CHAPTER
4
States of
Consciousness
Links to Learning Objectives
ENDURING ISSUES IN STATES OF
CONSCIOUSNESS
SLEEP
Why we sleep
Circadian rhythms & jet lag
The sleep cycle
Sleep disorders
DREAMS
Why we dream
DRUG-ALTERED CONSCIOUSNESS
Psychoactive drugs
Substance abuse & substance dependence
Drug research
Depressants
Stimulants
LSD & marijuana
Explaining abuse & addiction
MEDITATION AND HYPNOSIS
Effects of meditation
Hypnosis
Enduring Issues
Person-Situation
Nature-Nurture
How do the settings
in which consciousnessaltering drugs are taken
influence their effects?
Stability-Change
DiversityUniversality
Mind-Body
1
Enduring Issues
Person-Situation
Nature-Nurture
Stability-Change
Are there significant
differences among people
in their susceptibility to
various altered states of
consciousness?
DiversityUniversality
Mind-Body
Enduring Issues
Person-Situation
Nature-Nurture
Stability-Change
DiversityUniversality
Mind-Body
In what ways do
psychological states affect
biological processes
and, conversely, in
what ways do
biological processes
affect psychological
experiences?
Awareness
of various
cognitive
processes,
such as
sleeping,
dreaming,
concentrating,
and making
decisions
onsciousness
2
States of Consciousness
Waking:
Thoughts, feelings,
and perceptions that
occur when we are
awake and
reasonably alert
Altered states:
Mental states that
differ noticeably from
normal waking
consciousness
Sleep
Sleep
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Summarize current thinking about
why we sleep.
Evidence exists that sleep is
necessary for physical and
mental restoration.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Immune system functioning
Cognitive functioning
Problem solving
Decision making
Creativity
Long term memory
ZZZZ
Z Z
3
Circadian Cycles: The Biological Clock
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe circadian rhythms and their relationship to jetlag.
Circadian rhythm:
Regular biological
rhythm with a period
of approximately
24 hours
Suprachiasmatic
nucleus (SCN):
Cluster of neurons
in hypothalamus
that receives input
from the retina
regarding light
and dark cycles;
involved in
regulating the
biological clock
Jet Lag
“We rarely notice circadian rhythms until they are disturbed. Jet lag is a
familiar example. Travelers who cross several time zones in one day often
feel „out of it‟ for several days. The reason for jet lag is not so much lack of
sleep as desynchronization. Sleep-and-wake cycles adapt quickly, but
hormones, body temperature, and digestive cycles change more slowly. As a
result, bodily functions are out of synch.”
– Page 124 (Morris & Maisto)
The Rhythms of Sleep
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the sleep cycle, distinguishing between the
various sleep stages. Explain why REM sleep is also called paradoxical sleep.
Explain how the sleep cycle changes across the life span.
Twilight State: “Going to Sleep”
• Alpha waves
(irregular, low-voltage)
• Brain-wave pattern mirrors
sense of relaxed wakefulness
experienced while lying
on a beach or resting
after a big meal
4
Non-REM Sleep
Stage 1:
Stages 2 and 3:
Stage 4:
Pulse slows,
muscles relax, eyes
make rolling
movements, sleeper
is easily awakened
Sleeper is hard to awaken,
unresponsive to stimuli; heart
rate, blood pressure,
temperature continue to drop;
sleep spindles appear (2) and
delta waves emerge (3)
Lowest heart rate,
breathing rate,
blood pressure,
body temperature;
very slow delta waves
REM Sleep
• Characterized by:
– Rapid-eye movements
– Increased dreaming
• Also called paradoxical
sleep
The Brain-Wave Patterns Typical
of the Five Stages of Sleep
5
Stages of Sleep
A Night’s Sleep Across the Life Span
Source: Adapted from p. 487 in “Medical Progress of
Sleep Disorders: Recent Findings in the Diagnosis and
Treatment of Disturbed Sleep” by Anthony Kales, M.D.,
et al., The New England Journal of Medicine, 290
(1974), 487-499. Copyright ©1974 by the
Massachusetts Medical Society. All rights reserved.
Changes in REM and NREM Sleep
Source: Reprinted p. 16 in “Ontogenetic Development of the
Human Sleep-Dream Cycle” by Roffwarg, et al., Science, 152
(1966). Copyright © 1966 by the American Association for
the Advancement of Science. Reprinted by permission of the
Copyright Clearance Center on behalf of AAAS.
6
Sleep Deprivation
• Between 1/3 and 1/2 of all adults regularly
fail to get enough sleep.
• Nearly 80% of adolescents fail to get the
recommended 9 hours of sleep for their
age group.
• Sleep deprivation leads to many cognitive
deficits and physical problems.
Applying Psychology
• Maintain a regular bedtime and
a relaxing bedtime routine.
• Don’t overeat or use drugs.
• Keep the room temperature comfortable.
• Don’t exercise within several hours of
bedtime.
• Avoid anxious thoughts while in bed.
• Don’t fight insomnia when it occurs.
Sleep Disorders
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the key sleep disorders,
distinguishing between nightmares and night terrors and
between insomnia, apnea, and narcolepsy.
Sleeptalking and
Sleepwalking
– Usually occur during
Stage 4
– More common among
children than adults
7
Frightening
dreams
that occur
during
REM
sleep
and are
remembered
ightmares
Frightening
dreams
that occur
during
NREM
sleep
from which
a person is
difficult to
awaken and
doesn’t
remember
the content
ight Terrors
Insomnia:
Sleep apnea:
Narcolepsy:
Difficulty in
falling asleep or
remaining asleep
throughout the
night
Breathing
difficulties at
night; in severe
cases, the
person stops
breathing
Sudden nodding
off during the
day and sudden
loss of muscle
tone and
expression
Sleep Disorders
8
Dreams
Dreams
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain what dreams are. Summarize the explanations of dream activity and
content as set forth in Freudian theory, information processing theory, and neural activation theory.
Drug-Altered
Consciousness
9
Chemical
substances
that
change
moods,
perceptions,
mental
functioning,
or behavior
sychoactive
d r u g s
Drug Use Over the Centuries
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Define psychoactive drugs and
summarize how their use has changed over the centuries.
• How drugs are used and what
drugs are used have changed
over the centuries.
• Motives for use:
– In most cultures: religious rituals,
medicinal purposes, nutritional benefits,
culturally-approved stimulants
– Contemporary society: recreational
reasons
• Today:
– Stronger drugs
– Synthetic drugs
– Greater knowledge about drug effects
Substance Use, Abuse, and Dependence
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Differentiate substance abuse and substance dependence.
Substance
use:
Substance
abuse:
Substance
dependence:
Occasional use
of drugs
Pattern of drug use that
results in:
• diminished ability to
fulfill responsibilities
Pattern of compulsive
drug taking that
results in:
• tolerance
• withdrawal
symptoms
• other specific
symptoms for at
least a year
• repeated drug use in
dangerous situations
• legal difficulties
related to drug use
10
How Drug Effects Are Studied
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain how doubleblind procedures and placebos are used in
drug research.
• Carefully controlled
scientific conditions
– Double-blind procedure
– Placebo
• Neuroimaging techniques
such as PET scans
Categories of Psychoactive Drugs
Depressants: Alcohol, Barbiturates,
and the Opiates
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the major depressants, their effects, the effects of
an overdose, and the extent to which they are susceptible to dependence.
11
Alcohol
• Most frequently used
psychoactive drug in
Western societies
• Number-one drug problem in the
United States; 9% of adults report
dependence or abuse
• Staggering economic cost of
abuse/dependence
• Directly involved in more than
20,000 deaths annually
• Despite dangers, remains popular
because of short-term effects
• Binge drinking frequent
occurrence on college campuses
Source: Data from Drugs, Society, and Human Behavior, 10th ed., by Oakley Ray, 2003, New York: McGraw-Hill; U.S.
National Library of Medicine. (2006). Alcohol use. Retrieved December 19, 2008, from
http;//www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001944.htm.
Teenage Use of Alcohol
(% Drunk in Past 30 Days)
Source: National survey results as reported in
L.D. Johnston, P.M. O’Malley, J.G. Bachman,
& J.E. Schulenberg. (2008, December 11).
Various stimulant drugs show continuing
gradual declines among teens in 2008, most
illicit drugs hold steady. Ann Arbor, MI:
University of Michigan News Service.
12
Per Capita Annual Alcohol Consumption
in the United States, 1977 - 2005
Source: http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/Resources/DatabaseResources/QuickFacts/AlcoholSales/consum01.html
Persons Killed in Alcohol-Related
Traffic Crashes
Source: http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSFAnn/TSF2004.pdf, http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/Pubs/810809.PDF
Barbiturates
• Potentially deadly
depressants
• First used for their sedative
and anticonvulsant
properties, now used only to
treat such conditions as
epilepsy and arthritis
• Sometimes prescribed as a
sleep aid, but actually disrupt
the body’s natural sleep
patterns and cause
dependence
13
Opiates
• Drugs, such as opium
and heroin, derived
from the opium poppy
• Dull the senses and induce
feelings of euphoria, well-being,
and relaxation
• Synthetic drugs resembling
opium derivatives also
classified as opiates
• Morphine compounds still used
in painkillers and other
medications
• Heroin, other opiates resemble
the body’s endorphins
Stimulants: Caffeine, Nicotine,
Amphetamines, and Cocaine
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the major stimulants, their effects, the effects of
an overdose, and the extent to which they are susceptible to dependence.
Nicotine
Ecstasy
Caffeine
Cocaine
Caffeine
• One of a class of
drugs known as
xanthine stimluants
• Found in coffee, tea,
other beverages, and
nonprescription drugs
• Generally considered
benign in small doses
• Can cause dependence
and tolerance in those
who consume it regularly
14
The Amount of Caffeine in
Some Common Preparations
Source: From The New York Times, August 7, 1991. Copyright ©
1991 by The New York Times Company. Reprinted with permission.
Nicotine
• Neurochemical
properties similar to
cocaine, amphetamines,
and morphine
• Affects several different
neurotransmitters
• 12- to 17-year-olds
who smoke:
– 12 times more likely to use illicit drugs
– 16 more times more likely to drink
heavily
– Increased risk of depression
Amphetamines
• Stimulant drugs that
initially produce “rushes” of
euphoria, often followed by
sudden “crashes” and,
sometimes, severe
depression
– Methamphetamine
– Ecstasy
15
Teenage Use of Ecstasy
Source: National survey results as reported in
L.D. Johnston, P.M. O’Malley, J.G. Bachman, &
J.E. Schuenberg, (2008, December 11). Various
stimulant drugs show continuing gradual declines
among teens in 2008, most illicit drugs hold
steady. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan
News Service.
Cocaine
• Derived from the coca plant
• Produces a sense of
euphoria by stimulating the
sympathetic nervous
system, but also leads to
anxiety, depression, and
addictive cravings
– Status drug:
“amphetamine of the wealthy”
– Damages dopamine brain cells
Hallucinogens and Marijuana
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the effects of LSD and marijuana.
16
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)
• Produces hallucinations
and delusions similar
to those occurring in a psychotic
state; can be pleasurable or
terrifying
• Does not appear to produce
dependency and withdrawal effects
• Taken repeatedly, tolerance builds
up rapidly and drug fails to produce
significant effects
• Generally taken episodically
rather than habitually
Marijuana
• Mild hallucinogen that
produces a “high” often
characterized by feelings of
euphoria, a sense of wellbeing, and swings in mood
from gaiety to relaxation;
may also cause feelings of
anxiety and paranoia
– Active ingredient is
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
– Subject of much debate in
scientific circles and public
forums
Teenage Use of Marijuana in Past Year
Source: National survey results as
reported in L.D. Johnston, P.M. O’Malley,
J.G. Bachman, & J.E. Schuenberg,
(2008, December 11). Various stimulant
drugs show continuing gradual declines
among teens in 2008, most illicit drugs
hold steady. Ann Arbor, MI: University of
Michigan News Service.
17
Drugs: Characteristics and Effects
Explaining Abuse and Addiction
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the biological, psychological, social and cultural
factors that make it more likely someone will abuse drugs.
Abuse of Multiple Drugs
“As a rule, young people who use „club drugs‟ also drink and smoke; likewise,
college binge drinkers typically smoke cigarettes and marijuana as well
(National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse, 2007). The same
behavior is true of older drug abusers. In addition, people who use one
drug…often use another drug…to counteract the effects of the first drug. This
practice not only multiplies their risks as individuals, but also makes efforts to
diagnose and treat drug problems more difficult.”
– Page 146 (Morris & Maisto)
18
Meditation and
Hypnosis
Meditation
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the biological and psychological effects of
meditation.
Any of the various methods
of concentration, reflection,
or focusing of thoughts
undertaken to suppress the
activity of the sympathetic
nervous system
• Useful for stress reduction
• May enhance effectiveness of
the immune system and overall
psychological well-being
Hypnosis
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain why it is difficult to define hypnosis, the process
of inducing hypnosis, and the role of hypnotic suggestions.
Trancelike state in which a
person responds readily to
suggestions
• Debate over what it really means to
be hypnotized
• Individuals vary in degree of
suggestibility
• Therapeutic uses for pain
• Used for cessation of smoking but
effectiveness debated
19
Lecture
Activities
Let’s list a few
“altered states” of
consciousness.
Think about when
and how these states
have affected you in
the past or may
affect you in the
future.
In small groups discuss:
1) your experiences with insomnia
2) various factors that lead to insomnia
3) ways to reduce insomnia
20
What methods to
stop smoking have
worked for you or
people that you
know? What is it like
to break a heavy
nicotine addiction?
What advice would
you give to others
who are trying
to quit?
?!
You’ve probably heard stories about people getting their
pets high on marijuana. Usually, animals do not have voluntary access to
drugs. When they do have access to drugs, will non-human animals seek
out drugs, and can they become addicted to drugs like humans can?
YES. Drugs typically work by mimicking neurotransmitters which are
evolutionarily old and present in many animals, including humans. Physical
addiction is thus possible for non-human animals.
NO. Experiencing effects of psychoactive drugs requires a state of altered
consciousness. Only humans experience true consciousness.
YES. Animals will seek drugs, but only when the search does not interfere with
the normal instinctive behavior, such as mating and grooming. They will search,
but will not become addicted.
NO. Non-human animals cannot experience psychological dependence, and both
psychological and physical dependence are necessary for true addiction.
Is hypnosis just another form of
meditation? If so, can anyone do it? What
does it take to really concentrate and
relax? What are the benefits? On the next
slide you will be guided briefly through an
exercise in concentrative meditation.
21
Why does meditation promote
feelings of well-being and
satisfaction?
Why is it difficult to keep
distracting thoughts from entering
consciousness while meditating?
Does meditation lead to
heightened states of
consciousness or creativity?
Acknowledgments
22
Slide #
Image Description
Image Source
text template
upside down blue sky & grass
©iStockphoto.com/Konrad Lew
chapter
template
man with alcohol & cigarettes
©istockphoto.com/Alexey Ivanov
3
hospital emergency sign
©istockphoto.com/Marje Cannon
3
bar sign
©istockphoto.com/Pgiam
4
two people in bed
©istockphoto.com/moxiegirl12
5
hypnosis
©istockphoto.com/James Group Studios
6
C out of pipe
©istockphoto.com/Vladimir Glazkov
6
pipes
©istockphoto.com/Lagerek AD photo
7
wood floor
©istockphoto.com/Drew Hadley
7
wide awake person
©istockphoto.com/Digital Savant LLC
7
woman in yoga lotus pose
©istockphoto.com/Stills
7
icon: wanted sign
Charlie Levin, adapting wooden board image from
©istockphoto.com/andynwt
9
man sleeping in hammock
©istockphoto.com/Susanna Naranjo
10
illustration: profile w/ brain
Ciccarelli, Psychology, 2/e p. 70
10
dream sky background
©istockphoto.com/Semen Barkovskiy
10
clock hands
©istockphoto.com/Juris Sturainis
10
moon face
©istockphoto.com/Diane Labombarbe
11
Open Your Book - textbook cover
Shutterstock
11
Open Your Book - textbook background
From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 1/e pp. 213-214
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Open Your Book - open textbook
From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 1/e pp. 114-115
12
person falling asleep
©istockphoto.com/Jordan Simeonov
13
woman sleeping on couch
©istockphoto.com/Brian Moore
13
brain wave animation 1
Derek Borman
14
beach sunset
©istockphoto.com/cutiebootiele
14
woman with eyes closed
©istockphoto.com/Sze Fei Wong
14
brain wave animation 2
Derek Borman
15
figure: brain-wave during sleep
Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 125
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beach sunset
©istockphoto.com/cutiebootiele
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table: stages of sleep
Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 126
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night sky
©istockphoto.com/Soubrette
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figure: sleep across life span
Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 127
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night sky
©istockphoto.com/Soubrette
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night sky
©istockphoto.com/Soubrette
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figure: changes in REM and NREM sleep
Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 127
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sleepy toothbrusher
©istockphoto.com/Warwick Lister-Kaye Photography
19
woman asleep on books
©istockphoto.com/stockmachine
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scrap of paper
©istockphoto.com/Trevor Hunt
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person reading in bed
©istockphoto.com/Mari
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child sleepwalking
©istockphoto.com/Fertnig Photography
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bats
©istockphoto.com/Linda Bucklin
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child with teddy bear
©istockphoto.com/Vyacheslav Osokin
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iguana skin for big N
©istockphoto.com/Andrey Parfenov
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cave for nightmare
©istockphoto.com/Xavier Gallego
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bats
©istockphoto.com/Linda Bucklin
23
spooky trees
©istockphoto.com/Pgiam
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boy pulling quilt up
©istockphoto.com/EMPPhotography
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sleep apnea cure
©istockphoto.com/Juanmonino
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icon: jigsaw puzzle
Charlie Levin
26
dreamlike background
©istockphoto.com/Emre Yildiz
28
mix of alcohol drugs and pills
©istockphoto.com/Cozart Photography
28
tie dye pattern
©istockphoto.com/strathroy
29
bar sign
©istockphoto.com/Pgiam
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people drinking
©istockphoto.com/Forest Woodward Photography
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mix of alcohol drugs and pills
©istockphoto.com/Cozart Photography
31
person taking medicine - drug trial
©istockphoto.com/Sumners Graphics Inc.
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pet scan
©istockphoto.com/BanksPhotos
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pill background
©istockphoto.com/Fotografia Basica
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pill background
©istockphoto.com/Fotografia Basica
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people drinking
©istockphoto.com/Forest Woodward Photography
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heroin
©istockphoto.com/Jorge Delgado
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bottle of pills
©istockphoto.com/YinYang
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people drinking
©istockphoto.com/Forest Woodward Photography
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set of car keys
©istockphoto.com/bluestocking
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green beer bottle
©istockphoto.com/Bjørn Heller
35
wood floor
©istockphoto.com/Drew Hadley
35
drunk/passed out person
©istockphoto.com/Photo Euphoria
35
table: behavioral effects of blood-alcohol levels
Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 138
36
figure: teenage use of alcohol
Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 136
37
figure: alcohol consumption US
Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 139
38
figure: persons killed in alcohol-related crashes
Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 140
39
bottle of pills
©istockphoto.com/YinYang
40
heroin
©istockphoto.com/Jorge Delgado
41
cigarettes
©istockphoto.com/Stepan Popov
41
coffee cup
©istockphoto.com/Andyd
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rave
©istockphoto.com/dwphotos
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cocaine
©istockphoto.com/sx70
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coffee cup
©istockphoto.com/Andyd
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bar of chocolate
©istockphoto.com/Yuri Arcurs
43
wood floor
©istockphoto.com/Drew Hadley
23
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figure: amount of caffeine in some common
preparations
Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 142
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cigarettes
©istockphoto.com/Stepan Popov
44
icon: wanted sign
Charlie Levin, adapting wooden board image from
©istockphoto.com/andynwt
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rave
©istockphoto.com/dwphotos
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figure: teenage use of ecstasy
Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 143
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cocaine
©istockphoto.com/sx70
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marijuana
©istockphoto.com/Karen Massier
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LSD head
©istockphoto.com/sironpe
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LSD head
©istockphoto.com/sironpe
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icon: peer instruction
Charlie Levin
50
marijuana
©istockphoto.com/Karen Massier
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figure: teenage use of marijuana
Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 145
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wood floor
©istockphoto.com/Drew Hadley
52
table: drugs: characteristics and effects
Morris/Maisto, 9/e, p. 137
53
blocks
Charlie Levin
54
Open Your Book - textbook cover
Shutterstock
54
Open Your Book - textbook background
From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 1/e pp. 213-214
54
Open Your Book - open textbook
From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 1/e pp. 114-115
56
icon: helmet
©istockphoto.com/Li Shen Jun
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person meditating
©istockphoto.com/Layland Masuda
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hypnosis
©istockphoto.com/James Group Studios
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Wanted: Contemplation cactus
©istockphoto.com/Lee Daniels
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icon: wanted sign
Charlie Levin, adapting wooden board image from
©istockphoto.com/andynwt
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topbar: wooden board
©istockphoto.com/andynwt
59
text messaging
©iStockphoto.com/Freeze Frame Studio, Inc.
60
topbar: jigsaw pieces animation
Charlie Levin
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topbar: jigsaw bk
©istockphoto.com/Felix Möckel
60
insomnia
©istockphoto.com/digitalskillet
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Wanted: Contemplation cactus
©istockphoto.com/Lee Daniels
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icon: wanted sign
Charlie Levin, adapting wooden board image from
©istockphoto.com/andynwt
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topbar: wooden board
©istockphoto.com/andynwt
61
text messaging
©iStockphoto.com/Freeze Frame Studio, Inc.
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topbar: chalkboard
©istockphoto.com/Studio Araminta
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topbar: people icons
Charlie Levin
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topbar: helmets
©istockphoto.com/Li Shen Jun
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topbar: athletic field
©istockphoto.com/Jamie Otterstetter
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person meditating
©istockphoto.com/Layland Masuda
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clouds
©istockphoto.com/photographie-roto
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clouds
©istockphoto.com/photographie-roto
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