
(Boston: World Peace Foundation, 1934), pp. 210-15.
(i) Weber, n.2, pp.12-14.
an
81
effective government hut to replace a nationalist regime. The.
new regime did not save the country from Chaos but put
it
into economic repression and an out-break of violence that
blocked all further developments.
The U.S. Occupation, The National Guard
~nd
Due to the gee-strategic reasons
Nicaragua in 1912.
Sandino
the U.S.
captured
Its Marines remained there till 1933,
except one year of indirect occupation.
During the first
phase (1912-25) of U.S. occupation, Nicaragua was ruled by a
series of Presidents
-
Adolfo Diaz,
Emiliano Chamorro,
and
Diego Manuel Chamorro.
The United States needed the Conservatives, and the
Conservati v~s who had neither military strength nor popular
support to maintain
States.
themselves
in power,
The major event of this
needed
period was
the
the
United
Brian
Chamorro Treaty signed in 1914 which was ratified in 1916. By
the terms of the documents the United States acquired
exclusive rights in perpetuity to build a canal in Nicaragua,
a renewable ninety nine year lease to
corn islands
in the Caribbean,
and a
the great and little
renewable ninety nine
year option to establish a naval base in the Gulf of Fonseca.
In
return,
Nicaragua was
million dollars.
to
receive
payment
of
a
three
82
In 1920,
the !J. S.
government decided to withdraw
its
troops from Nicaragua. Because it was convinced that even
without the presence of its troops, conservatives will do
according to its interests. With this faith,
withdrawn in August 1925.
flared up among the
Within a
troops were
few months,
ruling conservatives,
and
conflict
the
Liberals
took the initiative and staged a rebellion in 1926.
In order
to bring the Conservatives back the United States again sent
its Marines in Nicaragua in the same year. 8
The United States captured Managua and manipulated the
political
crises
of
Conservative efforts,
Nicaragua.
In
spite
Jose Maria Moncada,
of
the
candidate
the majority Liberal party, won that contest.
situation, the U.S.
President.
In
the
all
USof
In this
thought it better to live with a Liberal
words
of one
scholar,
the
North America
"Controlled his regime from a number of points : the American
Embassy,
the Marines .... ; the Guardia Nationals with its
United States army officers,
Customs,
the
Director of
the
the High Commissioner of
Railway;
and
the
National
Bank". 9
During these two occupations the U.S.
maneavoured the
political situation in such a way that it served
8.
·Munro, n. 7, pp. 221-23,
9.
Walker, n. 2(i), p. 21.
its purpose
83
for the next four decades.
the U.S.
But during the second occupation
forces were opposed by the Micaraguan people at
large scale led by a charismatic and tactically brilliant
field
commander,
Augusto
Cesar Sandino.
The
United
States
tackled this problem with a diplomatic strategy. On the one
hand, it started making plans to kill Sandino, on the other,
it raised a force which was very much national in its outlook
but had all the characteristics to suck the blood of the
Nicaraguans.
This force was named as National Guards;
which
are popularly known as 'Contras' these days.
Sandino became a national hero within days, Many
Nicaraguas gave military as well as financial
help to this
bold man. Dean Colonel, a young officer wrote to his senior
from the
interior
of~
Nicaragua,
"I am sending you herewith
forty volunteers who will fight for the cause so dear to us.
boys of eleven or twelve side by side in the ranks with men
old enough to be their grandfathers, and even women were not
lacking". 10
In
fact,
Sandino was
a
cult
in
the
whole
Central
America. He was a great threat to Anastasio Samoza Garcia - a
man who was made the President through an agreement, till the
election was held.
10.
Quoted in
Marvin
Goldwest, The Constabulary in the
Dominican Republic and Nicaragua: Progeny and Legacy of
U.S. Intervention.
(Gainesville: University of
Florida Press, 1962), p.23.
84
"The sovereignty
Sandino,
and the liberty of the people", said
"are not to be discussed,
but rather defended with
weapons in hand". Sandino was a man of action; rather than a
theorist.
He
had
started organising poor workers,
students
and others in the beginning of 1926 when there was a plan to
send Marines again in Nicaragua by the United States.
"I
pledge to my motherland and to history", said Sandino, "that
my sword will
save national
the oppressed.
honour and bring liberation to
I answer the challenge of the treacherous
occupationists and traitors of the motherland with a battle
cry. My men and I shall stand like a wall against which the
legion of enemies of Nicaragua will crush". 11
He
waged
occupationists.
a
guerrilla
America
warfare
thought "it
against
better
to
the
U.S.
tame
this
nationalist. Instead of keeping its forces, a new force - the
National Guards was created to serve the interests of Somoza
dictatorship, thereby to its (US) own interests.
In 1933 the situation of Nicaragua had taken a
new
turn. Somoza was 'placed' as the head of the state through a
treaty.
Under these uncertain circumstances,
Sandino was
killed.
A wave of fear overshadowed the whole central
America.
The U.S.
11.
marines were withdrawn and
the
situation
Quoted in Latin American Studies by Soviet
Scholars,
Nicaragua: Long Road to Victory (Editorial
Board,
Social Science Today, USSR Academy of Sciences, 1981),
pp.57-58.
85
was controlled by the National Guards.
succeeded
11
in overthrowing Juan B.
election 11
In
Sac as a
1936,
and
in which he was declared winner.
Somoza
staged
On 1
an
January,
1937 he became the Chief of the National Guard and ruled the
~ountry on the gun point for four decades. 12
SOMOZA RULE
ANASTASIO SOMOZA GARCIA (1933-56)
The case of Nicaragua differs from other Latin American
countries in two respects. One, Nicaragua is the only country
in the region to have a history of forty two and a half years
Secondly,
subjugation under the Somoza dynastic regime.
Nicaragua though a small country had experienced a
real
social revolution which is different from other revolutions
of the area.
Anastasio Somozo Garcia,
dynasty was born
11
grower
States.
in February,
Techo 11 family.
the
1898
founder of the Somoza
in a well
he
coffee
He got his education from the United
He was a very ambitious man.
Nicaragua,
to-do
joined liberal
revolt
Upon his
in 1924.
He
return to
served
as
Minister of War and Minister of Foreign Relations in the
12.
Ralph Lee Woodword, Jr., Central America: A Nation
Divided (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976},
pp.188-203.
(i) Andrew C. Kimmerns, Nicaragua and .:t..h.g_ United
States (New York: Orbis Books, 1987), pp. 9-11.
86
Liberal government. Due to his over ambitious nature, the
U.S. made him the Commander of the National Guards. After the
departure of American troops in 1933,
he worked efficiently
to consolidate his position. On 21 February, 1934, he ordered
his subordinates to capture and murder Augusto Cesar-Sandino.
This created a sensation throughout Central America. The way
he was treacherously murdered, the people felt frustrated and
anguished.
But Somoza by that time had made his position
secure. The National Guards became the direct source to crush
the voice of the people. 13
Somoza Garcia ruled the country for nineteen years.
Occasionally for the sake of appearance, he ruled through
puppets; but for most of the years, he ruled directly. Somoza
invented a very simple formula
power -
in order to
"maintain the support of Guard,
keep himself
keep
in
the Americans
satisfied, and co-opt important domestic power contenders". 14
To assure the loyalty of Guards direct
was
continued.
infiltrated
to
13.
14.
take
Secondly,
a
psychological
family command
isolation
was
in the minds of the guards. They were encouraged
bribes.
"Accordingly gambling,
prostitution,
Richard Milett, The Guardians of the Dynasty: A
History QX the U.S. Created Guardia National de
Nicaragua and the Sandino Family (New York: Orbis
Books, 1977), pp. 30-34.
Walker, n. 2(1), p.27.
87
smuggling and other forms of vices were run direttly by
guardmen. In addition, citizens soon learnt that in order to
engage
in any activities -
legal
or otherwise -
necessary to pay bribes or kickbacks
soldiers. In fact,
it was
to guard officers or
rather than being a professional national
police and military force,
the guard was a sort of Mafia in
uniform which served simultaneously as the personal body
guard of the Somoza family. 15
Somoza adopted a very peevish policy at national as
well as the
international level.
At the national level,
he
persued one sided developmentalist economic policies. He
emphasised growth in exports and economic infrastructure and
public
agencies.
At
international
level,
he
tried
to
manipulate the American loyalty towards his family. To please
the American government,
Nicaragua backed U.S.
policies
during 1930s and 40s. Nicaragua was made a base Camp for CIA
training. During the Second World War, Nicaragua was made the
military base.
In 1954,
the U.S.
organised a
counte~­
revolution from Nicaragua against Guatemalan president Jacobo
Arbenz.
Nicaragua sent its forces for the US during Korean
war.
This rule came to an unexpected end
in 1956,
when
President Garcia was shot dead while campaigning for the
15.
Ibid., p.27.
88
fourth term presidential "elections",
Rigoberto Lopez.
by a young poet
He despatched a note to his mother with a
warning to be read only after his death •aying,
done
is a
duty that any Nicaraguan who
"what I have
truly loves
his
country should have done a long time ago". 16
Every effort was made by the Eisenhower administration
to save the life of Garcia.
In spite of all this,
he died a
few days later.
Jose Benito Escobar describes
Garcia's murder,
the
importance of
in the biography of poet Rigoberto Lopez
Perez; from three points.
Firstly,
it gave a great incentive to the nationalists
to overthrow this dynastic and puppet government.
It also
destroyed the myth of indestructible tyrany of Somoza
government. Secondly, it put an end to the traditional method
of opposition adopted by the bourgeoisie.
reaffirmed
employed
to
to
the people
attain
that
the
liberation
forms
should
Thirdly,
of struggle
be
those
to
it
be
which
correspond to the needs of the people who should respond to
the violence of exploitation with the violence of the
popular masses. 17
16.
17.
Ibid.
I
p.28
Quoted
in George Black, Triumph of the People: The
Sandinista Revolution (London: Zed Press, 1981), pp.3233.
89
After the death of Anastasio Garcia,
Luis Somoza (one
of his sons) assumed the office of Presidentship. Every thing
had already been arranged for the smooth transition of rule
to his family.
His two sons,
Somoza were the product
Anastasio Debayle and Luis
of the American Culture.
made the President because
he
was
the
President
Luis was
of
the
Congress at the time of his father's death. His brother,
Anastasio, who had been
the head of the National Guards
since 1955 used the force to seize and imprison all civilian
politicians who might have taken steps to impede the dynastic
rule in succession. 18
LUIS SOMOZA AND IRE PUPPET GOVERNMENT
1957-1967
The decade 1957-67 is marked by the progressive
policies. Luis was well aware of the fact that if Somoza were
to keep in power they need to adopt liberal, democratic and
developmental policies. With this idea in mind, he introduced
many
programmes
like
public
institutions, social security,
fact,
housing,
educational
agrarian reforms,
etc.
In
these programmes were the projects of the opposition
parties.
In political field
Luis tried to modernise the
Liberal party by encouraging dissident liberals to return to
18.
Editorial Board, Nicaragua: Long Road to Victory
(Moscow: Social Science Today, USSR Academy of
Sciences, 1981), pp.60-62.
90
the
fold
of new
leadership. ''In
1959,
he
amended
the
constitution where every effort was made to prevent his
family members from running for Presidentship in 1963.
From
the end of his term (1963) until his death in 1967 he ruled
through puppet Presidents, Rene Schick Gutierrez and Lerenzo
Guerrero. 19
All the developmental plans bad little effect on the
people.
"Alliance
for
progress
developmentalism,
while
creating jobs for an expanded bureaucracy and providing
opportunities for the further enrichment of the privileged,
had little positive impact on the lives of the impoverished
majority of Nicaraguans,
and democracy was
a
facade.
Elections were rigged and the National Guards, as always,
provided a firm guarantee that there could be no real reform
in the political system". 20
So many attempts were made to overthrow the Somoza
dictatorship
during
the
Luis
time.
The
Sandinista
National
Liberation Front (FSLN) party was organised in 1962 after the
name of Sandino, the great national hero of international
repute, who had sacrificed his life in a protest against the
U.S.
marines and Somoza family.
"subversive"
activities,
the
In response to
dictatorship
resorted
19.
Shirley Christian, Nicaragua: Revolution in
Family (New York: Random House, 1985), pp.77-79.
20.
Walker, n. 2(i), p.29.
these
to
the
the
91
frequent use of the state of seize.
In spite of so many
reformative efforts of the opposition,
Debayle
became
the
third
member
of
Anastasio Somoza
his
family
to
rule
Nicaragua through.a blatant rigged elections of June 1967.
ANASTASIC SOMOZA DEBAYLE
1967-72
Anastasio Debayle relied upon the military power only.
He never bothered to get a
mass support,
"As chief of the
Gardia, he relied on the old tradition of encouraging
corruption and protecting officers
from prosecution
for
crimes committed against civilians". 21
Second
thing
which
he
did
was
the
overhauling
of
bureaucracy. He replaced the earlier staff by inducting his
friends,
most of them were Guardia officers.
administration which lost
became
corrupt
and
its
It
legitimacy and
inefficient.
led
to
an
government
According
to
the
constitution, Debayle was to step down from the presidentship
in 1971. But he never bothered about such technicalities.
Instead he amended the constitution to allow himself an
addi tiona! year
in the
office,
These
happenings
frustrated
the leaders of the opposition parties, They were getting full
support
from
ambassador,
21.
the
public.
Turner Shelton,
Ibid, p.70.
In
this
situation
the
U.S.
arranged a pact with the leader
92
of Conservative party,
Fernando Aguero,
in which President
Debayle agreed to step down temporarily and hand over power
to a triumvirate composed of two Liberals and a Conservative,
that would run the government, while a new constitution was
being written and preparations for the presidential elections
were going on. The transfer of power which took place in
1972, was more apparent than real, as Somoza retained control
of Guards.
This
resulted a dynastic rule again in 197 4
in
which Somoza was declared "elected". According to the new
provision of the constitution this rule was to last till
1981. 22
Earthquake of 1972
-A Beginning Qf the End- 1972-77.
The earthquake of
people died,
1972,
in which more
than
10,000
proved a great factor in giving a blow to the
Somoza family rule.
In these hours, when Somoza should have
shown sympathy with the depressed families,
manipulate the situation to perpetuate the
tri~d
family
to
rule.
"While allowing the National Guards to plunder and sell
international relief materials and to participate in looting
the devastated commercial sector,
Somoza and his associates
used their control of the government to channel international
relief funds into their own pockets". 23
22.
Ibid, p. 27.
23.
Walker, n.
93
During the year of earthquake of 1972, triumvirate was
ruling the country.
But Somoza used the emergency as an
excuse to push that body aside and proclaimed himself as the
head of the National EmergencT Committee. Soon after this
incident, people realized that it was this government which
was a
great obstacle
earthquake,
in the way of recovery.
the whole Managua city was
destroyed.
amount was collected by the government
earth quake victims went
for
the
for
luxuries
of
In this
Whatever
helping
the
the
Somoza' s
family and its National Guards. There was a total resentment
against
the
government.
People
started
organising
demonstrations in large numbers.
The supporters of Somoza (the bourgeois class) also
started
withholding
their financial and other support. This
class who hitherto was supporting the Somoza rule,
when saw
no hope of improvement, thought it better to finance the
emerging group, the Sandinista National Liberation Front
(FSLN).
By the end of December 1974, a strong hold of FSLN
party was realized. Somoza put the country under martial law.
The National Guards were deployed in the countryside to root
out the
"terrorists".
In supposed attainment of that
objective, the guards committed extensive plunder, arbitrary
imprisonment,
torture,
rape,
and summary execution of
hundreds of peasants. In most of the areas where the National
Guards were deployed,
Catholic missionaries
happened
to
be
94
stationed thete. Gross atrocities inflicted on these fathers,
aroused the fury of church against the Somoza and demanded
resignation from the Somoza Debayle.
Somoza's frequent disregard to human rights earned him
considerable
human
international notoriety.
rights
Representative
became
the
main
Somoza' s
issue
of
the
sub-committee on International
violation of
US
House
Relations
of
and
Amnesty Internationa1. 24
By the middle of the decade, Somoza stood out as one of
the worst human rights violators in the western hemisphere.
The U.S.
of
Somoza.
International
administration criticised the arbitrary rule
President
Jimmy
Commission
of
Carter
Jurists
as
expressed
well
as
the
concern
over
the military trial of one hundred and eleven individuals
accused of working
with the guerrillas.
James Theberge was
replaced as the U.S. ambassador to Nicaragua by a more humane
and congenial, Mauricio Solaun.
Under the pressure of these
incidents Somoza ordered the .National Guards
to
stop
terrorizing peasantary. In September, he lifted the state of
siege and restored the freedom to the press. 25
24.
Amnesty International Report, 1977
(London: Amnesty
International Publication, 1977), pp. 149-54.
25.
Carlos M. Vilas, ed., Nicaragua: A Revolution Under
Siege (London: Zed Books, 1985), p.38.
(i) Keesing's Contemporary Archives
November 1978-July 1979, pp.29805-6.
(Bristol),
95
After
these
liberal
steps,
press
covered
the
opposition's views widely. Every man got involved against the
government openly.
Somoza went to Miami
which took more than one year.
for heart check-up
During this period even the
supporters of Somoza turned against him.
The real problem started when a prominent editor of
international repute, Mr. Joquin Chamorro, the editor of the
La Pranza, was shot dead on 10 January, 1978. There broke out
an open war between the opposition who supported the cause of
the La Pranza, and the Somoza government. This war is marked
as a war of liberation.
There were numerous strikes led by
the Chamber of Commerce and industry which crippled the
economy throughout the country. 26
On 5 July,
twelve opposition leaders returned from
exile to the country who were greeted as heros. They demanded
Somoza' s
resignation and
declared nation wide
strike which
paralyzed the country for a month.
These incidents created doubts in the minds of Carter
administration of a 'Communist Jerk'. By this time FSLN party
had made itself strong. A large number of students, women and
the people
from various walks of life
banner of FSLN.
organised under
the
In the mid June a broad based government in
exile was announced by the FSLN. The U.S.
made
its efforts
till the last to check the situation, but of no avail. On 17
26.
The New York Times, 11 January, 1978, p.3.
96
July, the U.S. arranged for the departure of Somoza to Miami.
A day later,
the Provisional Government was
splendid ceremony
in Leon.
On 19 July,
formed
in a
FSLN party entered
Managua where most of the Guards surrendered their arms and
the
rest
known as
left
the
'Contras'.
country to
form a
rebel
Enthusiastic crowd tore
group which
is
the statues of
Anastasio and Luis Somoza to mark the triumph of the people's
revolution. 27
After the victory of the revolution Nicaragua turned to
the task of building a new nation.
vested with both the
Legislative power was
State Council
and
the
government.
Representatives of different political parties with different
trends
cooperated with the new government.
These
new
developments will be explained in the following chapters.
Economic Dimension and U.S. Intervention:
A Historical Perspective
If we
go
into
the
details of
the
causes
of
the
crippled, shattered and underdeveloped economy of Nicaragua,
the U.S. economic interests come to the forefront. Since the
days of Munroe Doctrine the U.S. had been making its policies
which cut across the roots of Nicaragua's national economy.
Nicaragua produced
coffee,
27.
raw materials
like,
leather,
sugarcane, etc. to provide for the U.S.
slaves,
industries.
William Leo Grande, "The Revolution in Nicaragua:
Another Cuba", Foreign Affairs
(New York), vol. 58,
no.l, February 1979, pp. 28-50.
97
National needs were never served. Rather, National economy had
become a satellite market place only.
"By the mid 1970s the number of employed persons had
reached 20 per cent of the entire able-bodied population of
the country.
Private
had diminished.
investments
In 1977,
in the
they dropped
Nicaraguan economy
to
5. 2 per cent,
whereas by official forecasts they were expected to go up by
26 per cent ... According to the date of the International
Monetary Fund,
the average annual foreign
trade
balance
during the 1974-77 period had amounted to 702 million
Cordobes,
or 100 million dollars •.. ". 28 The life expectancy
in Nicaragua was one of the lowest in Latin America during
the decade of 70s and nearly two thirds of the
rural
population was illiterate.
three
A survey revealed
that
fifths of the population had food deficiency problem in the
decade of 1970s. 29
The Somoza government suffered from the deficit
financing.
83.3
In 1973,
million,
it was
in 1975,
36.5 million dollars;
90.9
million
and
in
in 1974,
1976,
72.8
million. 30
In 1977 government
introduced
"free
price"
policy
because of the deteriorating domestic and external economic
28.
29.
Editorial Board, n.18, p.22, and Black, n.17, p.GG.
(i)
Knowing Nicaragua, n.2(iv), p.9.
(ii) Walker, n.2{i), pp.34-35.
30.
Editorial Board, n.18, p.70.
98
situation.
It
resulted
in
inflation the
rate
of which had
reached 30-35 per cent, as against 13 per cent registered in
1976. Secondly,
time
which
'Wage freeze' policy was adopted at the same
brought
the
income
of
the
working
people
considerably down.
On the other hand Somoza and his relatives accumulated
billions of dollars out of the foreign aid.
"The profits of
foreign capital and the wealth of the Somoza family had been
mounting against the background of the growing crises of the
Nicaraguan economy and the impoverishment of the masses •... By
the mid 1950s,
the personal wealth of
the Somoza clan had
been estimated to be 60 million dollars, and 25 years later 0
500 m1'11'1ons " . 31
Right
from
the
beginning
till
the
late
70s
the
U.S.
exploited the country rendering the life of an ordinary man
miserable. "According to an estimate the U.S. private capital
controlled
in Nicaragua,
exploitation and fisheries,
foreign
trade
and
40
90
per
cent
of
mining,
timber
50 per cent of the internal and
per
cent
of
the
industrial
in taking money
from private
production". 32
Somoza did not hesitate
companies of America and loans from international
financial
orgnisations. "During the 1973-75 period alone, Nicaragua had
received from private capitalist banks
31. Ibid, p.71.
32. Ibid., p.72.
(mainly American)
in
99
the
form
of
Consortium Euro
credits
and
foreign
and
international loans 253.4 million dollars •.• During the 197377 period the Inter-American Bank for Reconstruction (IABR)
and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(IBRD)
had granted credits to Nicaragua totalling
203.5
million dollars". 33
The deteriorating economic situation of Nicaragua was
accompanied by the policy of genocide pursued the Nicaraguan
government. It led to the speeding up of the popular struggle
against the regime,
thereby the downfall of Somoza regime.
The Amnesty International suggested that all the matters in
military court be transferred to the civilian courts and all
press
censorship
be
removed.
Local
mi 1 i tary
commanders
be
prosecuted under military or civil law for abuses committed
by forces under their command and the direct perpetrators of
these acts be prosecuted. 34
Till the last,
Somoza relied upon the National Guards
and did every thing to modernise them. They were provided new
armaments, without bothering about the sentiments of the
people.
During the first nine months of 1978 alone,
Somoza
had bought 326 million dollars worth of arms and ammunition,
mainly from
Israel,
which had granted its request
compliance with the U.S. strategic scheme. 35
33.
Ibid, p.73.
34.
Milett, n. 13, pp.40-41.
35.
Editoril Board, no.18, p.75.
in
100
Ultimately a total social revolution erupted on 19
July,
1979 when the whole Nicaragua turned a
"territory of
terrorists". All turned against Somoza ruling regime. In fact
it was
a
social
revolution which was
the
outcome
of
malnutrition, hunger, poverty and inefficiency of the
administration together with the atrocities committed by the
National Guards. It was a national revolution. This view will
be substantiated by the other revolutions which are bound to
occur in Central America as a whole if the situation remains
the same where the U.S.
has been dictating political,
economic, military and social policies of these dependencies.