 J. Edu. Sci., Vol. (18) No. (4) 2011 
Translating Dysphemistic Expressions in
Othello
Dhuha Ghanim Mohammed
Department of Clinical Pharmacy / College of Pharmacy
University of Mosul
Received
13 / 03 / 2011
Accepted
15 / 09 / 2011
‫الملخص‬
‫ ورغم ان‬،‫يعنى ىذا البحث بالتحميل المغوي والداللي لمصيغة ال بالغية ألسموب التنفير‬
‫ إال انو عمى جانب من األىمية ويعبر عن ظاىرة لغوية ال‬،‫الموضوع لم يكتب عنو إال القميل‬
‫ ييتم البحث في كيفية استخدام ظاىرة التنفير في المغة والجوانب‬. ‫تزال الدراسات قميمة حوليا‬
. ‫ وقد وجد ان األدب ىو أبرز جانب مفعم بيا‬. ‫المغوية التي يمكن ان تتواجد فييا ىذه الظاىرة‬
‫ ويتناول ثالث ترجمات مختمفة من ثالثة مترجمين لمسرحية‬،‫ينقسم البحث إلى ستة أجزاء مختمفة‬
‫ وخميل مطران والدكتور الطاىر‬،‫شكسبير (عطيل ) والمترجمون ىم كل من جب ار إبراىيم جبرا‬
.‫ لمتعرف عمى كيفية ترجمة تعابير التنفير من النص األصمي إلى النص اليدف‬،‫الخميري‬
Abstract
This paper deals with a linguistic and semantic analysis of the
rhetorical figure of dysphemism. Little has been written about this
subject, but it is very important and expresses a linguistic phenomenon
still little dealt with. This paper tackles how dysphemism is used in
language, and the areas in which it could be found. Literature is the most
prominent area abundant with this phenomenon. The paper is divided into
six different sections, three different renderings of Shakespeare's
"Othello" are adopted, Jabra, Mutran and Al-khumairy to see how the
translators render dysphemistic expressions from the SL to the TL.
1- Dysphemism as a linguistic term:
Dysphemism means the usage of a harsh word or expression
instead of a polite one. It is more or less the opposite of euphemism.
37
Translating Dysphemistic Expressions in Othello.
The word dysphemism comes from the Greek “dys’ which means“
"non or miss”, and “pheme” which means “speech or reputation”.
Dysphemism may be either offensive or merely humorously
deprecating and it is related to “blasphemy” but it is less focused in
scope, and therefore not directly synonymous (Cuddon: 1973).
Examples of dysphemism include “lie” for an inaccurate statement,
and “dead tree edition” for the paper version of an online magazine. Some
humorous expressions can be either euphemistic or dysphemistic,
depending on the context, because terms which can be dysphemistic can
be affectionate also. For example, (pushing up daisies) can be taken as
either softener or harsher than died. Such variances can be also cultural,
for instance: "twit” is dysphemistic for “idiot” but in British English is
nearly always humorous or affectionate term.(Frank: 2009).
In slang the phenomenon of dysphemism appears where a
relatively neutral word is replaced with a harsher, or more offensive one,
such as calling a “cemetery” a “boneyard”. A jocular approach to death is
only dysphemistic if the hearer can be expected to regard it as offensive.
For instance, if a doctor were to inform close family that their loved one
has "pegged out during the night", it would be normally inappropriate,
insensitive and unprofessional (i.e., dysphemistic). Yet in another context
with quite different set of interlocutors, the same expression could just as
well be described as cheerfully euphemistic. The term give us ways of
talking about the evaluative content of language: that part which dose not
describe a thing in the world, but rather expresses the speaker's attitude
towards it (Albertazzi: 2000).
There are two kinds of dysphemism:
1. Conventional dysphemism: are words whose sole purpose is to make
reference to a taboo topic in a polite or impolite way: for example
"shit" vs. "defecate". This category has more to do with politeness
and social norms more than the speakers feelings. Conventional
dysphemisms may have a positive social value in expressing
casualness, informality, solidarity, etc (Allan & Burridge: 2003).
2. General dysphemism: ways of describing a situation, event or thing
which conveys an attitude towards it for example: "terrorist" vs.
"freedom fighter", "henchman" vs. "associate", etc.
Dysphemism can arise through the same process as euphemism,
but it is less likely to involve "indirectness": metaphor, metonymy and
circumlocution. It also arises through a process called "pejorization": a
neutral or even euphemistic word for a "bad" thing comes to be seen as a
"bad" word which then needs to be replaced with another euphemism
.e.g. toilet-bathroom-restroom-powder room. This process can be very
instant as in the changes that happen in ethnic and other groups: (Allan &
Burridge: 2003)
38
Dhuha Ghanim Mohammed
Indian-native American
Negro-person-black –African- American
Jew-Jewish person
Crippled-handicapped person-disabled person-"differently able"
(mentally)
retarded-developmentally
disabled
/
mentally
handicapped.
In each case formerly neutral term becomes dysphemistic and has
to be replaced. Another process involving dysphemism is the
generalization of a dysphemistic term originally associated with a
disfavored group to a more general negative meaning (not even
necessarily referring to a person): e.g.:
That T.V show is so retarded.
Dysphemism presupposes that there are three words for one thing
in different registers: a polite word, a neutral word, and an impolite word.
The following diagram illustrates what has been said: (Allan &
Burridge: 2009)
Dysphemism
Neutral
Euphemism
stingy
careful
thrifty
terrorist
rebel
freedom fighter
pigheaded
stubborn
firm
slut / tramp
promiscuous
play boy/lady killer
Some problems arise with cross register synonyms such as that
some items do not have corresponding terms in each column like the
word “nerd” which seems dysphemistic, but does not have a neutral or
euphemistic synonym. The other problem is that some items have
characteristics of both euphemism and dysphemism. (Allan & Burridge:
2003).
Unlike euphemism, which is a well known term, and has wide
currency, dysphemism is not characterized by connotations that are
offensive either about denotatum or to the audience, or both, and it is
substituted for a neutral or euphemistic expression for just that reason.
(Allan & Burridge: 2009).
2- When Dysphemism is Used:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Dysphemism is used in the following situations:
When one talks about one's opponent.
When talking about things one wishes to show disapproval of these
things.
When talking about things one wishes to be seen to downgrade.
It characterizes policy when groups and cliques talk about their
opponents.
It is used when women speak about men.
39
Translating Dysphemistic Expressions in Othello.
6.
When larrikins and macho speak of women and effete behaviour.
(Allan & Burridg: 2009)
According to Balton and Crystal (1969: 188), dysphemism as a case, is a
reaction not only against stiffness and pretentiousness, but also against
nobility and dignity in language. They go on to say that dysphemism
seeks to keep language at a low level on the one hand, and displays good
humor on the other. Dysphemism substitutes dignified and normal terms
for more vulgar, familiar and joyous ones.
3- Differences Between Euphemism and Dysphemism:
Dysphemism follows the same strategies of euphemism, but there
are two main differences between them :
1. One is part-for whole dysphemisms that are far more frequent than
general-for-specific ones, which is the reverse of the situation of
euphemisms. e.g. (the use of “tit” for “breast” is part for whole.
(Allan & Burridg: 2009)
2. The contradiction between “hyperbole and understatement” is
inappropriate. Hyperbole may be used to magnify the offence by
diminishing or downgrading the person addressed, or what is being
spoken of: the result is to usurp the function one would expect to be
assigned to understatement, so that if there ever is understatement, it
is just this dysphemistic hyperbole.
3. Other differences between strategies of dysphemism and euphemism
are predictable:
a. Circumlocution is usually dysphemistic when it manifests an
unwanted jargon.
b. The use of borrowed terms and technical jargon is only
dysphemistic when it is intended to offend or bewilder the
audience. (Allan & Burridge: 1985).
Consider the following examples:
- NATO has a “deterrent” against the Russian “threat”. In the mid1980 the U.S.S.R .claimed to have been “invited” into Afghanistan,
the Americans claimed that the Russians were “aggressors” there.
- The term “deterrent” is euphemistic, while “threat” is
dysphemistic, the term “invited” is euphemistic, while “aggressors”
is dysphemistic. (Allan & Burridge: 1985).
- The so called democracies of the Eastern bloc.
- In this example the term “so called” indicates dysphemism, it
means disagreement with and disapproval of the presupposition
that there are such things as democracies in the Eastern bloc.
- The phrase “eastern bloc” is dysphemistic because its totalitarian
and obstructive connotation of “bloc” when it is contrasted with the
free-among-equals connotations of “western alliance”.
40
Dhuha Ghanim Mohammed
Also consider :
- I’m generous, but she’s spendthrift.
- I’m careful, but she’s mean.
- I’m strong-minded, but she’s plain obstinate.
In all these examples, the second clause is dysphemistic, when it
compared with the first one. (Allan & Burridge: 1985).
Dysphemistic expressions can be found in personal disputes by
using insult expressions of colloquial nature include:
A. Comparing people with animals because of certain behaviour, e.g.
calling someone a louse, mouse, bird, coot, galah, chicken, bat, rat,
cat, dog, bitch, vixen, rabbit, sow, pig, cow, bull, ox, goat, ass,
donkey, mule, snake, ape, monkey, etc. (Leech: 1974)
B. Epithets derived from tabooed bodily organs, bodily effluvia and
sexual behavior.
C. Ascriptions of mental or physical inadequacy, such as: idiot,
nincompoop, fool, certain, maniac, spastic, weakling, baldy, foureyes, etc.
D. Terms of insult or disrespect which invoke slurs on the targets
character: e.g. Biddy, crone, hag, bag, battle-axe, codger, geezer,
crank, fuddy-buddy, fuss-budget, grump, fogy, galoot, etc. (Leech:
1974).
Dysphemism is not just the property of the word itself, but, of the
way it is used. The word “Asian” is considered dysphemistic for people
from Asia; they feel that describing them as “Asian” rather than more
particularly as Chinese, Indian or Thai is dysphemistic since in its racist
tabloid manifests the sickness called liberalism which is carrying Western
man swiftly toward his extinction.
Dysphemism interacts with style and therefore has the potential to
produce stylistic discord, an example when someone at a formal dinner
announces publicly: (Allan & Burridge: 2003).
- I’m off to have a piss.
- This is a dysphemistic expression, he could say instead:
- Excuse me for a moment.
- This expression is considered euphemistic.
Other differences between euphemism and dysphemism are that
dysphemism is pitiless, mocking and brutally frank, whereas euphemism
is indulgent, kind and discrete. Their aims diverge and contradict:
dysphemism tries to stimulate and irritate the person addressed, while
euphemism tries to minimize the impact on the part of the recipient, or to
pitify the ugly face of an expression. In short, euphemism is sedative and
dysphemism is irritative. Euphemism makes something sound better,
dysphemism makes something sound worse. Dysphemism is starkly
direct, macabrely, metaphorical or gruesomely physical, while
euphemism seeks to soften the impact of some horrific event or even
41
Translating Dysphemistic Expressions in Othello.
taboo subject by indirect language and calming metaphors. (Allan &
Burridge: 2003).
The boundaries between euphemism and dysphemism are
sometimes quite blurred, for that reason a euphemism can become a
dysphemism and vise versa (Kroll:1984:12) and many authors include
both under the neologism X-phymism, "Depending on the context of the
utterance, belief, gestures, or knowledge of the speakers given utterance
can either be understood literally metaphorically, euphemistically,
dysphemistically and ironically". (Pedro J:2002).
4- Theoretical Issues of Translating in Terms of Equivalence:
Generally speaking, translation theory is a hard discipline extracted
from many accumulated studies and observations .It aims at solving many
translational problems with their contextual factors. Professionals of
linguistics propound the modern translation theory. It attempts to discuss
the issues of translation practices that have arisen through focusing on
translated versions. It gives some insights on the relation between
thought, meaning and language as well as cultural and individual aspects
of language (Newmark: 1988: 80-83).
Catford (1965:27) demonstrates equivalence as an empirical
phenomenon based on comparing the SL text with the TL text. McGuire
(1980:25) suggests that translation is far more than the replacement of the
lexical and grammatical items between languages; the process of
translating involves a discarding of the basic linguistic elements of the SL
text to achieve the expressive identity. So, translation equivalence is one
of the oldest concepts on translation dichotomy that is between literal and
non-literal or free translation practiced by Arab translators ;it is based on
the replacement of single words in the SL by their equivalents in the TL.
(Hatim & Mason: 1990).
Those ideas are among the most fundamental ones on translation,
but attention has been shifted towards a new orientation of translation
strategies that are formal equivalence, the match of form as well as
content between SL and TL texts. Formal equivalence is appropriate in
certain situations; it helps to provide an insight into lexical and
grammatical or structural form of the SL text, and the dynamic
equivalence is identified in terms of text-comprehension by receptors of
the message that the language receptor responde to, in the same manner
as the receptor in the SL text dose (Nida & Taber: 1974: 132). The
translator should recreate a sort of balance among whatsoever dimensions
of the SL text, as musicality of the words, the intentionality, cues and
clues as well as semantic and pragmatic features of the text.
42
Dhuha Ghanim Mohammed
5- Translation Methods Adopted in This Paper:
This paper works on the basis of text categories and text type as
Newmark divided texts into six types:
1. The expressive text.
2. The informative text.
3. The vocative text.
4. The aesthetic text.
5. The phatic text.
6. The metalingual text.
Since the phenomenon of dysphemism conveys the attitude of the
speaker and the way the speaker uses his language, dysphemism
according to Newmark falls under the expressive text, and this type of
text (the expressive) should be translated semantically or
communicatively.
According to (Newmark: 1988: 46-47) translation methods are
divided into:
1. Word –for-word translation.
2. Literal translation.
3. Faithful translation.
4. Semantic translation.
5. Adaptation.
6. Free translation.
7. Idiomatic translation.
8. Communicative translation.
Briefly, semantic translation must take more account of the
aesthetic value of the SL text, compromising on meaning where
appropriate, it may translate less important cultural words by culturally
neutral third or functional terms but not only by cultural equivalents.
Semantic translation is more flexible, admits the creative exception to
100% fidelity and allows for the translators intuitive empathy with the
original.
Communicative translation on the other hand attempts to render the
exact contextual meaning of the SL text in such a way that both content
and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the reader.
(Newmark: 1988: 46-47).
6- Translation and Dysphemism:
Since dysphemism is abundant in literature especially in
Shakespeare's works, this part contains selected texts from Shakespeare's
play "Othello", and three translations by Jabra, Mutran and Al-Khumairy.
The examples will illustrate how the translators render some
dysphemistic expressions into the TL.
43
Translating Dysphemistic Expressions in Othello.
1. Iago:
(p.5)
Zounds, sir, y' are robbed! For shame, put on your gown!
SL
FOR SHAME
TL
‫عيب‬
-
TRANSLATORS
JABRA
MUTRAN
AL-KHUMAYRI
APPROPRIATENESS
+
-
The SL expression "for shame" is considered an insulting
expression, which is one of dysphemism areas in this text. Only Jabra has
translated the expression semantically; he has used the appropriate TL
equivalent in Arabic which is " ‫ "عيب‬Jabra in this example has rendered the
dysphemistic expression of the SL into a TL dysphemistic expression
also. But both Mutran and Al-khumairy ignored the SL dysphemistic
expression and did not render it.
2. Brabantio:
(p.15)
O, thou foul thief ,where hast thou stowed my daughter ?
SL
foul thief
TL
‫يبلصب بذيئب‬
‫السبرق الخسيس‬
-
TRANSLATORS
JABRA
MUTRAN
AL-KHUMAYRI
APPROPRIATENESS
+
+
-
The SL dysphemistic expression is also of insulting. In this text
both Jabra and Mutran have rendered the SL dysphemistic expression
semantically into a TL appropriate dysphemistic expression which is
" ‫ "يالصا بذيئا‬and " ‫ "السارق الخسيس‬which conveys the same meaning and effect
of the SL, whereas Al-khumairy left the SL dysphemistic expression
without rendering it into the TL. We can say that both Jabra and Mutran
rendered the SL semantically, while Al-khumairy has left the expression
without rendering.
3. Brabantio:
(p:15)
Damned as thou art , thou hast enchanted her!
SL
Damned
TL
‫أنث الولعىى‬
-
TRANSLATORS
JABRA
MUTRAN
AL-KHUMAYRI
APPROPRIATENESS
+
-
Also, the dysphemistic expression "damned" in this text is rendered
differently: Jabra has rendered the dysphemistic expression of the SL
into TL dysphemistic expression also, has retained the meaning and effect
of the SL text. Jabra has rendered the text semantically. Both Mutran and
Al-khumairy have ignored the text and left it untranslated totally.
4. Brabantio:
(p:15)
Run from her guardage to the sooty bosom of such a thing as thou
to fear not to delight.
SL
sooty
TL
‫أسخن‬
‫اسىد‬
-
TRANSLATORS
JABRA
MUTRAN
AL-KHUMAYRI
44
APPROPRIATENESS
+
+
-
Dhuha Ghanim Mohammed
In this text also, which expresses an insult, both Jabra and Mutran
rendered the SL dysphemistic expression into a TL dysphemistic
expression also, which transfers the meaning and effect of the SL. Jabra
followed the semantic way in his rendering, while Al-khumairy has left
the expression without rendering.
5. Othello:
(p:103)
Villain, be sure thou prove my love a whore!
SL
whore
TL
‫بغي‬
‫هىهس‬
‫خيبنة‬
TRANSLATORS
JABRA
MUTRAN
AL-KHUMAIRY
APPROPRIATENESS
+
+
-
This example contains a dysphemistic expression which is (Whore)
which means (‫)بغي‬. Jabra and Mutran have rendered the SL dysphemistic
expression into a TL dysphemistic one. Al-Khumairy has rendered it
using the word (‫)خيانة‬. which does not give the same meaning of the SL.
6. Iago:
(p:67)
It is merely a lust of the blood and a permission of the will.
SL
lust
TL
‫شهىات‬
‫هطوع‬
‫يلح‬
TRANSLATORS
JABRA
MUTRAN
AL-KHUMAIRY
APPROPRIATENESS
+
-
This example contains a dysphemistic expression of sex which is
(lust). Jabra has rendered the SL dysphemistic expression into a TL
euphemistic one which is (‫ )شيوة‬using the semantic way in his rendering.
Mutran has rendered the SL dysphemistic expression euphemistically; he
has used (‫ )مطم ع‬to reduce the effect of the SL dysphemistic expression.
Al-Khumairy has rendered the SL dysphemistic expression
euphemistically also, he has used (‫ )يمح‬to reduce the effect of the SL
expression.
7. Iago:
(p:35).
Lechery , by this hand.
SL
Lechery
TL
‫فجىر‬
‫هغبسلة‬
‫هغبسلة‬
TRANSLATORS
JABRA
MUTRAN
AL-KHUMAYRI
APPROPRIATENESS
+
_
_
This example contains a sex expression which is "lechery". Jabra
has rendered the SL dysphemistic expression into a TL dysphemistic
expression using ) ‫ (فجور‬which conveys the same meaning and effect as
those of the SL; he has used semantic translation. Mutran and AlKhumairy have used a neutral word for "lechery" which is )‫(مغازلة‬.
45
Translating Dysphemistic Expressions in Othello.
8. Othello: (p:45).
Villain, be sure thou prove my love a whore.
SL
Villain
TL
‫وغذ‬
‫نوبم‬
_
TRANSLATORS
JABRA
MUTRAN
AL-KHUMAYRI
APPROPRIATENESS
+
_
_
This example contains a dysphemistic expression of insulting.
Jabra has rendered the SL dysphemistic expression into a TL
dysphemistic expression appropriately he used the semantic method
which conveys the same meaning and effect of the original. Mutran has
rendered the SL dysphemistic expression using ( ‫ )نمام‬which is a
dysphemistic expression also. Al-Khumairy has left the expression
without translation.
9- Iago:
(p: 99)
A knave, very voluble; no further conscionable than in putting on
the mere form of civil and humane seeming for the better compass of his
salt and most hidden loose affection.
SL
Loose
TL
‫الوبجنة‬
‫الذاعزة‬
‫الفبسذة‬
‫الونحرفة‬
_
TRANSLATORS
JABRA
APPROPRIATENESS
+
MUTRAN
+
AL-KHUMAIRY
_
This example contains a dysphemistic expression which is (loose).
Jabra has rendered the SL dysphemistic expression into a TL
dysphemistic one using " ‫"ماجنة داعرة‬. Mutran also has rendered the SL
dysphemistic expression into a TL dysphemistic one using " ‫"فاسدة منحرفة‬.
Al-khumairy has left the SL dysphemistic expression without rendering.
10- Othello:
(P:271)
She says enough; yet she's a simple bawd.
SL
bawd
TL
‫قىادة‬
‫قىادة‬
‫قىادة‬
TRANSLATORS
JABRA
MUTRAN
AL-KHUMAIRY
APPROPRIATENESS
+
+
+
This example contains a dysphemistic expression of insulting
which is (bawd). The three translators Jabra, Mutran and Al-kumairy
have rendered the SL dysphemistic expression into (‫)قوادة‬.
11- Othello:
(P: 275)
Or keep it as a cistern for foul toads.
SL
toads
TL
‫ضفبدع‬
‫صزاصيز‬
-
TRANSLATORS
JABRA
MUTRAN
AL-KHUMAIRY
46
APPROPRIATENESS
+
+
-
Dhuha Ghanim Mohammed
In this example Jabra has rendered the SL expression into "‫"ضفادع‬.
Mutran has rendered the SL expression into "‫ "صراصير‬to indicate
insulting. Al-kumairy has left the expression without rendering.
9- Concluding Remarks:
In this paper dysphemism should be regarded as a metaphor or at
least a special case of metaphor. In spite of the recent boom in the study
of metaphor and other figures of speech from a linguistic, philosophical,
psychological, sociological, etc., point of view, dysphemism has been
studied much less in this way and only very rarely theories of metaphor
have been applied to dysphemism. The motivation of dysphemism is not
only fear or hate, but also the feeling to downgrade the denotatum or the
addressee. In this paper it is found that expressions of dysphemism are
abundant in literature especially sex and insulting expression, as well as
it is found that semantic translation method is more appropriate than
communicative translation in rendering dysphemistic expressions from
the SL into the TL.
47
Translating Dysphemistic Expressions in Othello.
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