ARTICLE IN PRESS
Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
A review of postglacial emergence on Svalbard, Franz Josef Land and
Novaya Zemlya, northern Eurasia
c
! Ingolfsson
!
S.L. Formana,*, D.J. Lubinskib, O.
, J.J. Zeebergd, J.A. Snydere,
M.J. Siegertf, G.G. Matishovg
a
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois, Chicago, IL 60607, USA
Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, The University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0450, USA
c
Department of Geology and Geography, University of Iceland, Is-101 Reykjav!ık, Iceland
d
Netherlands Institute for Fisheries Research, Haringkade 1, P.O. Box 68 1970 AB IJmuiden, The Netherlands
e
Department of Geology, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, USA
f
Bristol Glaciology Centre, School of Geographical Sciences University of Bristol, University Road, Bristol BSS 1SS, UK
g
Murmansk Marine Biological Institute, 17 Vladimirskaya Street, Murmansk 183010, Russia
b
Abstract
The pattern of postglacial emergence in the Barents Sea is pivotal to constraining the timing of deglaciation and extent and
thickness of the last ice sheet in northern Eurasia. This review unites records of Holocene relative sea level from Svalbard, Franz
Josef Land, and Novaya Zemlya to better understand the geometries of past ice sheet loads. Emergence data from northern Eurasia
confine the maximum area of glacier loading to the northwestern Barents Sea, where >100 m of emergence is measured on
Kongs^ya. Deglacial unloading commenced on western and northern Spitsbergen c. 13–12 14C ka ago, and by c. 10.5 14C ka on
eastern Svalbard and more distal sites on Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya. The marine limit phase (c. 13–12 14C ka) on
western and northern Spitsbergen is characterized by the construction of spits indicating a dominance of long-shore drift over stormgenerated fetch, reflecting extensive sea-ice coverage of coastal areas. At sites in proximity to the ice sheet margin on western and
northern Spitsbergen there is evidence for a transgressive–regressive cycle c. 6–4 14C ka, possibly reflecting back migration of
displaced mantle material. A modern transgression is inferred from the marine erosion of 17th century cultural features and 14C ages
of whalebone and terrestrial peat buried by modern storm gravels that place sea level at its present position by c. 2 to 1 ka ago. The
greatest observed emergence on Franz Josef Land occurs on Bell Island, with a marine limit at 49 m aht, formed c. >10 14C ka.
Available emergence data since 9 ka show rising strandlines toward the southwest at B0.3 m/km. The northern limit of emergence
on Franz Josef Land is poorly constrained because relative sea-level data is sparse north of 80 300 N. In contrast to Svalbard and
Franz Josef Land, the marine limit on northern Novaya Zemlya is only 10–15 m above high tide and formed between 6.5 and
5.0 14C ka when global sea level was stabilizing. All sites show little apparent emergence during the past 2 ka, with the youngest
raised landforms at identical heights to storm beaches. This minimal glacio-isostatic signature on Novaya Zemlya and on Vaygach
Island, where deglaciation commenced >10 ka ago, indicates ice sheet thicknesses of o1.5 km. The spatial variation in emergence
for the Barents Sea indicates that western and northern Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya were near the reactive margin of the ice
sheet and these areas sustained the briefest ice coverage (2–6 ka) and were probably not in isostatic equilibrium. In contrast, central
and eastern Svalbard and southern Franz Josef Land were beneath a substantial ice load and probably sustained this load for c.
10 14C ka and achieved isostatic equilibrium. Isostasy residual from an ice sheet model portrays well the general pattern of uplift and
load response at the centre of ice sheets, but deviates substantial at the ice sheet margin or areas covered by thin ice, like Novaya
Zemlya.
r 2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
1. Introduction
The pattern of postglacial emergence for many areas
in the Northern Hemisphere is pivotal in assessing the
*Corresponding author. Fax: +1-312-413-2279.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S.L. Forman).
0277-3791/$ - see front matter r 2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2003.12.007
distribution of past ice-sheet loads and deglacial history
(e.g. Andrews, 1970). Observations on postglacial
emergence are also important for developing a better
understanding of the glacio-isostatic adjustment process
and the constraining properties of the underlying
solid earth (Peltier, 1974, 1998; Cathles, 1975; Clark
et al., 1978). Recent refinements in models of mantle
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S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
viscoelastic structure and an improved understanding of
the extent and chronology of the Laurentide, Fennoscandian and Antarctic ice sheets provide a basis for
estimating variations in ice sheet thickness during the
last deglaciation (Clark et al., 1994; Peltier, 1994, 1996;
Lambeck, 1995). These earth rheological models accommodate site-specific relative sea level and global eustatic
records (Fairbanks, 1989) providing new insight into the
balance between ice sheet volume and changes in global
sea level in the past c. 20,000 yr (Tushingham and
Peltier, 1991; Peltier, 1994, 1996).
In the last two decades of the 20th century large
uncertainties persisted on the geometry of late Pleistocene ice sheets and ice caps over the shelf seas bordering
the Arctic Ocean. Reconstructions of Late Weichselian
ice sheet extent in the Barents Sea region range from a
contiguous marine-based ice sheet over much of the
European arctic (e.g. Peltier, 1994, 1996; Lambeck,
1995), to smaller, coalescent ice caps based on arctic
archipelagos (e.g. Lambeck, 1995; Siegert and Dowdeswell, 1995; Siegert et al., 1999; Svendsen et al., 1999).
This past disparity in ice sheet reconstructions reflected
the paucity of field observations to constrain the extent,
thickness, and timing of late Quaternary glacial events
in northern Eurasia. A critical field observation to
determine the magnitude and distribution of past-glacier
loads and the timing of deglaciation is the altitude and
age of raised-beach deposits. Quantitative studies on
Svalbard defining the pattern of post-glacial emergence
and timing of deglaciation have been pursued since the
late 1950s (e.g. Feyling-Hansen and Olsson, 1959; Blake,
1961a; Salvigsen, 1978, 1981, 1984; Forman et al., 1987;
Landvik et al., 1987; Forman, 1990; Salvigsen et al.,
!
1990; Bondevik et al., 1995; Forman and Ingolfsson,
2000; Bruckner
.
et al., 2002). Starting in the early 1990s
the large expanse of the Russian Arctic became
accessible to international scientific expeditions providing new Quaternary geologic data on former ice sheets.
This review unites observations on Holocene relative sea
level history for Svalbard (Norway) and Franz Josef
Land and Novaya Zemlya (Russia) to assess patterns of
postglacial emergence for areas that were beneath the
Barents Sea/Eurasian ice sheet (Fig. 1).
2. Near-shore conditions and the raised beach record
The present altitude of raised beaches in the Eurasian
north reflects principally two competing processes; the
postglacial rise in global sea level and isostatic up
warping of the lithosphere with disintegration of the last
ice sheet that mostly occupied the Barents Sea. Global
sea level has been relatively stable in the past 6000 yr
(Kidson, 1982; Fairbanks, 1989; Bauch et al., 2001)
thus, raised beach elevation attained since the midHolocene reflects predominantly isostatic compensation.
However, in areas where post-glacial emergence was
modest (o50 m), relatively brief (100 s to 1000 s of
years) arrests in sea level or transgressive–regressive
events (o2 m) have been documented, reflecting the
interplay between eustasy, isostasy, and steric and nonsteric changes in sea level (Hafsten, 1983; Svendsen and
Mangerud, 1987; Forman, 1990; Fletcher et al., 1993;
Forman et al., 1996; M^ller et al., 2002). Changes in the
course of relative sea-level on an emerging coastline are
identified as constructional (broad raised terrace) or an
erosional (escarpment) landform in the raised-beach
sequence, reflecting the complex interaction between sea
level, sediment supply, slope and wave energy (e.g.
Elfrink and Baldock, 2002).
The elevation of raised beach landforms was determined with either a barometric altimeter with an error of
1–2 m or by transit or level with a precision of 10–30 cm.
However, the relief on any one raised beach is usually 1–
2 m, which limits precision in assessing past sea level.
The datum for measuring the elevations across a raised
strand plain is the present mean high tide mark (m aht),
which is easily discernable on most coastlines as a swash
limit. Coastal areas in the Barents Sea are microtidal
with o2 m between high and low tide (Proshutinsky
et al., 2001). The storm beach elevation varies across the
area attaining heights of 1–2 m within inner fjords and
increasing to 4+m on exposed rocky headlands and
areas exposed to direct storm fetch (Forman, 1990;
Zeeberg et al., 2001). Driftage is often conveyed
further inland and beyond the storm beach limit up
valleys with the reverse flow of river discharge during a
storm surge.
3. Radiocarbon dating
Radiocarbon dating of driftwood, whalebone, walrus
bone, seaweed and shell from raised-marine sediments
provides age constraint on marine inundation and
deglaciation. Driftwood is the preferential subfossil
collected from the raised-beach sequences because of
its suitability for 14C dating and close association with
paleo-sea level. Often, the outer rings of driftwood logs
were sampled to obtain 14C ages in close association
with the sea level depositional event. If driftwood was
not located, then whalebone and walrus-skull bone were
retrieved for 14C dating. Bones were usually sectioned by
saw and an internal, well-preserved dense part of the
bone was submitted for 14C dating. The collagendominated gelatin extract from each bone was dated,
which in previous Arctic studies has yielded accurate 14C
ages (e.g. Forman, 1990; Bondevik et al., 1995; Forman
et al., 1997) and have not given anomalous young ages,
as bones from lower latitudes (Stafford et al., 1990).
Often the apatite fraction for whalebones or walrusskull bones was analyzed to evaluate the veracity of the
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S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
1393
Fig. 1. Barents Sea region in northern Eurasia. Shown is most likely Late Weichselian ice sheet limits in northern Eurasia (from Alexandersson et al.,
2002; Polyak et al., 2002; Svendsen et al., 1999). The limit of the last (Middle Weichselian; 60 ka) ice advance from the Barents Sea and Kara Sea onto
the mainland is indicated by the Markhida Line (Mangerud et al., 1999). Also shown are uplift-isobases for 5000 14C yr BP in meters above present
sea level. Thin dotted line is the 300 m bathymetric contour.
corresponding gelatin-based 14C age. If the apatite 14C
age for the whalebone agrees at one sigma with the
according 14C age on the gelatin extract, then the bone
was a closed system for 14C. Starting in the late 1980s to
early 1990s most 14C ages on shells are on a single valve
by accelerator mass spectrometer (AMS) analysis, which
circumvents earlier problems of dating shells of mixed
age (Miller and Brigham-Grette, 1989). Prior to dating,
most shells received at least a 50% leach in HC1 to
remove potential contaminants. To compensate for the
marine 14C reservoir effect, 440 yr was uniformly
subtracted from all 14C ages on whalebone, walrus,
seaweed and shell assembled for this review (Table 1;
Appendices A, B and C). This reservoir correction is
derived from pre-bomb shells from Nordic seas (Mangerud and Gulliksen, 1975; Olsson, 1980). Epifaunal
shells collected in the late 19th century from Franz Josef
Land and Novaya Zemlya yielded similar 14C values,
though infaunal bivalves (Portandia arctica) yield ages
of 760–600 years (Forman and Polyak, 1997). The
radiocarbon timescale is used in this review because it is
also the choice of the preponderance of previous studies.
Radiocarbon ages are converted to the calendar timescale (Stuiver et al., 1998) only when used to test
modelled-ice-sheet-induced isostasy (Siegert and Dowdeswell, 2002).
1394
Table 1
Holocene emergence data and calculated uplift rates for Svalbard, Norway, and for Franz Josef Land, and Novaya Zemlya, Russia
Mean
Inferred emergence in meters since:
k-value4
R2
( 104)
1600
0.99
4.1
0.9
2000
0.87
3.5
1.0
0.2
1300
0.56
5.5
0.7
0.8
1.6
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.1
0.7
1.3
1.6
1.8
5.5
3.4
3.4
3.2
3.2
1.7
4.0
1800
1800
2300
2100
2100
2000
2100
1900
2300
0.99
0.99
0.97
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.97
0.98
3.8
3.8
3.0
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.3
3.6
3.0
1.170.3
2.971.5
Present
uplift rate
(mm/yr)3
Remnant
uplift (C)
(m)4
o0.5
0.6
27
20
0
B25
10
64
55–60
65–75
48
65.5
90+
B90
36
46
20
25
>40
>65
73
50+
1.1
22
66
70+
100+
88.5
86.8
85.1
85–90
50
60+
5 ka1
7 ka
9 ka
Salvigsen and Slettemark (1995)
Birkenmajer and Olsson (1970)
Ziaja and Salvigsen (1995)
Landvik et al. (1987)
Salvigsen et al. (1991)
0
o5
5
8
6
0
0
7
Sandahl (1986)
Forman (1990)
Salvigsen et al. (1990)
P!ew!e et al. (1982)
Salvigsen (1984)
Forman (1990)
Forman (1990)
Forman (1990)
Lehman (1989)
Salvigsen and Østerholm (1982)
Salvigsen and Østerholm (1982)
Bruckner
.
et al. (2002)
Blake (1961a)
5
4
3
7
10
3
o5
o5
o5
o3
o3
o3
5
8
o5
5
12
20
o5
o5
o5
o3
o3
o3
10
26
11
17
25
45
5
o5
o5
o5
8
21
10
30
!
Forman and Ingolfsson
(2000)
Jonsson (1983)
Salvigsen (1978)
Salvigsen (1981)
Bondevik et al. (1995)
Bondevik et al. (1995)
Bondevik et al. (1995)
Bondevik et al. (1995)
Salvigsen and Mangerud (1991)
Hoppe et al. (1969)
o3
17
20
31
20
22
20
23
17
23
o5
26
29
45
37
37
35
35
25
35
o5
42
55
69
62
59
56
53
38
48
9
Curve fit6
Marine
limit2
(m aht)
Uplift
half-life
(yr)5
20007300
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Svalbard, Norway
Bj^rnoya
Hornsund
Southern Sorkapp Land
Ytterdalen, Bellsund
Wedel Jarlsberg Land, S.
Bellsund
Kapp Linne, Isfjorden
Daudmanns^yra
Bohemanflya and Erdmannflya
Blomesletta
Kapp Ekholm, Billefjorden
Southern Prinz Karls Forland
Br^ggerhalv^ya
Mitrahalv^ya
Reinsdyrflya
Gr(ahuken
Mosselbutka
Woodfjord, Andr!eeland
Lady Franklin Fjord,
Nordaustlandet
Phipps^ya, Sj^yane
Stor^ya Island
Svartknausflya, Nordaustlandet
Kongs^ya
Kapp Ziehen, Barents^ya
Humla, Edge^ya
Diskobukta, Edge^ya
Southern Edge^ya
Agardbukta
Hopen Island
Reference
S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
Locality
Novaya Zemlya, Russia
Cape Spory Navolok
Cape Bismarck
Cape Zhelaniya
Ivanov Bay
Russkaya Gavan
Cape Medvezhy
Velkitsky Bay
Nordenski^ld Bay
Zeeberg et al. (2001)
Zeeberg et al. (2001)
Zeeberg et al. (2001)
Zeeberg et al. (2001)
Zeeberg et al. (2001)
Zeeberg et al. (2001)
Forman et al. (1999a,b)
Forman et al. (1999a,b)
10
10
9
9
9
11
10
11
12
13
11
13.5
12
12
10
11
0.870.4
3.071.2
24
38
49
43
28
38
38–36
29
40
34
21
0.9
1.1
0.9
1.0
1.0
0.7
0.7
1.0
1.4
0.7
4.2
3.4
3.2
2.9
3.2
2.8
2.0
1.7
4.0
5.0
2.1
7.6
32
26
24
20
0.8
0.9
0.7
0.8
2.6
3.5
1.9
2.2
1.170.9
3.271.5
Mean
Franz Josef Land, Russia
Alexander Island
Southeast George Island
Bell Island
Northbrook Island
Etheridge Island
Hooker/Scott Keltie Island
Hooker Island, Cape Dandy
Nansen and Koettlitz Islands
Leigh Smith Island
Brady Island
Heiss/Fersman/Newcombe
Islands
Hall Island
Wilzchek Island
Koldewey Island
Klagenfurt Island
Glazovskiy et al. (1992)
Forman et al. (1996)
Forman et al. (1996)
Forman et al. (1996)
Forman et al. (1996)
Forman et al. (1996)
Lubinski (1998)
Forman et al. (1996)
Forman et al. (1997)
Forman et al. (1997)
Forman et al. (1997)
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
et
et
et
et
al.
al.
al.
al.
(1997)
(1997)
(1997)
(1997)
Mean
1
14
15
>20
20
22
22
18
20
20
24
18
16
>21
18
16
17
17
29
32
45
34
28
29
26
30
32
28
24
31
27
31
23
2300
3500
2300
3500
3500
3500
3300
2300
0.99
0.78
0.85
0.94
0.95
0.97
0.99
0.84
3.4
1.8
3.1
1.7
2.4
2.2
2.3
2.8
2700
2000
2200
2200
1900
2000
1500
2700
2500
2000
1300
0.93
0.95
0.98
0.92
0.99
0.94
0.85
0.99
0.89
0.98
0.95
2.6
3.4
3.2
3.2
3.6
3.4
4.8
2.6
2.8
3.4
5.5
2200
2600
1900
2000
0.97
0.96
0.97
0.98
3.2
2.7
3.6
3.5
30007600
21007400
Cummulative postglacial emergence since 5,000 C yr BP.
Late Weichselian to Holocene marine limit.
3
Estimated contemporary emergence rate extrapolated from a curve fit function relating radiocarbon flotsam dates to elevation
4
The function is a negative exponential in the form U ¼ Cekt where U is uplift, C is remnant emergence, k is a time constant, and t is time. Estimated remnant emergence extrapolated from curve
fit function.
5
Estimated half-life of emergence based on curve fit function (t1/2=ln 2/k) and rounded to nearest 100 years.
6 2
R value for exponential curve fit function to calendar corrected emergence data.
2
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1.6
4.4
1.6
4.0
1.8
3.7
4.0
2.5
S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
0.6
1.7
0.5
0.7
0.5
0.8
0.9
0.9
1395
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S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
4. Svalbard
Raised marine landforms were first recognized scientifically on Svalbard by pioneering Scandinavian geologists Nordenski^ld (1866) and De Geer (1919).
Strandlines were first dated by radiocarbon by Feyling-Hanssen and Olsson (1959) and by Blake (1961a) in
central Spitsbergen in Billefjorden and on northern
Nordaustlandet, in Lady Franklin Fjord, respectively.
Intensive study of the Quaternary geology of many
forelands on Svalbard during the past two decades
provides an improved understanding of the pattern of
postglacial emergence and isostasy (Table 1; Appendix
A; Fig. 2). Well-preserved and extensive Late Weichselian and Holocene raised beaches from 60 to 130 m aht
occur on eastern Svalbard and islands in the Barents Sea
reflecting the area of maximum ice sheet loading
(Salvigsen, 1981; Forman, 1990; Forman et al., 1997;
Landvik et al., 1998). Whereas, on northern and western
Spitsbergen postglacial emergence is usually confined to
65 m aht or lower (Forman, 1990; Forman et al., 1997),
indicating comparatively modest loads near or beyond
the margin of the ice sheet. The elevational limit of
littoral processes from the last deglacial hemicycle is
termed the Late Weichselian marine limit (LWML) and
is commonly demarcated by a broad constructional
terrace which represents en echelon accreted storm
beach gravels or erosional landforms, such as an
escarpment eroded into surficial deposits or bedrock.
There are 28 separate assessments of post-glacial
emergence for Svalbard (Table 1; Appendix A, Fig. 2).
In this review we summarize post-glacial emergence by
considering records from western Spitsbergen and from
eastern Svalbard.
Fig. 2. Majority of post-glacial emergence curves for Svalbard, Norway (modified from Forman, 1990).
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S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
4.1. Western spitsbergen
The raised beach sequence on Br^ggerhalv^ya which
is typical for western Spitsbergen (Forman et al., 1987;
Landvik et al., 1987; Forman, 1990; Andersson et al.,
1999) has been divided into three distinct age groups
(Fig. 3) on the basis of the degree of terrace dissection,
preservation of individual shorelines and the extent of
pedogenesis (Forman and Miller, 1984; Mann et al.,
1397
1986). The oldest terrace sequence c.>140 ka old found
between 80 and 55 m aht is highly dissected with only
20–40 m long remnants of the original surface preserved.
These deposits lack distinctive shoreline morphologies,
can be traced intermittently and contain a silt-rich Bhorizon that exceed 80 cm thickness. Deposits of an
intermediate age, c. 60–80 ka (Forman and Miller, 1984;
Forman, 1990), occur between 44 and 55 m aht and
exhibit B horizon of 70–50 cm thickness. Moderate
Fig. 3. Vertical aerial photograph (S70-4231, copyright Norsk Polarinstitutt, Oslo) of Br^ggerhalv^ya, western Spitsbergen. Shown are a tripartite
raised-beach sequence the oldest extending up to 80+m aht and dated to >120 ka. The youngest sequence is demarcated by Late Weichselian marine
limit at 45 m aht and is expressed as a truncated spit-cusp, shown by arrows. Three large raised barrier beaches occur at 45, 37, and 39 m aht. Below
29 m aht, numerous discrete strandlines occur down to the modern shore (from Forman et al., 1984).
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S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
dissection of these deposits has produced 100–200 m
laterally continuous terrace remnants, with subdued
strandlines recognizable. A distinct change in geomorphic expression occurs at 45 m aht (Fig. 3); the
terraces at and below this level exhibit exceptionally
well-preserved beach morphologies with B-horizons that
are o30 cm thick. This prominent geomorphic boundary is dated on Br^ggerhalv^ya and other areas of
western and northern Svalbard at c. 13–11 ka (Forman
et al., 1987; Landvik et al., 1987; Lehman, 1989;
Forman, 1990).
The lowest and youngest raised beach sequence on
Br^ggerhalv^ya from the last deglacial hemicycle displays striking changes in beach ridge morphology with
altitude that can be related to the rate and direction of
relative sea level change (Fig. 3). Three large beach
ridges between 20 and 45 m altitude have broad crests
(100–200 m wide) and relief up to 5 m. Below 20 m aht,
numerous narrow (5–10 m) and low (o2 m) strandlines
occur down to the present shore where a large barrier
beach ridge is actively forming.
On morphologic consideration alone, the Br^ggerhalv^ya sequence below 45 m aht suggests that relative sea
level initially fell slowly and was interrupted by at least
three short periods of still stand or possibly transgressions that caused the construction of three barrier
beaches with crests at 29, 37, and 45 m altitude (Fig. 3).
Following construction of the ridge at 29 m, sea level fell
rapidly leaving only minor multiple strandlines down to
the present shore where a coarse, clastic beach is
presently forming in response to an ongoing transgression (Forman et al., 1987). The occurrence of morphologically similar raised beach sequences on Kapp
Guissez and Mitrahalv^ya (Forman, 1990) to the north,
with massive beach ridges near the marine limit (albeit at
different altitudes due to regional variations in isostatic
depression) succeeded at lower altitudes by minor ridges
continuing to the modern shore strengthens this
reconstruction of relative sea level dynamics.
The other striking feature of this raised beach
sequence is the occurrence of a breach in the 45 m
shoreline accentuated by curved terrace remnants,
oblique to lower beaches (Fig. 3). This breach may
represent the cusp of a spit built when the LWML was
established, and subsequently eroded. Spits typically
form in shallow coastal waters where there is abundant
sediment supply and long-shore drift predominates,
rather than storm generated fetch. An ice-covered sea
would have dampened severely the dominant westerly
fetch and favored longshore drift in near shore leads to
build a spit on Br^ggerhalv^ya. Later, ice-free coastal
conditions could have caused a switch to modern wave
conditions and intensity that resulted in the truncation
of the spit. Spit remnants have been identified at the
marine limit on other forelands of western Spitsbergen,
including Mitrahalv^ya, Sars^ya, Daudmanns^yra and
southern Prinz Karls Forland (Forman, 1990; Andersson et al., 1999).
Two whalebones collected above the LWML on
Br^ggerhalv^ya yielded infinite 14C ages (>36 ka) on
the collagen fraction, supporting pedologic and geomorphic interpretations that middle Weichselian or
older raised beaches occur on Br^ggerhalv^ya (Forman
and Miller, 1984). Whalebone retrieved from the
LWML on Mitrahalv^ya at 20 m aht was dated to
12,9607190 yr BP (Beta 10,986). The marine limit at
these two sites was established essentially synchronously
because Kapp Mitra and Br^ggerhalv^ya was either
unglaciated or deglaciated early at similar times (c.
>13 ka) (Lehman and Forman, 1992). A whale rib
retrieved from a swarm of bones on the 37-m prominent
beach ridge dated to 11,7607430 yr BP (GX-9909).
Because this is one of the oldest ages on Svalbard
associated with postglacial raised beach deposits the
other half of the bone was dated by a second laboratory
for verification. This second age, 11,8007180 yr BP (I13,793), is well within standard deviation of the original
age, giving an added measure of confidence to the
dating. Radiocarbon ages of c. 12.5–11 ka are also
associated with LWML landforms and deposits near
Bellsund (Landvik et al., 1987) and southern Prinz Karls
Forland (Forman, 1990; Andersson et al., 1999) and to
the north in Woodfjord (Bruckner
.
et al., 2002).
Whalebones from discrete strandlines below 30 m to
the present shore on Br^ggerhalv^ya range in age
between
10,275790 yr
BP
(DIC-3122),
and
92307340 yr BP (GX-9908) with most ages overlapping
at two standard deviations (Fig. 4). Similar apparent
rapid rates (2–3 m/100 yr) of emergence have been
documented for other sites on western Spitsbergen,
including Daudmanns^yra, Southern Prinz Karls Forland (Forman, 1990), Bellsund (Landvik et al., 1987),
Fig. 4. Late Weichselian and Holocene relative sea level for
Br^ggerhalv^ya, Spitsbergen. Note rapid fall in relative sea level c.
9.5 ka and inferred trangressive and regressive event c. 6 ka (from
Forman et al., 1987).
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S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
and Erdmannflya and Bohemanflya (Salvigsen et al.,
1990). The rapid emergence probably reflects an elastic
crustal response to ice unloading c. 10,000 yr BP.
Abundant evidence exists for a sea level oscillation in
the middle Holocene across broad areas of western and
northern Svalbard. Near Br^ggerhalv^ya, a whalebone
at 5 m aht behind the modern storm beach at T^nsneset
on the north shore of Kongsfjord yielded an age of
59007210 yr BP (GX-9899), indicating that middle
Holocene sea level was similar or slightly higher than
the present level (Fig. 4). Other sites along western
Spitsbergen (Landvik et al., 1987; Forman, 1990),
northern Spitsbergen (Bruckner
.
et al., 2002) and on
!
Phipps^ya (Forman and Ingolfsson,
2000) constrain this
high sea-level event between 6 and 4 ka ago. This high
stand is associated with a prominent constructional
beach between Isfjord and Bellsund, on western
Spitsbergen (Landvik et al., 1987) and erosion and
truncation of older raised beaches on Phipps^ya (For!
man and Ingolfsson,
2000). This dated sea level event is
often associated with the first pumice level, which is
widely recognized across Svalbard (Blake, 1961a;
Salvigsen, 1978, 1984), but may have occurred up to
2 ka earlier on Erdmannflya and Bohemanflya, on the
northern shore of Isfjord (Salvigsen et al., 1990).
4.2. Eastern Spitsbergen and Svalbard
On Eastern Spitsbergen (Bondevik et al., 1995) and
islands in the Barents Sea, like Stor^ya (Jonsson, 1983)
and Hopen (Hoppe et al., 1969), there is single
generation of raised beaches usually exceeding 50 m
aht, indicating full coverage and erosion by the Barents
Sea ice sheet (Landvik et al., 1998). The pattern of
postglacial emergence for Nordaustlandet is not well
constrained. Only two emergence records exist for this
island (Blake, 1961a; Salvigsen, 1978), although it is one
potential source for the ice sheet that covered the
Barents Sea during the late Weichselian. The highest
deglacial standlines on Svalbard are recognized on Kong
Karls Land in the western Barents Sea (Salvigsen, 1981;
!
Ingolfsson
et al., 1995). Although most raised beaches
close to the marine limit often are obscured by
solifluction on Kongs^ya, levels slightly above 100 m
have been identified (Fig. 5). On the west side of
Svensk^ya raised beaches are traced to higher levels, to
approximately 120 m aht, indicating potentially greater
glacier loading toward Spitsbergen. The Kongs^ya
raised beach at 100 m aht is securely constrained by a
14
C age on Larix sp. log of 9850740 yr BP (GSC-3039),
indicating full deglaciation by at least c. 10 14C ka
(Salvigsen, 1981). Marine limits of approximately 90 m
aht in Billefjorden, Spitsbergen and 85–90 m aht on
Barents^ya and Edge^ya (Bondevik et al., 1995) also
indicate appreciable loading, with deglaciation of the
latter dated to c. 10–10.4 14C ka (Landvik et al., 1998).
1399
Fig. 5. Holocene relative sea level for Kongs^ya, Svalbard, which
exhibits the greatest post-glacial emergence in the Barents Sea (from
Salvigsen, 1981).
Emergence of Hopen, south of Edge^ya, shows unusual
near linear emergence since c. 9.4 14C ka (Fig. 2), which
may reflect initial emergence under a thinning ice sheet,
with a subsequent declining rate of emergence post
deglaciation. Emergence records from southern Nordaustlandet (Salvigsen, 1978) and Edge^ya and Barents^ya (Bondevik et al., 1995) show a fluctuation of
emergence rate at c. 6 ka, which may reflect the middle
Holocene transgression documented at other localities
where total emergence is o70 m (Forman et al., 1987;
Landvik et al., 1987; Forman, 1990; Forman and
!
Ingolfsson,
2000; Bruckner
.
et al., 2002) (Fig. 2).
4.3. The pattern of post-glacial emergence on Svalbard
Abundant chronologic control places retreat of the
northern and western margins of the Barents Sea ice
sheet on to Svalbard by c. 13,000–12,000 14C yr ago
(Forman et al., 1987; Mangerud et al., 1992; Svendsen
et al., 1992; Elverh^i et al., 1995; Lubinski et al., 1996;
Knies and Stein, 1998; Landvik et al., 1998; Kleiber
et al., 2000; Bruckner
.
et al., 2002). The LWML phase
between c. 13,000 and 10,500 14C yr BP on many
forelands on western and northern Spitsbergen is
characterized by the construction of spits, with longshore drift predominating over storm-generated fetch.
The inferred dominance of long shore drift and the
paucity of driftage associated with the LWML may
reflect extensive sea-ice coverage of coastal areas of
western Spitsbergen, obstructing the passage of whales
and driftwood laden sea ice and dampening the
prevailing westerly waves. A more sea ice dominated
Nordic Seas c. 15–11 ka is consistent with diatom
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paleoceanographic proxies (Ko@ et al., 1993). The
presence of whalebone, albeit rare, however indicate
that sea ice periodically dissipated in the Norwegian
Sea to allow the migration of whales to Svalbard.
This variability in sea surface conditions is characteristic
of the last glacial maximum when there were submillennial-scale oscillations in the dominance of
North Atlantic and Arctic water masses off of Svalbard
(Hebbeln et al., 1994; Dokken and Hald, 1996). The
rate of emergence during c. 13,000 and 10,500 14C yr
was relatively slow (1.5–5 m/ka) reflecting the rate
of isostasy just exceeding eustatic rise of sea
level of approximately 15 m/ka for this interval
(Fairbanks, 1989).
Relative sea level fell rapidly (15–30 m/ka) for many
sites on western and northern Spitsbergen between
10,500 and 9000 14C yr BP with raised beaches deposited
parallel to the present shoreline, indicating that wave
direction was similar to that of the present. Emergence
commenced for areas on eastern Spitsbergen (Salvigsen
and Mangerud, 1991), Barents^ya and Edge^ya (Bondevik et al., 1995) and Kong Karls Land (Salvigsen,
1981) post 10,500–10,000 14C yr BP. The presence of
extralimital, thermophilous mollusk Mytilus edulis in
western (Salvigsen et al., 1992) and northern Spitsbergen
(Bruckner
.
et al., 2002; Salvigsen, 2002) starting 9500
14
C yr BP and on Edge^ya c. at 9000 14C yr BP (Hjort
et al., 1995) is coincident with the ubiquity of whalebone
on lower terrace surfaces indicate that summer sea ice
coverage was considerable less and near shore waters
were warmer (>1 C) than present. This marine warmth
is a result of increased advection of North Atlantic
waters c. 10,000 14C yr BP off of Svalbard (Ko@ et al.,
1993) and into the Barents Sea (Lubinski et al., 2001;
Ivanova et al., 2002), coupled with heightened summer
insolation 70–80 N at c. 11,000–7000 14C yr BP (Berger
and Loutre, 1991).
A mid-Holocene (6–4 14C ka) transgressive–regressive
cycle is recognized at many localities on western and
northern Spitsbergen (Forman et al., 1987; Landvik
!
et al., 1987; Forman, 1990; Forman and Ingolfsson,
2000; Bruckner
.
et al., 2002). The transgression did not
exceed 7 m of elevation and is demarcated by a
constructional terrace that truncates early Holocene
regressional strandlines. Radiocarbon dating of a
variety of marine subfossils associated with this transgressive feature indicates that the sea occupied this level
between 6000 and 4000 14C yr BP. Even in areas on
eastern Svalbard where total emergence is >70 m there
is a noticeable fluctuation in emergence rate centered at
6000 14C yr BP, which may also reflect this sea level
oscillation (Salvigsen, 1981; Salvigsen and Mangerud,
1991; Bondevik et al., 1995). However, one emergence
record from Bohemanflya and Erdmannflya places a
transgressive–regressive event considerably earlier between 8000 and 7000 14C yr BP (Salvigsen et al., 1990).
The disjunct timing for this sealevel event may reflect the
complexities of relative sea level with a collapsing
forebulge and the back migration of the viscous mantle
eastward with deglaciation (Fjeldskaar 1994). A modern
transgression has been inferred from the marine erosion
of 17th century cultural features (Feyling-Hansen, 1955;
Blake, 1961b; Forman et al., 1987). Radiocarbon ages of
whalebone and terrestrial peat buried by the modern
storm beach on western Spitsbergen support this
interpretation and indicate that sea level rose to its
present position c. 2000–1000 14C yr BP (Forman, 1990;
Andersson, 2000).
Emergence curves from western and northern Spitsbergen provide the oldest (c. 13,00014C yr BP) but
discontinuous post-glacial record of relative sea level for
Svalbard (Fig. 2). This pattern of emergence corresponds well to predictions for sites that were at or near
the margin of a large ice sheet (Transition zone I/II of
Clark et al., 1978). In contrast, shoreline displacement
on eastern Svalbard and islands in the Barents Sea
commenced c. 10,000 14C yr BP and is continuing at
present (Forman et al., 1997). These records are similar
to relative sea level predictions for areas that were
beneath a substantial (>1 km) ice sheet load (Clark
et al., 1978; Lambeck, 1995, 1996). The spatial variation
in emergence recognized for Svalbard indicates that
western and northern Spitsbergen was near the reactive
margin of the ice sheet. Marine geologic studies on the
continental shelf and slope north of the Barents Sea
place advance of the last ice sheet Sea ice sheet to its
northern limit by c. 21–23 14C yr BP and retreat of
northern areas of Svalbard and Franz Josef Land by c.
15 ka (Leirdal, 1997; Kleiber et al., 2000). Thus, ice
marginal areas on northern Svalbard potentially sustained relatively brief ice coverage (3000–8000 yr), under
variable ice sheet or ice stream flow and were probably
not in isostatic equilibrium, with glacio-isostatic unload/
!
load half life of B 2000 years (Forman and Ingolfsson,
2000). In contrast, central and eastern areas of the
archipelago, which deglaciated by at least c. 10.5 14C yr
BP (Landvik et al., 1998) were beneath a substantial ice
load and probably sustained this load for at least
10,000 yr and achieved isostatic equilibrium. Earth
rheology-based ice sheet models which are predicated
on isostatic equilibrium often model well the former
centers of ice sheets, but deviate from field observations
for non-equilibrium areas at the ice margin (Forman
!
and Ingolfsson,
2000).
The decline in elevation (19 m aht) of the marine limit
and associated isobases (Forman, 1990; Forman et al.,
1997; Landvik et al., 1998) in southernmost Spitsbergen
and no emergence on Bj^rn^ya (Salvigsen and Slettemark, 1995) indicates minimal glacier loading and/or
early deglaciation (before 10 ka); the former is supported
from marine geologic records from the adjacent Bear
Island Trough (Faleide et al., 1996).
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The pattern of post-glacial emergence since 9000 and
5000 yr ago is assessed for Svalbard, Franz Josef Land
and for the latter period for Novaya Zemlya (Fig. 6).
The combination of emergence data from Franz Josef
Land, Svalbard and Novaya Zemlya is justified because
glacio-isostatic compensation reflects past glacial loads
over 100s of kilometers, with a half-life response of
approximately 2000 years (Table 1). These isobases are
hand contoured from 14C-dated relative sea level records
for individual raised strandplain sequences (Fig. 2;
Appendices A and B). The 9000 14C yr BP isobase
defines a broad zone of maximum emergence through
the east and centre of the Svalbard archipelago, with
islands in the Barents Sea and eastern Svalbard
registering greatest emergence. There is a noticeable
deflection westward of isobases into Isfjord and Van
1401
Mijenfjord indicating areas of substantial ice sheet
loading. The 5000 14C yr BP isobase, though registering
at least 50% less emergence than the 9000 14C yr BP
isobase, portrays a similar pattern to older isobases, and
thus is an effective measure of past glacier loading.
5. Franz Josef Land
Raised beaches were initially recognized on Franz
Josef Land during early geologic exploration (Koettlitz,
1898). Dibner (1965) and Grosswald (1973) were the
first to undertake a systematic study of post-glacial
emergence on Franz Josef Land. They identified
extensive raised-beach sequences on Hooker, Hayes,
Alexandra and other islands in the Franz Josef Land
Fig. 6. Estimated emergence isobases for the Barents Sea area since 5000 and 9000 14C yr. Circles indicate placement and value of emergence data
points, which are listed in Table 1.
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S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
archipelago. Most notably, they collected five driftwood
samples from raised beaches for 14C dating, providing
the first age constraints (c. 6000 yr) on deglaciation and
emergence of Franz Josef Land. More recent contributions (Glazovskiy et al., 1992; N.aslund et al., 1994;
Forman et al., 1995, 1996, 1997; Lubinski, 1998)
contribute in total fifteen records (Table 1; Appendix
B; Fig. 7) of postglacial relative sea level and stratigraphic assessments on deglaciation for central and
southern Franz Josef Land and are a basis for
summarizing the pattern of post-glacial emergence.
The studied islands, in the central and the southern
part of the archipelago, are bounded by sounds and
fjords with water depths of >250 m (Matishov et al.,
1995). Most of the archipelago (85%) is covered by
glaciers and all islands studied have low elevation
(o100 m aht) forelands covered partially by raisedbeach sediments. Most sounds and fjords in the
archipelago are covered usually by sea ice for 9–10
months of the year (Denisov et al., 1993). Sea ice
conditions in the inter-island channels during July and
August are variable, ranging from open water conditions to full sea-ice coverage. Gravel and boulder
beaches dominate the present shore of central and
eastern Franz Josef Land. Storm-beach gravels and seaice-pushed ridges often extend up to 2–3 m above the
present high-tide level. The tidal range on Franz Josef
Land is approximately 0.5 m (Denisov et al., 1993).
There are 15 separate assessments of post-glacial
emergence for Franz Josef Land (Table 1; Fig. 7), and
in this review we present as points of discussion
representative site from across the archipelago, including Bell, Hooker and Halls Islands.
5.1. Hooker Island
One of the broadest forelands in the archipelago is on
Hooker Island, rising to approximately 100 m aht, in the
fore of the Jackson Ice Cap (Fig. 8). This foreland was
initially studied by Forman et al. (1996), and was the
focus of more detailed assessment by Lubinski (1998),
which provides a detailed record of postglacial emergence (Fig. 9). A SPOT satellite image shows the inland
limit of littoral deposition on Hooker and Scott Kelty
Islands as a distinct lighter-toned surface that fills river
drainages (Fig. 8). This marine-limit depositional
Fig. 7. Holocene postglacial emergence records for Franz Josef Land, Russia (modified from Forman et al., 1997).
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1403
Fig. 8. Spot Image of Hooker and Scott Keltie Islands showing valley infills at the marine limit (36 m aht) and a prominent escarpment, below the
Marine Limit (26 m aht) and associated with an arrest in sea level fall (from Forman et al., 1996).
Fig. 9. Elevation-age relation for raised beaches on Cape Dandy, Hooker Island, Franz Josef Land. This relative sea level curve is constrained by 23
14
C ages from the Cape Dandy region (solid boxes), an additional 21 14C ages from raised beaches within 20 km of Cape Dandy support the relation
(open symbols). Error bars are one standard deviation (from Lubinski, 1998).
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S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
feature is composed of fluvially dissected, sandy to
gravelly, shallow-water marine sediments. Paired valves
of Mya truncata, with periostracum and siphon preserved and collected from the lower part of the marine
deposit yielded 14C ages of 10,2907115 yr BP (GX17266), 9995785 yr BP (AA-8566) and 9645780 yr BP
(AA-8567). The marine limit at 3672 m aht on
interfluves is recognized as the boundary between
washed, rounded gravels and an unsorted glacial drift.
A whalebone from 33 m aht on a regressional strand
immediately below the marine limit yielded the 14C age
of 94157125 yr BP (GX-17197G), providing a minimum age for the initial fall in postglacial sea level.
On Hooker Island a broad constructional marine
terrace commonly occurs approximately 6 m below the
marine limit. Driftwood embedded near the crest of this
terrace at 29 m aht gave 14C ages 87157100 yr BP (GX17198) and 72457100 yr BP (GX-17556) and indicate
that relative sea level was stable during this interval. A
more detailed study of emergence that generated 23
additional radiocarbon ages constrains this arrest
between c. 9.0 and 7.8 14C ka (Lubinski, 1998). Initial
observations of a broadening in the regressional
sequence at 1772 and 872 m aht, corresponding to c.
5500 14C yr BP and 3500–3000 14C yr BP, that were
interpreted as arrests in emergence (Forman et al.,
1996). Subsequent detailed dating of a raised beach
sequence at Cape Dandy (Fig. 9) does not indicate any
change in emergence rates corresponding to these
elevations or ages (Lubinski, 1998).
The lowest raised beaches at 1–2 m aht on Hooker
Island, at the head of Calm Bay (Fig. 8) are protected
from storm waves that form 2–3 m high storm beaches
on the outer coast of the island. Partially buried logs
from raised surfaces at 1 and 2 m aht yield 14C ages
775765 yr BP (GX-17200) and 1100780 yr BP (GX17199) indicating little remaining emergence. Surprisingly, a log buried at 0.5 m aht gave the 14C ages
>38,000 yr BP (GX-17201), the only evidence for open
water conditions before the Late Weichselian.
5.2. Bell Island
The highest marine terrace on the archipelago is
identified at 4972 m aht inset against a steep bedrock
slope on southeastern Bell Island (Forman et al., 1996).
Radiocarbon ages of 92207120 yr BP (GX-17209G)
and 97057105 yr BP (GX-17208) on whalebone and
driftwood imbedded in regressional gravels at 4772 and
4572 m aht, respectively provide minimum limiting ages
on emergence. Below the marine limit there are a series
of steeply inclined marine terraces covered by eolian
sand.
On southwestern Bell Island a gently sloping foreland,
covered by raised beaches to approximately 30 m aht
provides an optimal setting for resolving a time series
for emergence. A striking geomorphic feature is a 2–5 m
high escarpment at approximately 26 m aht eroded into
beach gravels and bedrock. A 14C age on driftwood
deposited against the escarpment places the erosional
event before 6000 yr BP. A prominent raised accretionary spit occurs at 1672 m aht; a 14C age on a whale
jaw bone from the cusp of the spit places construction at
c. 4300 yr BP. On Bell Island, the lowest identified
raised-beach surface is at 1 m aht, situated about 100 m
behind the modern storm beach. Driftwood imbedded
into this raised beach surface yielded the 14C age of
1050795 yr BP (GX-19476G), indicating that emergence is nearly complete.
5.3. Hall Island
Field studies concentrated on the southeastern glacier-free forelands on Hall Island. The limit of marine
influence was identified to 3272 m aht as a washing
limit eroded into drift-covered bedrock. Associated with
this washing limit is a discontinuous constructional
beach with superimposed ice-pushed ridges (cf. Martini,
1981) that crests at 32 m aht. These well-preserved
marine limit features are within a few 100s-of-m of the
present margin of outlet glaciers of the Hall Island ice
cap. A 14C age of 86557145 yr BP (GX-19495) on
driftwood from a regressional strandline, approximately
1 m below the marine limit, provides a minimum
constraining age on deglacial emergence. Driftwood
located inside Severe Bay at 23 m aht gave the 14C age of
83107145 yr BP (GX-19512), at least 1000 years
younger than the inferred age of the equivalent raised
beach outside the bay. This log was found at the base of
a scree slope and may have been retransported downslope with postglacial regression.
A sequence of marine sand beneath raised-beach
gravels along the inner part of Severe Bay herald even
earlier deglaciation (Forman et al., 1997). Exposed in
stream and coastal sections is a sequence of stratified
sand and silty-sand, containing isolated drop stones.
Centimeter-scale beds fine upward from a medium to
coarse sand to a sandy-silt. Throughout the sequence
there occur paired mollusks of Macoma calcarea and
Mya truncata, and other marine fauna. The presence of
abundant paired mollusks with periostracum and hinge
ligament, and common burrowing structures indicates
an in situ fauna. Most notable is an increase in bed dips
from 5 to 10 at the section base to 25 to 30 upsection, concomitant with a general coarsening in the
sand fraction. The plunge of the beds (155–120 )
indicates a sediment source from the northwest, toward
the present outlet glacier margin. The sequence was
truncated with regression and emplacement of beach
gravels on top of the section. Radiocarbon ages on
paired Mya truncata shells from this sequence place
deposition of these near-shore sands between c. 8300
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and 9700 14C yr BP. This sedimentary sequence represents deltaic sedimentation immediately in front of a
glacier margin. The lowest, shallowly inclined beds (dips
of 5–10 ) mark bottom-set deposition. The overlying
more steeply inclined beds may reflect progradation of
the delta front with fall or stabilization of relative sea
level, or slight advance of a nearby (within 0.5 km)
outlet glacier.
5.4. The pattern of postglacial emergence for Franz Josef
Land
Radiocarbon ages on in situ mollusks and one piece
of driftwood place deglacial invasion of the sea along
British Channel at or before 10,400 14C yr BP (Forman
et al., 1996). A number of 14C ages between 9200 and
9700 14C yr BP on driftwood and whalebone o10 m
below the marine limit clearly show that forelands
adjacent to British Channel were deglaciated by the
early Holocene. Raised glacial-marine and deltaic
sediments dated between 9.7 and 8.3 14C ka within
1 km of present glacier margins indicate that outlet
glaciers were at or behind present limits during the early
Holocene (Lubinski et al., 1999). Limited marine
geologic studies of interisland channels on Franz Josef
Land place deglaciation by c.10–9.6 14C yr BP (Polyak
and Solheim, 1994; Lubinski, 1998). It remains uncertain whether unstudied areas to the northeast, like
Graham Bell Island, share a similar glacier history. The
regional pattern of postglacial emergence indicates that
past glacier loads were greater over the adjacent Barents
Sea than Franz Josef Land (Figs. 6 and 10). The
maximum-recorded glacio-isostatic compensation for
Franz Josef Land is toward the southwest, on Bell
Island, with a marine limit at 4972 m aht, formed c.
10,000 14C yr BP. The lowest recognized emergence is on
the easternmost island studied, Klagenfurt, with a
marine limit of 2072 m aht dated at c. 6000 14C yr
BP. Emergence isolines further east and north are not
well constrained because of the paucity of relative sealevel data, especially north of 80 300 N. The available
emergence data since 9 and 5 ka show these raised
surfaces respectively ascending toward the southwest
into the Barents Sea at approximately 0.3 and 0.1 m/km
(Forman et al., 1996).
There is a clear absence of cobble or boulder beaches
at the marine limit, though clastic beaches are common
lower in the regressional sequence and at the present
shoreline. The highest level of marine incursion is
commonly demarcated by a discrete washing limiting
eroded into glacial drift and in many valleys, particularly on Hooker Island, is coincident with sandy marine
infill. There is also a noticeable paucity of driftwood and
whalebone associated with the marine limit surface
(Forman et al., 1996; Lubinski, 1998). The lack of
boulder-dominated beaches and a paucity of driftage at
1405
the marine limit may indicate a more permanent coastal
sea-ice coverage that would dampen waves and restrict
the flux of flotsam during initial emergence (cf.
H.aggblom, 1982).
There is evidence that emergence is nearly complete
on Franz Josef Land. Driftwood 1–2 above the storm
beach limit yielded 14C ages between 775 and 1500 yr
BP, indicating emergence rates for the past millennium
of o1–2 mm/year (Table 1). Similar low rates of
emergence in the past millennium in Fennoscandinavia
are characteristic of areas that sustained modest Late
Weichselian ice sheet loads (o1500 m) within a few 100s
of km of the inferred ice sheet margin (Emery and
Aubrey, 1991; Fjeldskaar, 1994).
6. Northern Novaya Zemlya
The first scientific expeditions to Novaya Zemlya
identified raised beaches up to 100+ m, which were
assumed to reflect glacio-isostatic unloading from a Late
Weichselian glaciation (Gr^nlie, 1924; Zagorskaya,
1959; Kovaleva, 1974; Grosswald, 1988). The occurrence of raised beaches >100 m in elevation on Novaya
Zemlya, similar to areas at the former centre of ice
sheets in central Canada and Fennoscandinavia, is an
important criterion for reconstructing a 3-km-thick ice
sheet centered over Novaya Zemlya (Lambeck, 1995;
Peltier, 1996). However, observations in the 1990s
(Forman et al., 1995, 1999a, b; Zeeberg et al., 2001;
Zeeberg, 2002) of the raised marine record on northern
Novaya Zemlya places the postglacial marine limit a
magnitude lower at c. 15–10 m aht. Rheological modeling with this lower glacio-isostatic response yields an ice
sheet centered on the Barents Sea and terminating into
the Kara Sea with an inferred thickness of o1500 m
over Novaya Zemlya (Lambeck, 1995). Presented in this
section are the studied localities from the northern and
southern Barents and Kara Seas coast and for Vaygach
Island that principally constrain post-glacial emergence
(Figs. 1 and 11).
6.1. Kara Sea coast: Cape Bismark and Cape Spory
Navolok
The marine limit is demarked in a bay south of Cape
Bismark by a well-developed raised beach berm that
varies in elevation between 12.5 and 13.5 m aht. The
western end of the berm consists of rounded beach
pebbles and terminates against frost-shattered, lichencovered bedrock. Driftwood collected immediately
behind the berm and 14C dated to 5365760 yr BP
(GX-25466; Zeeberg et al., 2001) provides a close
limiting age on initial emergence (Fig. 11). A whale
vertebrae and driftwood collected behind the berm
yielded anomalous young ages of c. 3710 14C yr BP
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Fig. 10. Estimated emergence isobases for Franz Josef Land, Russia since 5000 14C yr BP and 9000 14C yr BP. Circles indicate location and value of
data points. Data for Franz Josef Land are shown in Fig. 7 and listed in Table 1 (from Forman et al., 1997).
(GX-25467) and 3485 14C yr BP (GX-24850) respectively, and probably were carried over the berm crest
during later storm surges. The modern storm beach limit
at Cape Bismark is 6.4 m aht, reflecting exposure of the
bay to a predominately southeastern fetch.
The marine limit at Cape Spory Navolok, a headland
projecting B4 km into the Kara Sea 15 km south of
Cape Bismark, is a distinct wave-abraded escarpment at
7–11 m aht (Zeeberg, 1997; Forman et al., 1999a, b). A
diamicton above this escarpment at 1271 m aht is
unwashed. Previously, a driftwood log (48607140
14
C yr BP (GX-18532) was retrieved at Cape Spory
Navolok by Grosswald (Forman et al., 1995). The
emergence curve and marine limit at B13 m aht for
nearby Cape Bismark indicate that the elevation of
1872 m aht estimated for this log is probably too high
and it has been re-assigned an elevation of B12 m
(Zeeberg et al., 2001).
6.2. Kara Sea coast: Cape Zhelaniya
The marine limit in the Cape Zhelaniya area lies
between a 10.5 m-high berm crest southwest of Cape
Mavriki and unwashed diamicton at 13 m aht. The
storm beach limit at Cape Zhelaniya is B1.5 m,
indicating low wave run-up. Cape Zhelaniya is a
B500–200 m-wide promontory protruding about
1.5 km into the Kara Sea. The pattern of postglacial
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1407
Fig. 11. Post-glacial emergence curves for northern Novaya Zemlya (from Zeeberg et al., 2001) and Nordenskj^ld Bay (Forman et al., 1997).
emergence for the Cape Zhelaniya area is constrained by
samples from Cape Mavriki, Cape Serebryannikov, and
a sequence in the B600 m-wide bay east of Cape
Mavriki. A heavy driftwood root section provides the
oldest (4380760 14C yr BP; GX-25459) and highest
(7.0 m aht) sample (Appendix C). This sample was
collected from rounded cobbles on a bedrock notch,
indicating a washing limit at 9.5 m aht at the base of a
escarpment with active solifluction.
There is a possible washing level above the Holocene
marine limit (B13 m) between 20 and 30 m aht. These
older marine shoreline features include erosional
notches in bedrock at Cape Mavriki and prominent
horizontal, beach-like platforms at B24 m aht at Cape
Zhelaniya. Similar platforms were observed at the
Orange Islands, about 25 km NW of Cape Zhelaniya.
6.3. Barents Sea coast: Ivanov Bay
The marine limit at Ivanov Bay is demarked by a
prominent raised berm that infills a 2 km-wide valley up
to 13.5 m aht. Skeletal remains of a beached whale
scattered over this berm at 11.5 and 12 m aht yielded
ages of 64457105 14C yr BP (GX-24843) and 66407105
14
C yr BP (GX-24844), providing the oldest age constraint for the marine limit on north Novaya Zemlya
(Table 1). The highest raised beach at the foot of the
berm at 8.8 m aht is dated to 37607 45 14C yr BP (GX-
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S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
25464). Modern wood was encountered up to 4.3 m aht
in Ivanov Bay and on its western cape (Cape Varnek).
Driftage at both locations included German sea mines
from the 1940s at 2 m aht, indicating low storm surge
activity in the past B60 years.
6.4. Barents Sea coast: Cape Medvezhy
A detailed record of emergence was established on a
4 km long stretch immediately southwest of Cape
Medvezhy. This area is exposed to Barents Sea storm
surges resulting in storm run-up to 6 m aht in stream
valleys. Driftwood associated with the modern 4 m-high
storm ridge encroaches onto the slightly lower raised
beach. Subfossil driftwood partly buried in this surface
at 3.8 m aht yielded an age of 295750 14C yr BP (GX24858; Appendix C), indicating little to no effective
emergence in the past B400 years. The raised beach
sequence terminates against a B5 m high escarpment,
and the highest discernable raised beach was found at
10.5 m aht. A driftwood log at 10.3 m aht behind this
ridge yielded an age of 4070755 14C yr BP (GX-24864).
Two kilometers to the south of this location the
regressional littoral fill against the escarpment
extends to 12 m aht, demarking the marine limit for
this area.
6.5. Barents Sea coast: Russkaya Gavan
Russkaya Gavan (Russian Harbor) is a 10 km-long by
5 km-wide fjord that runs N-S (Fig. 11). The emergence
sequence studied is on a B400 m-long beach in a 2 kmwide bay separated from the main fjord by a promontory. The storm beach is o2 m high. A series of raised
beaches descends from a well-defined raised berm at
11.5–12.5 m aht, which is cut by a meltwater stream
draining a valley parallel to the Shokalski Glacier. The
marine limit is demarked by a clear contact between
rounded pebbles and bedrock covered by a thin
(o0.5 m) diamicton, containing angular, poorly sorted
clasts. Subfossil driftwood is found between 2 and 4 m
aht, but is rarer at higher elevations. The highest
retrieved driftage is a 2 m-long log at 6.5 m aht, which
yielded an age of 4145750 14C yr BP (GX-24857;
Zeeberg et al., 2001). The general scarcity of driftwood
and low-elevation storm beach probably reflect the bay’s
sheltered topography and position to Barents Sea storm
run-up.
A pronounced bedrock notch at B23 m on the
promontory north of polar station Russkaya Gavan
possibly indicates a pre-Holocene washing limit. This
level appears to be similar to the pre-Holocene levels
found at Cape Mavriiki, Cape Zhelaniya, and the
Orange Islands.
6.6. Vaygach Island
The marine limit was assessed in the summer of 2000
on Vaygach Island around Cape Bolvansky and Cape
Diakanova, respectively the northern and southernmost
capes of this 100 km-long island. The marine limit was
found to coincide with the modern storm beach at B2 m
aht. Radiocarbon ages on weathered, probably in situ
driftwood collected among modern, sawn logs on Cape
Bolvansky, indicate little (o2 m) relative sea level
change in the past B6 centuries (Zeeberg et al., 2001).
6.7. Post-glacial emergence on Novaya Zemlya
The marine limit formed on northern Novaya Zemlya
between 6500 and 5000 14C yr BP when global sea level
was stabilizing (Kidson, 1982; Fairbanks, 1989; Bard
et al., 1996). All sites show little apparent emergence
during the past 2000 years, with the lowest raised
landforms at identical heights to storm beaches (Fig.
11). The emergence curves for north Novaya Zemlya
(Fig. 11; Table 1) indicate an average uplift-rate of
B0.8 mm/yr at present and B2.5 mm/yr between 5000
and 4000 14C yr BP. However, a 35 yr-long tide gauge
record from Russkaya Gavan polar station yields
modern uplift rates of 2 mm/year for north Novaya
Zemlya (Emery and Aubrey, 1991; p. 144). The lower
uplift rates based from the raised beach record probably
reflects the influence of wave-run up, which often
redeposits driftage to a higher elevation, near the storm
beach limit, yielding young ages for the lowest raised
beaches and resulting in artificially depressed uplift
rates. Uplift rates during the past B4000 yr, were
relatively low (o2.5 mm/yr) and may partially reflect
low elevation of raised beaches (10–15 m aht) effected by
variability in wave run-up. Thus, apparent uplift rates of
0.8 mm/yr and uplift half-lives of 3000 yr for the past
B4000 yr may be underestimates and the actual halflives are probably shorter, between 2000 and 3000 years
(Table 1).
Ice retreat from coastal areas of northwest Novaya
Zemlya is constrained by the c. 8000 and 8700 14C yr BP
shell ages from Ruskaya Gavan (Zeeberg et al., 2001)
and a basal age of c. 9240 14C yr BP on a marine core
from Nordenski^ld Bay (Forman et al., 1999a, b). Initial
retreat of outlet glaciers on Novaya Zemlya is potentially coincident with cessation of glacial marine
deposition in northern and eastern Barents Sea at c.
10,000 14C yr BP (Polyak and Solheim, 1994; Polyak
et al., 1995, 1997, 2000; Lubinski et al., 1996; Hald and
Aspeli, 1997) and the onset of postglacial emergence on
Franz Josef Land and eastern Svalbard c. 10,000 14C yr
BP (e.g. Bondevik et al., 1995; Forman et al., 1995, 1996,
1997; Landvik et al., 1998). Older minimum limiting
deglacial ages of c. 13,000 14C yr BP have been obtained
on marine cores from the deep (water depths >450)
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troughs in the northern shelf of the Barents Sea
(Lubinski et al., 1996; Polyak et al., 1997; Hald et al.,
1999; Kleiber et al., 2000). Nearby sediment
records from the continental slope in the Arctic Ocean
suggest that initial decay of the Barents Sea ice
sheet along its northern margin began c. 15 ka (e.g.,
Knies and Stein, 1998; Knies et al., 2001; Kleiber et al.,
2000).
Early Holocene uplift of Novaya Zemlya, prior to
formation of the marine limit (B6000 14C yr BP), is
extrapolated from the relative sea level record. Calculated uplift rates of 5–6 mm/yr between 9000 and 6000
14
C yr BP indicate that about 15–20 m of uplift occurred
during this period, compared to about 40 m of global
sea-level rise (Kidson, 1982; Fairbanks, 1989; Bard et al.,
1996). Thus, it is inferred that sea level rise outpaced
uplift, implying a transgression until cessation of global
sea level rise c. 6000 14C yr BP. Isostatic rebound
dominated postglacial eustatic sea-level rise after c. 6000
14
C yr BP, resulting in formation of the marine limit and
regression to the present shore. Novaya Zemlya’s
uniformly low (15–10 m aht) marine limit is similar to
the marine limits found in southwest Scandinavia
(Svendsen and Mangerud, 1987) and on northwest and
south Svalbard at the thinning edge of the Barents Sea
ice sheet (Forman, 1990; Ziaja and Salvigsen, 1995;
!
Forman and Ingolfsson,
2000). Based on these studies
and assuming a comparable rheological response to
unloading, Novaya Zemlya’s low Holocene marine limit
and current uplift rates of B1–2 mm/yr reflect a Late
Weichselian ice load o1000 m (Lambeck, 1995, 1996;
Peltier, 1996).
Isostatic uplift on north Novaya Zemlya since
5000 14C yr BP is 1071 m on the east coast (capes
Bismark and Spory Navolok) and the west coast
(Ivanov Bay and Cape Medvezhy). Lower uplift values
of 871 m aht since 5000 yr at Cape Zhelaniya and
Russkaya Gavan probably reflect low wave run-up,
resulting in driftwood deposition at lower elevations.
Isostatic uplift since 5000 14C yr BP is 1171 m in the
Nordenski^ld Bay 300 km south of our northern
study area, suggesting that the isobase pattern runs
parallel to the Novaya Zemlya coastline (Fig. 6).
Furthermore, the similarity of uplift on Cape Medvezhy
and Cape Bismark, areas with comparable storm
run-up on opposite sites of the island, suggests little
differential uplift across the B80 km width of Novaya
Zemlya (no east–west tilt) since 5000 yr BP. There
are no Late Weichselian or Holocene raised marine
sediments along the mainland coastlines of the
Kara Sea and southwest Yamal Peninsula (Mangerud,
et al., 1999; Forman et al., 1999a, b). This, and
the absence of Holocene raised beaches on northernmost Vaygach Island, implies that the line of
zero-emergence runs immediately south and east of
Novaya Zemlya.
1409
7. The marine limit and deglaciation in the Barents Sea
Available chronologic control from land areas and the
continental shelf places retreat of the northern and
western margins of the Barents Sea ice sheet by c. 13,000
14
C yr BP (Forman et al., 1987; Svendsen et al., 1992;
Polyak and Solheim, 1994; Elverh^i et al., 1995;
Lubinski et al., 1996; Bruckner
.
et al., 2002). Stable
isotopic and IRD records from the continental slope in
the Arctic Ocean suggest that initial decay of the Barents
Sea ice sheet along its northern margin began c. 15,000
14
C yr BP ka but that major grounding line retreat off
the shelf may not have begun until c. 13,500 ka (e.g.,
Knies et al., 1999, 2000; Kleiber et al., 2000). Geomorphic and stratigraphic evidence place deglacial
unloading of central Franz Josef Land prior to 10.0–
10.4 14C ka (Forman et al., 1996, 1997); a similar
conclusion has been reached for eastern Svalbard
(Landvik et al., 1998). The apparent age difference
between deglaciation of the deep troughs in the northern
Barents Sea at c. 13 ka and the adjacent Franz Josef
Land at c. 10.4 ka may reflect relict glacier cover given
that glacial marine sedimentation occurs in the troughs
until c. 10 ka (e.g., Lubinski et al., 1996). Nevertheless, a
hiatus in datable material delivered to the archipelago
cannot be ruled out.
There is a distinct absence of boulder-dominated
beaches at the marine limit on Franz Josef Land, though
boulder beaches are common lower in the regressional
sequence and at the present shoreline. The highest level
of marine incursion is demarcated commonly by a
discrete washing limit eroded into glacial drift, or in
proximity to a sediment source, constructional beach
ridges in valley mouths. There is a noticeable lack of
driftage on the marine-limit surface. Only two pieces of
driftwood, one from Hall Island and the other from
Koldewey Island, were retrieved after surveying numerous marine-limit landforms on central and eastern Franz
Josef Land. A similar paucity in driftage on marine-limit
surfaces was observed on western Franz Josef Land
(N.aslund et al., 1994; Forman et al., 1996). The lack of
boulder-dominated beaches, occurrence of sea-ice
pushed ridges, and scarcity of driftage on marine limit
surfaces may indicate a more permanent sea-ice cover, at
least in the near-shore zone, that would dampen waves
and restrict the flux of flotsam during initial emergence
(H.aggblom, 1982; Stewart and England, 1983).
The oldest 14C ages on driftage and shells of c. 10.4 ka
from raised marine deposits on Franz Josef Land
(Forman et al., 1996) and eastern Svalbard provide a
minimum age on deglaciation, particularly if perennial
sea ice dominated with ice sheet retreat. A permanent
sea-ice cover would restrict the flux of flotsam (Ha. ggblom, 1982; Stewart and England, 1983), the inmigration of whales (Moore and Reeves, 1993), and
colonization by mollusks (Peacock, 1989). Diatom
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records for the Norwegian and Greenland seas indicate
a perennial sea-ice pack between c. 13 and 10.5 ka, with
present sea-surface conditions prevailing by 10 ka (Ko@
et al., 1993). However, planktonic foraminferal records
west of Svalbard indicate periodic open water conditions
in the late glacial (Hebbeln et al., 1994; Dokken and
Hald, 1996). The occurrence of whalebones, though
rare, dated between 13 and 11 14C ka indicates episodic
open-water conditions extending to nearshore areas on
west Spitsbergen (Forman et al., 1987; Forman, 1990).
However, there is a distinct absence of whalebone and
driftwood c. >10 ka. on northern Spitsbergen, even
though strandplains formed >11 ka, indicating the
absence of open water conditions conducive for the
transport of driftage upon deglaciation (Salvigsen and
Østerhlom, 1982; Lehman, 1989; Bruckner
.
et al., 2002).
Perennial sea-ice cover may have dominated northern
Svalbard and Franz Josef Land during the late glacial
until northward propagation of regional oceanographic
warming after 10.5 ka (Ko@ et al., 1993; Polyak et al.,
1995; Lubinski et al., 2001; Ivanova et al., 2002).
The first-order dimensions of the Late Weichselian
Barents Sea ice sheet are indicated by the maximum
uplift pattern in the northwestern Barents Sea, along
with the position of moraines on the shelf edge north of
Spitsbergen (Elverh^i et al., 1995; Leirdal, 1997, in:
!
Forman and Ingolfsson,
2000) and around Bear Island
(Salvigsen and Slettemark, 1995). These constraints
imply an ice dome with a radius of B500 km. The
eastern limit probably terminated in the Kara Sea
(Polyak et al., 2002) with ice flow likely following
bathymetry. Major ice streams descended into the Franz
Victoria, St. Anna and Voronin Troughs while ice also
spread into the southern Barents Sea (Lubinski et al.,
1996; Polyak et al., 1997, 2000; Siegert et al., 1999;
Kleiber et al., 2000). There is compelling evidence for a
subsidiary ice stream that flowed eastward across the
northern Kara Sea and terminated on the Taymyr
Peninsula (Alexandersson et al., 2002; Polyak et al.,
2002). The ice dome in the Barents Sea and a potentially
smaller form over Novaya Zemlya drained to the
southwest with an ice stream into the Bear Island
Trough. Eastward ice flow from the Barents Sea dome
toward Novaya Zemlya would have to overcome
accelerated flow into the St. Anna Trough and then
overtop Novaya Zemlya’s steep and high (1000 m)
topography. Mountains and plateaus of Novaya Zemlya, therefore, may have sustained a satellitic ice dome
during the last glacial maximum, consistent with the
coast-parallel isobases at 5 ka (Zeeberg et al., 2001).
Glacier cover of islands in the Barents Sea was
probably reduced compared to present glacier limits
during the early Holocene (10–8 ka). At a number of
localities on Franz Josef Land, within 1–2 km of the
present glacier margin, in situ shells from raised-marine
sediments yield 14C ages between 9.7 and 8.3 ka,
evidence that outlet glaciers were at or behind present
margins by the early Holocene (Forman et al., 1996,
1997; Lubinski et al., 1999). Blake (1989) reports AMS
14
C ages of c. 9.7–9.2 ka on shell fragments from an
interlobate moraine from a northern outlet of the
Nordaustlandet ice cap. These ages indicate that this
outlet retreated at least 6 km from its current position
during the early Holocene to allow marine incursion and
deposition of shells. On Stor^ya, a small island, 15 km
east of Nordaustlandet, the inferred presence of c. 9–
5 ka old raised beach deposits beneath the present ice
cap marks a significant reduction or possible absence of
the ice cap during the early Holocene (Jonsson, 1983). A
similar geomorphic relation was recognized on Alexandra Island, Franz Josef Land, where raised beaches
dated between c. 6800 and 5000 14C yr BP are
juxtaposed at the present ice-cap margin, evidence for
less glacier cover during the early Holocene (Glazovskiy
et al., 1992).
8. Postglacial emergence in the Barents Sea
There is abundant evidence for pre-Late Weichselian
raised beach features on western and northern Spitsbergen and on Novaya Zemlya. These basic field observations indicate that the last glaciation was not the most
extensive, nor resulted in the greatest ice sheet loads in
the late Quaternary. The most extensive older raised
beach sequence occurs on western and northern
Spitsbergen, where well-preserved remnants occur up
to 40 m and above the Late Weichselian marine limit
(Forman et al., 1984; Mann et al., 1987; Forman, 1990).
Many of these surfaces, particularly on western and
northern Spitsbergen (Forman et al., 1984; Forman,
1990; Andersson et al., 1999) show no evidence for
glacier over riding while other sites show coverage by a
thin discontinous diamiction associated with the last
glaciation (Mangerud et al., 1992; Forman et al., 1997).
Direct dating of subfossils from these older deposits and
correlation to nearby stratigraphic sections place these
high relative sea level events c. 60–80 ka and >140 ka
ago (Forman et al., 1987; Miller et al., 1989; Forman,
1999). Washing levels are also identified at a number of
sites above the Holocene marine limit at B24 m aht on
north Novaya Zemlya (Zeeberg et al., 2001). These
northern levels are probably related to raised beach
deposits between 20 and at least 36 m aht in Nordenskj^ld Bay about 175 km to the southwest, which
yielded shell ages of >30 ka and are interpreted to
reflect ice loading by an Early or Middle Weichselian ice
sheet (Forman et al., 1999a). Evidence for earlier glacial
events is better delineated on the Eurasian mainland by
glacier marginal deposits in north Russia (Markhida
Line) and west Siberia that indicate ice-sheet advance
from the Barents and Kara Seas onto the mainland
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during the Early (c. 100 ka) or Middle (60–70 ka)
Weichselian (Astakhov, 1998; Forman et al., 1999b;
Mangerud et al., 1999; Svendsen et al., 1999), though
there is also evidence for northerly ice flow into the Kara
Sea from mainland Russia (Forman et al., 2002;
Lokrantz et al., 2003).
This assessment of the pattern of postglacial emergence for the Barents Sea places a maximum Late
Weichselian ice sheet load over the northern Barents Sea
and eastern Svalbard. The emergence data from Franz
Josef Land indicate substantially less isostatic compensation than eastern Svalbard (Salvigsen, 1981; Salvigsen
and Mangerud, 1991; Bondevik et al., 1995). Observations of a low (10–15 m aht) and young (B6000 14C yr
BP) postglacial marine limit on Novaya Zemlya (Forman et al., 1995, 1999a; Zeeberg et al., 2001) confines the
maximum ice sheet load to the northern and western
Barents Sea. The pattern of glacio-isostasy is inconsistent with a dominant ice sheet load modeled over
Novaya Zemlya and the Kara Sea (Peltier, 1994, 1996).
The southern limit of maximum isostatic rebound in the
Barents Sea is more difficult to constrain. However,
there is no evidence for northerly deflection of postglacial isobases on Fennoscandinavia or the Kola
Peninsula (M^ller, 1986; Snyder et al., 1996) indicating
a diminished ice-sheet load and/or early deglaciation of
the southern Barents Sea. Glacio-isostatic response was
even more modest in the southern Barents Sea with
marine limits registered at o10 m on southern Novaya
Zemlya and Kolguev Island (Forman et al., 1995), zero
emergence on Bear Island (Salvigsen and Slettemark,
1995) and Vaygach Island (Zeeberg et al., 2001) and
postglacial submergence of the Pechora lowland coast
(Tveranger et al., 1995).
Modeling the course of uplift in the Barents Sea
provides insight into eustatic and isostatic controls on
the course of postglacial relative sea-level. An exponential function (U=Cekt; where U=uplift, C=remnant
uplift, k=rate constant and t=time), provides a firstorder approximation for the form of postglacial uplift
for many areas that sustained 1000+m-thick ice sheets
in the Late Weichselian (Andrews, 1968, 1970; Bakkelid,
1986; Forman et al., 1997). A similar formulation is used
to model uplift for Franz Josef Land, eastern Svalbard
and Novaya Zemlya, which yielded highly correlated fits
(R2=>0.90; Table 1). Calculations using emergence
data spanning the past 10 ka are corrected to reflect total
uplift by adding the estimated rise in global sea-level
during this interval (Fairbanks, 1989). It is assumed that
global sea level is stable after 6 ka (Kidson, 1982) and
the total sea level rise is B55 m after 10.5 ka (Fairbanks,
1989; Peltier, 1994). To assess present rates of uplift and
uplift half-lives, the radiocarbon chronology for uplift is
converted to calendric time (Stuiver et al., 1998).
Exponential fit of 14C-corrected uplift data for Franz
Josef Land and east Svalbard indicate that these areas
1411
are close to isostatic equilibrium at present (Table 1).
The uplift rate constant (k) for Franz Josef Land and
eastern Svalbard is relatively uniform yielding mean
values of 3.2 104/yr and 3.4 104/yr for the past
12,000 calendar years (Table 1). The resultant average
half-life of uplift is approximately 2000 years, which is
similar to values for northern Canada (Andrews, 1968;
Dyke et al., 1991) and Fennoscandinavia (Bakkelid,
1986; Weihe, 1996). The present estimated rate of
uplift for Franz Josef Land is 1.170.9 mm/yr, with an
inferred 3–2 m of uplift remaining (Table 1). The
inferred present rate of uplift on eastern Svalbard is
similar at 1.170.3 mm/year, with 1.5–5.5 m of
isostasy projected in to the future. Kongs^ya, Aagardbukta on eastern Spitsbergen, and localities on Barent^ya and on Edge^ya have the greatest inferred
remaining emergence (3.4–5.5 m) and the present
uplift rates (1.2–1.6 mm/yr), which is consistent with
maximum Late Weichselian glacier loads over the
Barents Sea and eastern Svalbard (Salvigsen, 1981;
Forman, 1990; Forman et al., 1995, 1997; Landvik
et al., 1998).
The estimated contemporary, maximum uplift rates of
0.7–1.6 mm/yr for eastern Svalbard and Franz Josef
Land are consistent with the closest tide gauge
measurements on northern Novaya Zemlya, Russkaya
Gavan (Emery and Aubrey 1991, p. 114). Sea level
measurements for this locality in the northern Barents
Sea over the past 40 years yield a land uplift rate of
2 mm/yr. In contrast, predicted uplift residuals of 3–
8 mm/yr (Peltier, 1996; M2 model) are at odds with the
observed current uplift rates of 0.7–2 mm/yr, reflecting
the rheological response from a modelled 2-to-2.5-km
thick Late Weichselian ice-sheet over the Barents and
Kara seas, (Peltier, 1994, 1996).
The sea-level curve from Barbados currently provides
the best approximation of the course of global sea level
during the last deglaciation (Fairbanks, 1989). However,
uncertainty remains on directly applying sea-level
estimates from Barbados to the Barents Sea because of
imprecise estimates on the progression of the geoid
during deglaciation and gravitational effects on sea level
.
by adjacent ice sheets (e.g. Morner,
1978; Anderson,
1984; Fjeldskaar, 1994). To minimize uncertainties of
applying an equatorial sea level record to the Barents
Sea, the derivative of the Barbados sea-level curve
(Fairbanks, 1989) is presented as a negative rate
compared to the modelled isostatic response (Fig. 12).
The average rates of eustatic sea-level rise and isostatic
adjustment are computed in 1000 14C year increments
for the past 10 ka (Fig. 12). The difference between the
rate of eustatic rise and isostatic compensation yields a
predicted emergence rate/ka. This predicted emergence
rate is then compared to the measured emergence rate
for Hooker and Scot Keltie islands and Koldewey
Island, southern Franz Josef Land (Forman et al., 1996,
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S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
Fig. 12. Plot of the rate of sea-level change for 1000 14C yr BP intervals for the past 11,000 yr. Changes in eustasy derived from Fairbanks (1989).
Modeled uplift rate derived from exponential fit of uplift data (Forman et al., 1997). Rate of modelled emergence is derived by subtracting rate of
eustasy from rate of modelled uplift. Measured emergence rate is from empirically derived relative sea-level curve for Hooker and Scott Keltie islands
(Forman et al., 1996).
1997) to evaluate the interplay between eustasy and
isostasy in the Barents Sea (Fig. 12).
The measured emergence rate for Hooker and Scott
Keltie Islands agrees well with modeled rates from the
past 7 ka (Fig. 12), consistent with the primacy of glacioisostatic adjustment in the middle and late Holocene for
controlling the course of relative sealevel in the Barents
Sea. However, prior to 7 ka there is a noticeable
discrepancy, particularly on Hooker and Scott Keltie
islands, with measured emergence rates lower than those
predicted (Fig. 12). This lower initial emergence rate on
Franz Josef Land is reflected as a diachronous marine
limit dated between 10.4 and 6 ka, and previously
denoted as a transgression (N.aslund et al., 1994) or an
arrest with fall in relative sea level (Forman et al., 1996).
It is unlikely that the lower measured rates of emergence
before 7 ka reflect glacier reloading, with outlet glaciers
at or behind present position by the early Holocene
(Lubinski et al., 1999). Alternatively, the reflooding of
the Barents Sea after deglaciation, c. 13–10 ka may be a
sufficient load to dampen glacio-isostatic compensation.
The average present depth of the Barents Sea is 230 m
and at c. 10–9 ka the western and central portions were
approximately 150–50 m deeper because of down warping from prior ice-sheet loading. The inferred water load
in the Barents Sea c. 10 ka may be equivalent to 20–10%
of the modelled ice-sheet load during the glacial
maximum (Lambeck, 1995) and would dampen the
initial rate of emergence (Forman et al., 1997).
9. Comparison of model and data or glacial isostasy
The glacial history hypothesised from analysis of
raised beaches can be tested using numerical ice-sheet
models. Such models differ from solid-Earth models in
that uplift rate calculations are made independent of
measurements, whereas solid-Earth models are forced
by rebound records. Like solid-Earth models, ice-sheet
models also assist in the interpretation of uplift records
by providing information in regions where data are
absent, and for extending uplift rates backwards in time.
One argument against the use of ice-sheet models for
this purpose is that their solid-Earth component is basic.
However, a model inter-comparison exercise has revealed little difference between the results of sophisticated Earth rheology models and some much simpler
models (Le Meur and Huybrechts, 1996). In particular,
simple models are capable of determining uplift rates
and patterns across regions that have experienced
deglaciation, though they are less good at determining
uplift distal to formerly glaciated terrain.
Siegert et al. (1999) used an ice-sheet model to
understand the glacial history of the Eurasian Arctic.
As the model ran, the topographic grid, over which the
ice sheet was constructed, was continually adjusted to
account for ice-loading of the crust through a glacial
cycle following the isostasy method developed in Oerlemans and van der Veen (1984). In this method, the total
deflection of the lithosphere can be approximated as the
sum of the deflections caused by discrete loads in each
cell. The lithosphere is allowed to approach equilibrium
by an exponential decay. In each model year the
lithosphere is adjusted by 1/f times the distance to
equilibrium. The value of f, a characteristic time
constant governing the rate at which isostatic adjustment occurs, is taken as 3000 years, which is compatible
with that determined by Fjeldskaar (1994) from
Scandinavia.
The ice-sheet was forced to decay, through enhanced
rates of iceberg calving, from geologically-derived limits
at the LGM (Svendsen et al., 1999; Fig. 13). The pattern
of ice decay was matched to further ice sheet limits at
15,000 and 12,000 cal. yr (Landvik et al., 1998). The
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S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
1413
Fig. 13. Ice sheet thickness at (a) 14,000 cal. yr ago, (b) 13,000 cal. yr ago, (c) 12,000 cal. yr ago, (d) 11,000 cal. yr ago. Contours are in meters (Siegert
and Dowdeswell, 2002).
result was a time-dependent view of ice sheet decay
across the Eurasian Arctic (Siegert and Dowdeswell,
2002).
At the LGM the model predicts the ice sheet to be
over 2.5 km thick across Scandinavia, around 1 km in
the Barents Sea, and less than 300 m thick to the east
over the Kara Sea (Fig. 13). Ice decay began within the
deep bathymetric troughs of the Barents Sea. In
particular ice calved embayments existed within the
Bear Island Trough in the western Barents Sea, and the
Franz Victoria Trough to the north, west of Franz Josef
Land (Fig. 14). By 13 cal. ka ago, the model suggests
that the Bear Island embayment increased in size to
occupy the majority of the southern Barents Sea.
Following this, the Franz Victoria embayment grew
southwards, thus separating the ice cap over Svalbard
and the northwest Barents Sea from ice over Novaya
Zemlya and Scandinavia. By 11 cal. ka ago, small ice
caps over Svalbard and the southernmost Kara Sea are
all that was left of the former marine ice sheet. Across
Scandinavia, however, the ice was as thick as 2 km. This
land-based ice quickly decayed such that by 9 ka very
little of the Eurasian ice sheet remained.
There are four main characteristics of modelled bed
uplift associated with the decay of ice within the
Eurasian Arctic (Fig. 14). First, contours depicting the
rate of uplift at 11 ka (B9.7 14C ka) can be traced from
Svalbard across the northern margin of the Barents Sea
to Franz Josef Land. The contours are concentric about
the central Barents Sea, which is consistent with uplift
isobases (Fig. 6). As ice decay continues, this centre
migrates northwards such that by 9 cal. ka (8.1 14C ka) it
is located to the south of Kong Karls Land (and to the
west of Hopen) in the northwestern Barents Sea.
Second, Severnaya Zemlya and the Kara Sea experienced very little uplift, and the Taymyr Peninsula
virtually none. Third, Bear Island, to the north of the
Bear Island Trough on the western margin of the
Barents Sea, experienced quite low uplift rates during
deglaciation (o20 m 1000 yr1 at 11 ka), and virtually
no uplift subsequent to ice decay. Fourth, at 11 cal. ka
(B9.7 14C ka) the model predicts an uplift rate gradient
from north to south across Novaya Zemlya. In the north
the rate is quite low (close to zero at the northern
extreme of the island), whereas in the southwest it is
around 100 m 1000 yr1. At this time, however, the
model predicts that the island to be covered by ice,
which is in agreement with limited glacial geologic
observations (Forman et al., 1999a, b). Subsequent to
deglaciation of Novaya Zemlya, at 10 ka (B9 14C ka),
the gradient of uplift rates is removed, such that uplift
rates are between 20 and 40 m 1000 yr1 across the bulk
of the island. This rate of uplift appears excessive with
actual rates of 1–4 m 1000 yr1 for 6–5 cal. ka (Fig. 11)
and a marine limit of 10–14 m aht for northern Novaya
Zemlya.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
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S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
Fig. 14. Rate of bedrock uplift at (a,b) 11,000 cal. yr ago, (c,d) 10,000 yr ago and (e,f) 9000 yr ago. Note that (a), (c) and (e) show contours in 20 m/
1000 yr up to 100 m/1000 yr and (b), (d) and (f) display contours at 100 m/1000 yr-intervals (Siegert and Dowdeswell, 2002).
10. Conclusions
The pattern for post-glacial emergence is particularly
well constrained for Spitsbergen, Edge^ya and Barents^ya, but other islands of the archipelago, like
Nordaustlandet, have sparse data coverage. The area
of maximum uplift on eastern Svalbard needs better
definition, particularly on Svensk^ya, where the highest
postglacial marine limit of 120 m+ has been measured
(Salvigsen, 1981). The glacio-isostatic signature for
Franz Josef Land is incomplete with many areas to the
north and east remaining largely unstudied
(Forman et al., 1997). The glacial history of much of
northern and southern Novaya Zemlya is largely
ARTICLE IN PRESS
S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
unknown and additional studies are needed to
confirm the modest uplift associated with the last
deglacial hemicycle (Forman et al., 1999a, b; Zeeberg
et al., 2001).
There is clear evidence for early deglaciation of
northwestern Spitsbergen by c. 13 ka ago, which results
in a variable relative sea level response with transgressive and regressive events, compared to deglaciation
at c. 10.5–10 ka for eastern Svalbard where uplift is
essentially exponential. Maximum isostatic compensation of >80 m aht is registered on Kongs^ya and
adjacent eastern Svalbard and these areas and the
adjacent Barents Sea are inferred to have sustained the
greatest ice sheet loads (Lambeck, 1995). Emergence
isobases are deflected around Isfjord and Van Mijenfjord, Svalbard indicating sustained and a thicker ice
load associated with these bathymetric lows, presumably
as ice streams.
Ice sheet loading is smaller on southern Franz Josef
Land than eastern Svalbard, with maximum emergence
of 49 m aht on Bell Island. Novaya Zemlya exhibits
low total emergence of 15–10 m aht and initiated late,
c. 6–5 ka. Modest and late emergence on Novaya
Zemlya and Franz Josef Land indicates that these
areas sustained modest ice sheet loads at the reactive
northern and eastern margins of the Barents Sea
ice sheet. The estimated half-life for uplift in the
Barents Sea is approximately 2000 yr. Present uplift
rates are between 0.5 and 2 mm/yr and emergence is
near completion with projected future uplift of 1–6 m.
Water loading in the glacio-isostatically depressed
Barents Sea in the early Holocene (10–7 ka) slowed
emergence rates. Glacioisostatic equilibrium was
probably achieved for eastern Svalbard and islands in
the Barents Sea. In contrast, areas of western and
northern Spitsbergen, Franz Josef Land and Novaya
1415
Zemlya may not have achieved equilibrium reflecting an
ice sheet loading hemicycle o8000 yr, an important
consideration for refining Earth rheology-based ice sheet
models.
Acknowledgements
This research is supported by National Science
Foundation awards DPP-9001471, OPP-9222972 and
OPP-9223493, and OPP-9796024 and Office of Naval
Research contract N00014-92-M-0170 and was undertaken in cooperation with Leonid Polyak (Ohio State
University). We thank the crew of R/V Dalnie Zelentsy
for gaining access to Franz Josef Land (1991–1994). The
! Ingolfsson
!
work of O.
was supported by the Swedish
.
Natural Sciences Research Council, Goteborg
University and The University Centre on Svalbard (UNIS). We
express our gratitude to Pyotr Boyarsky and the
Heritage Institute (Moscow) for providing access to
Novaya Zemlya (1995, 1998) and Vaygach Island
(2000). Dmitri Badyukov supported us in the field.
Thanks are also due to George Maat and Henk van
Veen (Stichting Willem Barents, The Netherlands) for
help with logistical arrangements and the Corps Marines
of the Royal Dutch Navy for provision of gear.
Transport in 1998 was aboard R.V. Ivan Petrov (Archangelsk).
Appendix A
Radiocarbon ages on driftwood and associated
marine subfossils fromraised beach sequences on Svalbard, Norway (Table 2).
Table 2
The Radiocarbon ages on driftwood and associated marine subfossils are presented in Table 2
Dated material
Shoreline
altitude
(m aht)
Laboratory 14C
age or reservoir
corrected age1
(yr BP)
Blomsletta/Billefjorden, Spitsbergen: marine limit B90+m aht
Mytilus edulis valves
5.8
3370790
Mollusc fragments
Shells from Arstarte terrace
Shell valves of Mytilus edulis
Mya truncata samples
Mya truncata samples
Mixed shells
Mixed shells
Mixed shells
Driftwood, Larix occidentalis
8.0
17
19.5
21.2
31.3
42
50.7
56
65
5630765
75957110
6000780
8480770
9340775
88707200
95407140
94007150
10,0307140
d13C
Laboratory
number
Reference
U-126
Feyling-Hansen and
and Olsson (1960)
P!ew!e et al. (1982)
Feyling-Hansen and
Salvigsen (1984)
P!ew!e et al. (1982)
P!ew!e et al. (1982)
Feyling-Hansen and
Feyling-Hansen and
Feyling-Hansen and
Salvigsen (1984)
SI-4307
U-130
T-4628
SI-4306
SI-4308
U-124
U-128
U-132
Olsson (1959)
Olsson (1959)
Olsson (1959)
Olsson (1959)
Olsson (1959)
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S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
Table 2 (continued)
Dated material
d13C
Laboratory
number
Reference
17.0
GX-9908
Forman et al. (1987)
+2.6
GX-9894
Forman et al. (1987)
16.8
GX-9893
Forman et al. (1987)
16.8
GX-9892
Forman et al. (1987)
02
DIC-3122
Forman et al. (1987)
02
GX-8590
Miller (1982)
17.0
15.6
16.3
GX-9891
GX-10106
GX-10730
Forman et al. (1987)
Forman et al. (1987)
Forman et al. (1987)
16.8
15.0
GX-10105
GX-10731
Forman et al. (1987)
Forman et al. (1987)
15.2
GX-9990
Forman et al. (1987)
20.0
I-13793
Forman et al. (1987)
15.7
15.7
GX-9907
GX-9907
Forman et al. (1987)
Forman et al. (1987)
25775
15.5
GX-10771
Forman (1990)
5
94157155
16.6
GX-10775
Forman (1990)
7
95057155
16.8
GX-10773
Forman (1990)
4
96007160
16.5
GX-10778
Forman (1990)
10
98407160
16.5
GX-10772
Forman (1990)
15
20
10,3107330
12,9607190
17.7
17.4
GX-10103
B-10968
Forman (1990)
Forman et al. (1987)
5
59007210
16.6
GX-9899
Forman et al. (1987)
10
10,0657170
+1.7
GX-10104
Forman et al. (1987)
Tln-249
Punning et al. (1978)
252
DIC-2902
Forman (1990)
60307200
88107140
0.4
17.9
GX-10037
GX-10777
Forman (1990)
Forman (1990)
90407165
16.8
GX-10776
Forman (1990)
92957160
16.0
GX-10593
Forman (1990)
93557170
16.6
GX-10591
Forman (1990)
Shoreline
altitude
(m aht)
Laboratory 14C
age or reservoir
corrected age1
(yr BP)
Brøggerhalvøya, western Spitsbergen: marine limit 4671 m aht
Whale vertebrae partially buried in
4
92307340
raised beach
Shell fragments from soil pit in raised
5
99607110
beach
Whale vertebrae partially buried in
8
98007370
raised beach
Whale vertebrae partially buried in
14
93657280
raised beach
Paired valves of Mya truncata from
15+
10,620790
sublittoral sands
Paired valves of Hiatella arctica from
20+
99507315
sublittoral sands
Whale rib embedded in raised beach
23
99207315
Unidentified bone fragment
27
6207135
Whale rib partially buried in raised
30
96057155
beach
Unidentified bone fragment
36
22,2207600
Whale rib from crest of 37 m raised
37
10,8807170
beach
Whale rib from crest of 37 m raised
37
11,7607430
beach
Whale rib from crest of 37 m raised
37
11,8007180
beach (sub sample of GX-9990)
Whale vertebrae behind marine limit
46
>36,000
Whale rib behind marine limit
46
>35,71075070–
3080
Mitrahalvøya, western Spitsbergen: marine
Whale vertebrae partially buried in
raised beach
Whale rib partially buried in raised
beach
Whale rib partially buried in raised
beach
Whale rib partially buried in raised
beach
Whale rib partially buried in raised
beach
Whale cranium buried in raised beach
Whale cranium in beach gravels at
marine limit
Tønsneset, western Spitsbergen
Whalebone behind modern storm
beach
Shell and barnacle fragments from
raised beach
Shell from raised beach surface
limit 2072 m aht
2
10
Daudmannsøyra, western Spitsbergen: marine limit 4872 m
Larch log buried in raised beach
5.5
gravels
In situ Mytilus edulis paired valves
4
Whale rib partially buried in raised
10
beach gravels
Whale vertebrae partially buried in
14
raised beach gravels
Whale vertebrae partially buried in
30
raised beach gravels
Whale rib embedded in raised beach
38
91857120a
aht
5590790
ARTICLE IN PRESS
S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
1417
Table 2 (continued)
Dated material
Whale vertebrae partially buried in
raised beach gravels
Whale rib partially buried in raised
beach gravels
Shoreline
altitude
(m aht)
Laboratory 14C
age or reservoir
corrected age1
(yr BP)
d13C
Laboratory
number
Reference
24
94207160
17.6
GX-10592
Forman (1990)
42
99407310
14.4
GX-9910
Forman (1990)
GX-10734
Forman (1990)
GX-10735
GX-10732
Forman (1990)
Forman (1990)
DIC-3054
Forman (1990)
DIC-3052
Forman (1990)
T-2235
T-2233
I-13794
Salvigsen (1977)
Salvigsen (1977)
Forman (1990)
I-13795
Forman (1990)
T-5664
T-5407
T-5406
T-6221
T-5271
T-5665
T-5408
T-5663
T-5662
Landvik
Landvik
Landvik
Landvik
Landvik
Landvik
Landvik
Landvik
Landvik
T-5409
T-4943
Landvik et al. (1987)
Landvik et al. (1987)
T-5410
Landvik et al. (1987)
T-5995
Landvik et al. (1987)
T-4865
Landvik et al. (1987)
02
Ua-1081
Salvigsen et al. (1991)
02
Ua-1082
Salvigsen et al. (1991)
14.6
T-7669
Salvigsen et al. (1991)
15.6
T-7671
Salvigsen et al. (1991)
26.12
T-7672
Salvigsen et al. (1991)
18.8
14.4
T-1829
T-76701
Salvigsen (1977)
Salvigsen et al. (1991)
T-7672
Salvigsen et al. (1991)
Southern Prinz Karls Foreland, western Spitsbergen: marine limit 3672 m aht
Whale cranium buried in raised beach
3
37078015.9
surface
Whale vertebrae on raised beach
4
82078015.9
Whale rib partially embedded into
3
49257100
15.9
raised beach
In situ Mytilus edulis paired valves
5
8940790
02
from raised beach
Paired valves Mya truncata from
10
9420790
02
raised beach
Whale jaw bone
10
94107140
19.2
Whalebone
28
95607130
16.1
Whale rib partial buried in beach
32
10,4707160
19.2
gravels
Whale jaw bone partial buried in
35
11,2107180
19.2
beach gravels
Ytterdalen, N. Bellsund western Spitsbergen: marine limit 6472 m aht
Whalebone
7.0
4490750
Whalebone
9.1
5210790
Seaweed
8.2
61807180
Whalebone
12.5
77607110
Driftwood of Picea sp.
10
77707110
Whalebone
11.1
79507120
Whalebone
26.2
89107140
Balanus sp.
24
90107130
Fragments of Mytilus edulis from
13.8
90307100
raised beach surface
Whalebone
29.6
91307130
Fragments of Hiatella arctica and
>30
10,240770
Mya truncata from silt
Hiatella arctica valves from frost
50.9
10,6007130
sorted sediments
Fragments of Hiatella arctica and
55.6
10,8407110
Mya truncata from gravels
Fragments of Hiatella arctica and
50.6
11,0207110
Mya truncata from surface
Wedel Jarlsberg Land, S. Bellsund, western Spitsbergen: marine limit 55–60 m
Shell fragment from beach gravels
50.5
11,9107145
that rise to marine limit
Fragment of Mya truncata or Hiatella >48
11,3557160
arctica from silt
Small bone, probably whale and
51.3
94707160
elevationally displaced
Large whale vertebrae buried in
25.3
91807130
beach gravels
Log of Larix sibirica embedded in
10.8
87607120
permafrost/gravels
Whale jaw from raised beach
10
89607120
Large whale cranium within beach
6.7
59707100
gravels
10-m long log of Larix occidentalis on
6.0
1100780
raised beach
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
(1987)
(1987)
(1987)
(1987)
(1987)
(1987)
(1987)
(1987)
(1987)
aht
02
ARTICLE IN PRESS
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S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
Table 2 (continued)
Dated material
Shoreline
altitude
(m aht)
Laboratory 14C
age or reservoir
corrected age1
(yr BP)
d13C
Laboratory
number
Reference
T-3454
T-3734
T-3735
Salvigsen and Østerholm (1982)
Salvigsen and Østerholm (1982)
Salvigsen and Østerholm (1982)
T-3097
T-3098
T-3099
Salvigsen and Østerholm (1982)
Salvigsen and Østerholm (1982)
Salvigsen and Østerholm (1982)
17.0
17.2
19
T-2838
T-2703
GX-11294
GX-10685
DIC-3076
Salvigsen and Østerholm (1982)
Salvigsen and Østerholm (1982)
Lehman (1989)
Lehman (1989)
Lehman (1989)
5970750
6012744
6597755
9370757
2.3
0.6
2.9
1.3
UtC-10089
Hd-20823
Hd-20946
UtC-10142
Bruckner
.
Bruckner
.
Bruckner
.
Bruckner
.
9377749
0.3
UtC-10140
Bruckner
.
et al. (2002)
9130760
0.9
UtC-10138
Bruckner
.
et al. (2002)
8842775
8797775
9395766
9459751
9462750
9490760
9520760
0.9
17.9
1.6
1.8
1.5
1.3
0.8
Hd-20789
Hd-20989
Hd-20872
Hd-20891
UtC-10084
UtC-10147
UtC-10083
.
Bruckner
Bruckner
.
Bruckner
.
Bruckner
.
Bruckner
.
Bruckner
.
Bruckner
.
Mosselbukta, northern Spitsbergen: marine limit 65 þ m aht
Driftwood Picea sp.
5
75307100
Shell valves of Mya truncata
35
9,3607110
Shell valves of Mya truncata and
65
10,6607100
Hiatella arctica
(
Grahuken,
northern Spitsbergen: marine limit 40 þ m aht
Whale cranium
6
Shell valves of Mytilus edulis
8
Shell valves of Hiatella arctica
41
Reinsderflya. northern Spitsbergen: marine
Whale cranium
Whale rib on raised beach
Whale rib on raised beach
Whale rib from sublittoral sands
In situ paired valves of Mytilus edulis
in beach gravels
8830770
93607110
10,9207120
limit 2572 m aht
5
9160770
19
9330790
23
98507135
9.5(15)
91307210
5
9015780
Woodfjord, northern Spitsbergen: marine limit 74 m aht
Paired valves of Mytilus edulis
5.20
Duplicate of UtC-10089
5.20
Shell debris from raised beach ridge
2
Shell debris, mostly Mytilus edulis
5.20
from beach ridge
Mostly Balnus sp. debris from beach
7.50
ridge
Paired valves of Mya truncata from
11.60
beach ridge
Mytilus edulis from beach ridge
4.50
Whale rib buried in beach ridge
5.20
Balnus sp. debris from beach ridge
11.60
C in living position from beach ridge
20.50
Duplicate of Hd-20891
20.50
Shell debris from raised beach ridge
24.20
Paired Mya truncata valves from
22.70
raised beach
Shell debris of Mya truncata from
22.70
raised beach
Paired Mya truncata valves from
17.80
raised beach
Mya truncata in living position in
B17
homogeneous sand
Duplicate of UtC-10152
B17
Paired Mya truncata valves from
22.70
raised beach
Duplicate of Hd-20822
22.70
Shell debris from raised beach ridge
20.00
Shell debris from raised beach ridge
26
Paired Hiatella arctica valves from
>33
sublittoral sand
Single shell valve from raised beach
33
(same as Hd-20988)
Shell debris from raised beach
33
Shell debris from raised beach (same
34
as UtC-10153)
Hiatella arctica from raised beach
34
Mya truncata from raised beach
30
Mya truncata from raised beach
33
Shell debris from raised beach
44
Mya truncata from raised beach
55.20
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
(2002)
(2002)
(2002)
(2002)
(2002)
(2002)
(2002)
(2002)
(2002)
(2002)
(2002)
96877102
2.3
Hd-20806
Bruckner
.
et al. (2002)
9540772
1.8
Hd-21035
Bruckner
.
et al. (2002)
9590750
1.1
UtC-10152
Bruckner
.
et al. (2002)
9660781
9591777
1.5
1.8
Hd-20824
Hd-20822
Bruckner
.
et al. (2002)
Bruckner
.
et al. (2002)
9639781
9618748
9658765
9806743
1.5
2.5
1.6
1.2
Hd-22790
UtC-10095
Hd-21014
UtC-10154
Bruckner
.
Bruckner
.
Bruckner
.
Bruckner
.
10,443744
0.4
UtC-10155
Bruckner
.
et al. (2002)
9825786
10,659791
1.2
1.8
Hd-20993
Hd-20988
Bruckner
.
et al. (2002)
Bruckner
.
et al. (2002)
9970760
10,041766
10,170760
11,000760
11,040760
1.7
1.6
1.8
1.7
1.5
UtC-10146
Hd-20998
UtC-10153
UtC-10145
UtC-10144
Bruckner
.
Bruckner
.
Bruckner
.
Bruckner
.
Bruckner
.
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
(2002)
(2002)
(2002)
(2002)
(2002)
(2002)
(2002)
(2002)
(2002)
ARTICLE IN PRESS
S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
1419
Table 2 (continued)
Dated material
Shell debris from sublitoral sands at
base of beach ridge
Shell debris from fjord terrace
disturbed by solifluction
Mya truncata from marine sediments
on top of till
Mya truncata from raised beach
Paired valves of juvenile Mya
truncata from highest terrace
Shoreline
altitude
(m aht)
Laboratory 14C
age or reservoir
corrected age1
(yr BP)
d13C
Laboratory
number
Reference
41
11,087757
1.5
Hd-20867
Bruckner
.
et al. (2002)
B40
11,091779
1.8
Hd-20807
Bruckner
.
et al. (2002)
>40.90
11,115775
1.5
Hd-20781
Bruckner
.
et al. (2002)
44.10
69.50
11,150760
11,530760
2.1
1.5
UtC-10143
UtC-10141
Bruckner
.
et al. (2002)
Bruckner
.
et al. (2002)
T-6289
T-6283
Lu-2139
T-8629
T-6288
T-6284
T-6235
T-6285
Lu-2138
T-6286
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
(1990)
(1990)
(1990)
(1990)
(1990)
(1990)
(1990)
(1990)
(1990)
(1990)
Lu-2364
T-6282
T-6287
I-13795
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
et
et
et
et
al.
al.
al.
al.
(1990)
(1990)
(1990)
(1990)
26.12
15.9
T-4941
T-5127
Salvigsen and Mangerud (1991)
Salvigsen and Mangerud (1991)
26.12
T-4942
Salvigsen and Mangerud (1991)
17.0
1.0d
T-5128
T-5125
Salvigsen and Mangerud (1991)
Salvigsen and Mangerud (1991)
26.12
T-4939
Salvigsen and Mangerud (1991)
15.4
1.6
T-5126
T-4938
Salvigsen and Mangerud (1991)
Salvigsen and Mangerud (1991)
26.3
T-4937
Salvigsen and Mangerud (1991)
1080770
680770
88707180
23.7
19.5
2.1
U-619
U-2048
U-2079
Birkenmajer and Olsson (1970)
Birkenmajer and Olsson (1970)
Birkenmajer and Olsson (1970)
91807110
+0.2
U-665
Birkenmajer and Olsson (1970)
6770790
89407140
94007230
9920790
+0.3
17.1
18.2
U-682
U-703
U-2130
T-6222
Birkenmajer and Olsson (1970)
Birkenmajer and Olsson (1970)
Birkenmajer and Olsson (1970)
Landvik et al. (1992)
T-10861
Ziaja and Salvigsen (1995)
T-10860
Ziaja and Salvigsen (1995)
Bohemanflya and Erdmannflya, Isfjord, Spitsbergen: marine limit 65.571 m aht
Whale cranium
3.5
5,150780
Shell valves of Mytilus edulis
8.0
7680790
–
Shell valves of Mytilus edulis
10
7690780
Shell valves of Mya truncata
7.0
79307100
Shell valves of Mytilus edulis
11.6
80607100
Shell valves of Mytilus edulis
5.0
8210790
Shell valves of Modiolus modiolus
6.5
8670790
Shell valves of Mytilus edulis
16
89707110
Shell valves of Mya truncata
18–20
9190790
Shell valves of Mya truncata and
41
95007100
Hiatella arctica
Shell valves of Hiatella arctica
20
9510790
Shell valves of Hiatella arctica
29
96807110
Shell fragments
47
97207110
Whale jaw bone
35
11,2107180
Agardhbukta area, eastern Spitsbergen: marine limit 5071 m aht
13-m long log of Pinus silvestris
1.5
810780
5.7-m long lower whale jaw bone in
3.0
800770
beach gravels
2-m long log of Larix gmelini in beach
15.0
46907100
gravels
Whale baleen from beach gravels
16
49907105
Shell fragments with Mya truncata
8
53307100
and Balanus sp.
5-m long log of Larix sibirica buried
20.5
6450770
in beach gravels
Whale rib embedded in beach gravels
24.0
6810+110
Shell fragments of Mya truncata and
36.5
90407140
Balanus sp.
2-m long whale rib imbedded into
50
98707140
raised beach
Hornsund, southern Spitsbergen: marine limit B25 m aht
10-m long log on surface
5.5
Whale jaw bone
5.5
Shell valves of Mya truncata, A.
5.5
borealis and C. islandica
Shell fragments of Mya truncata and
7.5
Hiatella arctica
Shell fragments mostly of Balanus sp.
8.0
Whale lower jawbone, 1.9-m long
8.0
Another collagen fraction of U-703
8.0
Hiatella arctica from raised beach
20–21
gravels
Southern Sørkapp Land, southern Spitsbergen: marine limit 1071 m aht
Seaweed (Laminaria sp.) in beach
2
2715785
gravels
Whalebone within beach gravels
10
64657105
ARTICLE IN PRESS
1420
S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
Table 2 (continued)
Dated material
Seaweed (Laminaria sp.) in beach
gravels
Seaweed (Laminaria sp.) in beach
gravels
Kongsøya: marine limit 100+m aht
25-cm diameter log of Larix sp.
50-cm diameter log of Populus sp.
50-cm diameter log of Pinus sp.
50-cm diameter log of Larix sp.
50-cm diameter log of Larix sp.
50-cm diameter log of Pinus sp.
40-cm diameter log of Larix sp.
15-cm diameter log of Larix sp.
30-cm diameter log of Larix sp.
15-cm diameter log of Picea sp.
Whalebone
25-cm diameter log of Picea sp.
Whalebone
25-cm diameter log of Larix sp.
25-cm diameter log of Larix sp.
(subsample of T-3397)
Hopen: marine limit 60+m aht
Driftwood
Driftwood, 1 m-long log, diameter 24
cm
2.8-m long whale jaw bone in beach
gravels
Driftwood, root plate 70-cm long,
diameter 38–32 cm
Whale rib, 165-cm long, diameter 12–
20 cm
Driftwood, root plate 84-cm long,
diameter 38–32 cm
Driftwood, >2-m long log, diameter
24 cm
Whale vertebrae
Whale rib, 1.2-m long, diameter
13 cm
Driftwood
Driftwood
Driftwood
Driftwood
Driftwood, 1.1-m long log
Driftwood, probably a root, 1.5-m
long log, diameter 18 cm
Driftwood
Shoreline
altitude
(m aht)
Laboratory 14C
age or reservoir
corrected age1
(yr BP)
d13C
Laboratory
number
Reference
9.5
6440755
T-10859
Ziaja and Salvigsen (1995)
9.5
65807160
Gd-6583
!
Wojcik
and Zala (1993)
2.5
4.7
10.3
16.0
17.2
23.5
27.0
31.5
36.6
44
50
58
88
100
100
110760
750760
21507703110780
2620770
3970780
4440+80
5240770
5850770
6760790
76407110
83707100
87407130
97907120
9850740
T-3727
T-3460
T-3728
T-3729
T-3459
T-3730
T-3726
T-3458
T-3733
T-3457
T-3731
T-3456
T-3907
T-3397
GSC-3039
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
4.4
4.5
12007100
800770
St-2455
St-1958
Hoppe et al. (1969)
Hoppe et al. (1969)
5.3
655770
St-2116
Hoppe et al. (1969)
8.2
1740770
St-2020
Hoppe et al. (1969)
12.5
3670780
St-2120
Hoppe et al. (1969)
12.8
3065775
St-2019
Hoppe et al. (1969)
14.8
4010780
St-1959
Hoppe et al. (1969)
14.8
17.9
37857100
4115780
St-1958
St-2213
Hoppe et al. (1969)
Hoppe et al. (1969)
23.5
27
30.5
48.5
50.6
51.1
5935780
6100780
6240780
95357120
94357115
95107120
26.8
25.1
St-8606
St-8605
St-2018
St-8603
St-1960
St-2225
Zale and Brydsten (1993)
Zale and Brydsten (1993)
Hoppe et al. (1969)
Zale and Brydsten (1993)
Hoppe et al. (1969)
Hoppe et al. (1969)
58
98007130
27.4
St-8604
Zale and Brydsten (1993)
655750
24.52
Lu-3542
Bondevik et al. (1995)
975760
24.52
Lu-3385
Bondevik et al. (1995)
2835750
3605770
3640790
4475795
24.52
24.52
24.52
24.52
T-10251
Lu-3543
T-10252
T-9918
Bondevik
Bondevik
Bondevik
Bondevik
4680775
24.52
T-10253
Bondevik et al. (1995)
Kapp Ziehen, Barentsøya: marine limit 88.571.0 m aht
2.1-m long log of Larix gmelini buried
3.8
in sediments
4.0-m long log, 25-cm diameter found
4.8
on surface
1.6-m long log of Pinus cembra
8.9
1.3-nm long log of Picea abies
12
2.8-m long log of Picea sp.
13.5
1.3-m long log of Picea mariana
17.2
buried in sediments
0.8-m long log root piece of Picea sp.
20.5
27.0
(1981)
(1981)
(1981)
(1981)
(1981)
(1981)
(1981)
(1981)
(1981)
(1981)
(1981)
(1981)
(1981)
(1981)
(1981)
et
et
et
et
al.
al.
al.
al.
(1995)
(1995)
(1995)
(1995)
ARTICLE IN PRESS
S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
1421
Table 2 (continued)
Dated material
Shoreline
altitude
(m aht)
2.4-m long log of Picea sp. embedded
in beach ridge
1.8-m long log of Larix sp. in beach
sediment
1.6-m long log with root plate of
Pinus cembra
Small piece of log with partial root
plate
0.30-m long log buried by 1 m of
beach gravel
Paired valves of Hiatella arctica
buried by 1 m beach gravel
At least 1.6-m long log of Larix
gmelini buried in sediments
At least 1.6-m long log of Pinus
cembra in beach ridge
0.55-m long whale rib
At least 0.9-m long log of Larix
larcina buried in sediments
Piece of Hiatella arctica buried by
1.4 m beach gravel
Two big whale jaw bones buried by
1.4 m beach gravels
2.0-m long log of Salix sp. buried in
sediments
1.15-m long log of Picea abies buried
in sediment
1.8-m long log of Larix gmelini buried
in sediments
1.2-m long log of Picea mariana
buried in sediments
1.3-m long whale jaw bone in river cut
through the ML
Redate of T-99131
Humla, Edgeøya: marine limit 86.871.0 m
Whale jaw bone
At least 4-m long log of Pinus silvistri
buried in sediments
At least 4.5-m long log of Pinus
cembra
Whale cranium part on terrace
surface
3.5-m long log partial buried
0.7-m long log of Larix sp. in beach
sediment
1.0-m long log of Larix sp. in beach
sediment
1.2-m long log of Pinus silvistri buried
in sediments
4-m long log of Picea sp. or Larix sp.
in beach sediments
3.0-m long log of Larix sp. in beach
sediment
4-m long log of Pinus silvistri buried
in sediments
3–4-m long log of Picea sp. or Larix
sp. in beach sediments
Two big whale jaw bones partially
buried by beach gravels
0.9-m long log frozen into ice wedge
Laboratory 14C
age or reservoir
corrected age1
(yr BP)
d13C
Laboratory
number
Reference
22.8
5355780
24.52
LU-3383
Bondevik et al. (1995)
30
6170785
24.52
T-9917
Bondevik et al. (1995)
34
72207110
24.52
T-10254
Bondevik et al. (1995)
36.6
6950740
24.52
T-10981
Bondevik et al. (1995)
36.6
6945750
24.52
T-10980
Bondevik et al. (1995)
36.6
6995760
1.02
TUa-690
Bondevik et al. (1995)
39.2
78807115
24.52
T-10255
Bondevik et al. (1995)
42.9
79057110
24.52
T-9916
Bondevik et al. (1995)
50.1
56.7
88557160
8870755
16.4
24.52
T-10257
T-9915
Bondevik et al. (1995)
Bondevik et al. (1995)
63.6
9205785
1.0
TUa-689
Bondevik et al. (1995)
63.5
9135745
19.8
T-10978
Bondevik et al. (1995)
63.5
9105755
24.52
T-9914
Bondevik et al. (1995)
70.8
94457110
24.52
LU-3381
Bondevik et al. (1995)
79.8
96157110
24.52
LU-3382
Bondevik et al. (1995)
80.2
9595770
24.52
T-10256
Bondevik et al. (1995)
88.5
9585760
20.6
T-99131
Bondevik et al. (1995)
88.5
9470760
22.9
T-99131I
Bondevik et al. (1995)
17.0
25.1
T-10806
T-9891
Bondevik et al. (1995)
Bondevik et al. (1995)
aht
3.2
3.6
605755–
580750
5.6
1725745
23.8
T-9897
Bondevik et al. (1995)
7.7
2125765
16.1
T-9880
Bondevik et al. (1995)
11.2
14.6
3105745
3765740
24.5
24.7
T-9885
T-9898
Bondevik et al. (1995)
Bondevik et al. (1995)
17.2
4460770
24.0
T-9886
Bondevik et al. (1995)
19.8
4555765
25.7
T-9887
Bondevik et al. (1995)
23.4
5130765
24.2
T-9893
Bondevik et al. (1995)
27.9
5830760
24.6
T-9892
Bondevik et al. (1995)
30.2
6180755
23.9
T-9890
Bondevik et al. (1995)
31.9
6275765
23.1
T-9883
Bondevik et al. (1995)
35.5
6670790
18.2
T-9879
Bondevik et al. (1995)
43.8
7850785
25.5
T-9894
Bondevik et al. (1995)
ARTICLE IN PRESS
1422
S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
Table 2 (continued)
Dated material
Near vertical >1 m long log of Larix
sp. in ice wedge
At least 4.0-m long log of Larix sp. in
beach sediment
2-m long whale jaw bone
At least 3.2-m long log of Larix sp. in
beach sediment
2 big whalebones, possibly jaws
2.8-m long log of Larix sp. on surface
1.3-m long whale rib
Log of Picea sp. or Larix sp. in
sediments
Large whale jaw bone within
permafrost
0.75 long log on surface
Shoreline
altitude
(m aht)
Laboratory 14C
age or reservoir
corrected age1
(yr BP)
d13C
Laboratory
number
Reference
47.5
8200765
24.2
T-9884
Bondevik et al. (1995)
51.4
8725770
23.5
T-9895
Bondevik et al. (1995)
55.1
55.1
8750790
8720765
16.6
25.2
T-10804
T-9896
Bondevik et al. (1995)
Bondevik et al. (1995)
58.8
61.6
65
65
89407100
9310770
91257130
9240755
17.5
23.9
16.9
25.7
T-9878
T-9889
T-10803
T-9888
Bondevik
Bondevik
Bondevik
Bondevik
73.9
9310780
15.6
T-9877
Bondevik et al. (1995)
75.6
96207130
23.6
T-10133
Bondevik et al. (1995)
9485780
98857130
6207100
6207100
11707100
12407100
20157100
37257100
27.3
1.0
16.42
T-9882
TUa-400
St-2873
St-2819
St-2698
St-2660
St-2523
St-2521
Bondevik
Bondevik
Bondevik
Bondevik
Bondevik
Bondevik
Bondevik
Bondevik
39557100
St-2522
Bondevik et al. (1995)
47607100
St-2484
Bondevik et al. (1995)
53007100
St-2519
Bondevik et al. (1995)
Southern Edgeøya: marine limit 90–85 m aht
Wood fragment of Populus sp.
75.6
Shell fragment found on surface
86.8
Whale rib
1.9
4.5-m long log in beach sediments
1.9
Dorsal whale vertebrae
3
7-m long log on raised beach surface
3
2.5-m long log in beach sediments
6
30-cm diameter log in beach
14
sediments
6.5-m long log partially in beach
16.5
sediments
15-cm diameter log in beach
20
sediments
2.5-m long log partially in beach
24.5
sediments
Dorsal whale vertebrae partially in
34.5
beach sediments
Well-preserved unidentified
39
whalebone
1-m long log partially in beach
39.5
sediments
1.5-m long log in beach sediments
53
Large jaw bone
72
Shell fragments on raised beach
75
surface
Large log on slope of raised beach
75
surface at 75 m aht
Diskobukta, western Edgeøya: marine limit 85.1+m aht
11-m long log partially in beach
3
sediments
5-m long log of Larix sp. on surface
4.6
2.1-m long log on raised beach
12.6
surface
Small log of Larix sp. on surface
15.6
3-m long log of Larix sp. on surface
25.1
1.7-m long log of Picea sp. or Larix
26.6
sp. on surface
2 shell valves of Mytilus edulis
26.8
2.7-m long log of Larix sp. on surface
33.3
Paired valves of Mytilus edulis 2 m
35.4
below surface
At least a 4-m long log partially
35.4
buried in beach gravels
16.42
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
(1995)
(1995)
(1995)
(1995)
(1995)
(1995)
(1995)
(1995)
(1995)
(1995)
(1995)
(1995)
66307100
16.42
St-2579
Bondevik et al. (1995)
77957110
16.4
St-2590
Bondevik et al. (1995)
St-2485
Bondevik et al. (1995)
79657100
92307110
95207125
10,200795
16.42
+1.02
St-2520
T-9908
TUa-269
Bondevik et al. (1995)
Bondevik et al. (1995)
Bondevik et al. (1995)
95957110
25.42
T-9907
Bondevik et al. (1995)
1270775
23.7
T-10135
Bondevik et al. (1995)
1715775
3730790
23.3
24.8
T-10136
T-10142
Bondevik et al. (1995)
Bondevik et al. (1995)
4130790
6020760
5930755
24.2
24.2
24.9
T-10141
T-10137
T-10139
Bondevik et al. (1995)
Bondevik et al. (1995)
Bondevik et al. (1995)
58357125
6770760
71757110
+0.5
23.5
+0.5
T-9920
T-10140
T-9922
Bondevik et al. (1995)
Bondevik et al. (1995)
Bondevik et al. (1995)
7255765
24.6
T-10807
Bondevik et al. (1995)
ARTICLE IN PRESS
S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
1423
Table 2 (continued)
Dated material
Large well preserved whalebone on
surface
Short log of Picea sp. or Larix sp. on
surface
Paired valves of Mytilus edulis 3.5 m
below surface
Small wood stick from T-9919
location
1.2-m long whale rib bone
0.25-m long log of Picea sp. 2.5 m
below surface
3.1-m long log of Larix sp. in beach
gravels
2-m long whale jaw bone
Shell fragment from section near the
marine limit
Shell fragment likeTUa-338
Shoreline
altitude
(m aht)
Laboratory 14C
age or reservoir
corrected age1
(yr BP)
d13C
Laboratory
number
Reference
35.9
70507115
16
T-10805
Bondevik et al. (1995)
36.8
75507115
25.2
T-10138
Bondevik et al. (1995)
38
87557125
0.2
T-9919
Bondevik et al. (1995)
38
8615760
24.5
TUa-691
Bondevik et al. (1995)
43.2
48.9
8130770
93457130
17.6
25.4
T-10044
T-10134
Bondevik et al. (1995)
Bondevik et al. (1995)
66
9380745
24.6
T-10043
Bondevik et al. (1995)
67.8
77.6
93357105
10,015775
20.3
+1.7
T-10045
TUa-338
Bondevik et al. (1995)
Bondevik et al. (1995)
77.6
9565780
+1
TUa-627
Bondevik et al. (1995)
T-2512
T-2692
T-2511
T-2693
T-2694
T-2395
T-2396
T-2699
T-2510
T-2698
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
(1978)
(1978)
(1978)
(1978)
(1978)
(1978)
(1978)
(1978)
(1978)
(1978)
T-2509
T-2508
T-2507
T-2506
T-2695
T-2696
T-2505
T-2504
T-2697
T-2502
T-2696
T-2394
T-2393
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
Salvigsen
(1978)
(1978)
(1978)
(1978)
(1978)
(1978)
(1978)
(1978)
(1978)
(1978)
(1978)
(1978)
(1978)
U-33
U-112
U-110
U-107
U-111
U-120
U-36
U-173
U-162
U-116
U-34
U-175
U-38
U-115
U-179
U-95
Blake
Blake
Blake
Blake
Blake
Blake
Blake
Blake
Blake
Blake
Blake
Blake
Blake
Blake
Blake
Blake
Svartknausflya, southern Nordaustlandet: marine limit 70+m aht
50-cm diameter log of Larix sp.
2.7
1570770
25-cm diameter log of Pinus sp.
4.5
2600770
15-cm diameter log of Larix sp.
7.7
3520770
30-cm diameter log of Larix sp.
10.5
40207100
15-cm diameter log of Salix sp.
12.2
410079030-cm diameter log of Picea sp.
14.7
465079030-cm diameter log of Larix sp.
16.0
456078030-cm diameter log of Larix sp.
16.4
4970760Whalebone
19.2
5740790
0.5-m long conifer log on raised beach
23.1
6270790
surface
45-cm diameter log of Larix sp.
25.1
5850790
30-cm diameter log of Larix sp.
31.4
74407110
15-cm diameter log of Salix sp.
36.8
81507100
40-cm diameter log of Larix sp.
41.8
82007110
35-cm diameter log of Larix sp.
43.7
87707120
20-cm diameter log of Picea sp.
46.3
88907130
30-cm diameter log of Larix sp.
487
87807110
25-cm diameter log of Larix sp.
51.8
88007100
Piece driftwood of Larix sp.
52.8
9130780
Whalebone
60.7
96407140
8-cm diameter log of Salix sp.
65.5
9550780
Whale vertebrae
70
97007120
20-cm diameter log of Picea sp.
89.9
>46,600
Lady Franklin Fjord, northern Nordaustlandet: marine limit >50+m aht
Driftwood
2.0
67807100
Driftwood
6.2
69007110
Whalebone
7.5
63807150
Driftwood
7.6
62007100
Driftwood
8
67407110
Mostly Hiatella arctica shells
8.5
91007130
Driftwood
8.8
64907110
Mostly Mytilus edulis shells
9
86307190
Mostly Hiatella arctica shells
9
92907130
Driftwood
9.0
66507110
Driftwood
9.8
4020790
Driftwood
11.3
75007150
Driftwood
12.8
78307120
Whalebone
17.6
85307180
Mostly Hiatella arctica shells
22
92207130
Mostly Mya truncata shells
31
93907130
24.5
24.4
27.1
27.1
25.9
17.6
24.6
26.0
26.7
26.4
18.5
17.0
(1961a,b)
(1961a,b)
(1961a,b)
(1961a,b)
(1961a,b)
(1961a,b)
(1961a,b)
(1961a,b)
(1961a,b)
(1961a,b)
(1961a,b)
(1961a,b)
(1961a,b)
(1961a,b)
(1961a,b)
(1961a,b)
ARTICLE IN PRESS
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S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
Table 2 (continued)
Dated material
Driftwood
Mostly Hiatella arctica shells
Shoreline
altitude
(m aht)
Laboratory 14C
age or reservoir
corrected age1
(yr BP)
36.5
44
92707130
92007120
Phippsøya, Sjuøne, northern Svalbard: marine limit 2271 m
>0.75-m long log embedded in raised
3
beach gravel
Cranium bone from whale skull,
4
collagen fraction
Paired Hiatella arctica from littoral
5
gravels
3.5-m long log embedded in raised
6
beach berm
Whale ear bone from partially buried
6
skull, collagen fraction
Mya truncata shells from raised beach
6
Articulated Balanus balanus
10
Storøya: marine limit 6671 m aht
Driftwood
Driftwood
Driftwood
Driftwood
Driftwood
Driftwood
Driftwood
Driftwood
1
2
5.8
7.6
13.2
20.0
41.6
44.0
51.0
53.3
d13C
Laboratory
number
Reference
U-70
U-166
Blake (1961a,b)
Blake (1961a,b)
aht
57257115
24.3
GX-22381
Forman and Ing!olfsson (2000)
54857110
19.3
GX-22380
Forman and Ing!olfsson (2000)
8970760
19.3
GX-22387
Forman and Ing!olfsson (2000)
62257115
24.8
GX-22382
Forman and Ing!olfsson (2000)
93807140
17.5
GX-22379
Forman and Ing!olfsson (2000)
9410760
9210760
17.5
+1.9
GX-22386
Salvigsen and Nydal (1981)
Forman and Ing!olfsson (2000)
ST-7987
ST-7986
ST-7985
ST-7827
ST-7824
ST-7984
ST-7826
ST-7825
Jonsson
Jonsson
Jonsson
Jonsson
Jonsson
Jonsson
Jonsson
Jonsson
2965785
3190785
4075790
5375795
86857100
86107120
89357125
92657125
(1983)
(1983)
(1983)
(1983)
(1983)
(1983)
(1983)
(1983)
The marine reservoir correction for shell, whalebone, walrus bone and seaweed is 440 years (Mangerud and Gulliksen (1975); Olsson (1980)).
These values for d13C are assumed.
Appendix B
Radiocarbon ages on driftwood and associated
marine subfossils from raised beach sequences on Franz
Josef Land, Russia (Table 3).
Table 3
The radiocarbon ages on driftwood and associated marine fossils on Franz Josef Land are presented in Table 3
Dated material
Shoreline
altitude
(m aht)
Alexandra Land: marine limit 23.571 m
Driftwood
Driftwood
Driftwood
Driftwood
Driftwood
Driftwood
Shells
Driftwood
Algae peat
Driftwood
Driftwood
Whalebone
Driftwood
Driftwood
Driftwood
Driftwood
aht
5.0
5
8–9
8.5
10
10
15
15.5
17.5
>19.0
>14.0
>13.0
18–20
20–22
21.5
23.0
Laboratory 14C
age or reservoir
corrected age1
(yr BP)
1655770
15507115
3000755
3385770
4250790
4520760
7825790
4980775
55007235
81307115
8150750
88507180
4600750
6760770
6765775
6090770
13
C
Laboratory
number
Reference
St-12664
Mo-421
Glazovskiy et al. (1992)
Grosswald (1973)
Kovaleva et al. (1974)
Glazovskiy et al. (1992)
Dibner (1965)
Kovaleva et al. (1974)
Glazovskiy et al. (1992)
Glazovskiy et al. (1992)
Grosswald (1973)
Glazovskiy et al. (1992)
N.aslund et al. (1994)
N.aslund et al. (1994)
Kovaleva et al. (1974)
Kovaleva et al. (1974)
Glazovskiy et al. (1992)
Glazovskiy et al. (1992)
St-12668
Le-179
St-12783
St-12665
Mo-355
St-12782
Beta 58703
St-13901
St-12666
St-12663
ARTICLE IN PRESS
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1425
Table 3 (continued)
Dated material
Bell Island: marine limit 4971 m aht
1.5-m long log on raised beach above
storm limit
1.5-m long log embedded into raised
beach
Whale vertebrae on raised beach
Whale skull fragment on buried in
raised beach
3-m long whale jaw bone on raised
spit
Whale skull fragment on buried in
raised beach
Driftwood at marine escarpment
Driftwood embedded into raised
beach
2-m long whale rib imbedded in
raised beach
Shoreline
altitude
(m aht)
Laboratory 14C
age or reservoir
corrected age1
(yr BP)
13
C
Laboratory
number
Reference
3
1050785
25.6
GX-19476
Forman et al. (1996)
6
22057110
24.6
GX-19570
Forman et al. (1996)
9
13
2800785
3905790
16.7
16.5
GX-19471G2
GX-19472G2
Forman et al. (1996)
Forman et al. (1996)
16
4255790
16.7
GX-19473G2
Forman et al. (1996)
23
5465790
16.9
GX-19474G2
Forman et al. (1996)
27
45
60457125
97057105
22.2
24.5
GX-19475
GX-17208
Forman et al. (1996)
Forman et al. (1996)
47
92207120
17.1
GX-17209G2
Forman et al. (1996)
1425780
16.6
GX-19483G2
Forman et al. (1996)
24057105
16.5
GX-19484G2
Forman et al. (1996)
39507110
4380790
24.3
24.6
GX-19485
GX-19486
Forman et al. (1996)
Forman et al. (1996)
4435770
6300765
92207165
25.0
26.2
18.0
AA-15679
AA-16586
GX-19487G2
Forman et al. (1996)
Forman et al. (1996)
Forman et al. (1996)
1340780
26.1
GX-19477
Forman et al. (1996)
2180780
24807100
3860790
25.3
23.2
24.5
GX-19478
GX-19479
GX-19480
Forman et al. (1996)
Forman et al. (1996)
Forman et al. (1996)
45657115
24.5
GX-19481
Forman et al. (1996)
4785795
24.4
GX-19482
Forman et al. (1996)
5035770
0
AA-12482
Forman et al. (1996)
24.7
23.8
24.6
23.0
26.2
GX-17200
GX-17199
GX-17187
GX-17188
AA-16587
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
25.0
21.5
—
GX-17191
GX-17189
GX-21246G2
Forman et al. (1996)
Forman et al. (1996)
Weihe (1996)
—
24.4
17.4
GX-21244G2
GX-17190
GX-17558G2
Weihe (1996)
Forman et al. (1996)
Forman et al. (1996)
25.6
Mo-195
GX-17556
Grosswald (1973)
Forman et al. (1996)
Northbrook Island: marine limit 4371 m aht
1.5-m long whale rib imbedded in
3
raised beach
Whale vertebrae disc imbedded in
8
raised beach
2-m long log on raised beach
13
1.2-m long log on descending raised
18
beach
1-m long log on raised beach
22
1-m long log on raised beach
30
Whale vertebrae on raised beach
36
Southeastern George Island: marine limit 3871 m aht
0.5-m long log on raised beach above
4
storm limit
2.5-m long log on raised beach
7
3-m long log in swale of raised beach
9
5-m long log on descending raised
15
beach
1-m long tree root-plate fragment on
18
raised beach
3-m long log on descending raised
20
beach
Paired Mya tnuncata from glacial
>20
marine silt
Hooker (H) and Scott Keltie (S) Islands: marine limit 3871 m aht
0.5-m long log on raised beach (H)
1
775755
0.5-m long log on raised beach (H)
2
1110780
Driftwood on low raised beach (S)
5
22157125
Driftwood on raised beach (S)
8
29707145
0.5-m long log wedged into raised
9
2655775
beach (H)
Driftwood on raised beach (S)
12
4485775
Driftwood on raised beach (S)
16
4640775
Whalebone embedded in beach berm
23.4
68407115
(H)
Whalebone at base of berm (H)
24.7
59407120
Driftwood on raised beach (S)
26
6590785
Whale vertebrae disc imbedded in
26
6555795
raised beach (H)
Driftwood
26
74457135
1.5-m long log on descending raised
29
72457100
beach (H)
et
et
et
et
et
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
(1996)
(1996)
(1996)
(1996)
(1996)
ARTICLE IN PRESS
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S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
Table 3 (continued)
Dated material
13
C
Laboratory
number
Reference
87157100
25.0
GX-17198
Forman et al. (1996)
35
30(36)
77707140
75607295
94157125
96207230
95457175
10,2907115
—
19.3
17.8
13.1
—
0.3
GX-21245
GX-17557G2
GX-17197G2
GX-17197A3
GX-21247G2
GX-17266
Weihe (1996)
Forman et al.
Forman et al.
Forman et al.
Weihe (1996)
Forman et al.
32(36)
9995785
04
AA-8566
Forman et al. (1996)
34(36)
9645780
04
AA-8567
Forman et al. (1996)
36
96707140
—
GX-21249
Weihe (1996)
37
9690790
—
AA-19032
Weihe (1996)
34
9890790
—
AA-19033
Weihe (1996)
37
99657145
—
GX-21248
Weihe (1996)
505755
AA-19697
Lubinski (1998)
2.4
745755
AA-18995
Lubinski (1998)
3.6
3.0
1045750
1180750
AA-18997
AA-18996
Lubinski (1998)
Lubinski (1998)
4.5
1635770
AA-19698
Lubinski (1998)
6.6
10.1
2190760
2480760
AA-19699
AA-18998
Lubinski (1998)
Lubinski (1998)
11.1
3265770
AA-18999
Lubinski (1998)
14.6
14.0
3750765
3765765
AA-19701
AA-19700
Lubinski (1998)
Lubinski (1998)
18.2
4445755
AA-19001
Lubinski (1998)
19.0
4625755
AA-19000
Lubinski (1998)
21.0
5295780
AA-19002
Lubinski (1998)
22.9
27.6
5645760
7010770
AA-19003
AA-19004
Lubinski (1998)
Lubinski (1998)
+1.1
GX-17195
GX-17194
GX-17193
GX-17192
GX-17267
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
04
AA-7902
Forman et al. (1996)
GX-17196
Forman et al. (1996)
Shoreline
altitude
(m aht)
1+m long log buried in raised beach
(H)
Driftwood on top of raised berm
Whale vertebrae on raised beach (H)
Whale vertebrae on raised beach (H)
Whalebone (H)
Paired Mya truncata from marine
sand (H)
Paired Mya truncata from marine
sand (H)
Paired Mya truncata from marine
sand (H)
Driftwood 2-m below the marine
limit (H)
Mya truncata fragment from marine
sand (H)
Mya truncata fragment from marine
sand (H)
Driftwood just below the marine limit
(S)
Cape Dandy, Hooker Island: marine limit
Driftwood from 2nd youngest nonmodern beach
Driftwood from youngest nonmodern beach
>1.5-m long driftwood log
Driftwood partial buried by beach
gravels
>1.5-m long driftwood log partial
buried in beach gravels
Driftwood, root plate
Driftwood mostly buried in beach
gravels
>1.5-m long driftwood log partial
buried in beach gravels
Driftwood, root plate
Driftwood mostly buried in beach
gravels
5-m long driftwood log partial buried
in beach gravels
Driftwood mostly buried in beach
gravels
Driftwood mostly buried in beach
gravels
>1.5-m long driftwood log
0.4-m long log mostly buried in beach
gravels
30
30.6
32
33
3871 m aht
2.1
Laboratory 14C
age or reservoir
corrected age1
(yr BP)
Koettlitz (K) and Nansen (N) Islands: marine limit 2972 m aht
Driftwood on raised beach (K)
5
1500760
Driftwood on raised beach (K)
7
2410770
Driftwood on raised beach (K)
10
29807125
1.5-m long log from raised beach (K)
16
4235775
Paired Mya truncata from sublittoral
26(29)
10,2907115
sand (K)
Paired Hiatella arctica from littoral
25(26)
6190760
gravel and sand (K)
0.5-m long log on raised beach (N)
27
10,3607115
22.0
24.7
24.3
24.0
et
et
et
et
et
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
(1996)
(1996)
(1996)
(1996)
(1996)
(1996)
(1996)
(1996)
(1996)
ARTICLE IN PRESS
S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
1427
Table 3 (continued)
Dated material
13
C
Laboratory
number
Reference
1075765
25.3
GX-17559
Forman et al. (1997)
4215780
25.3
GX-17202
Forman et al. (1997)
5000780
22.8
GX-17203
Forman et al. (1997)
4890780
22.3
GX-17204
Forman et al. (1997)
5
9
12
2560785
39557110
4150790
23.8
24.6
26.9
GX-19489
GX-19488
GX-19490
Forman et al. (1997)
Forman et al. (1997)
Forman et al. (1997)
16
4855780
16.9
GX-20740G2
Forman et al. (1997)
19
5100795
24.4
GX-19491
Forman et al. (1997)
21
29
59807100
81357115
24.5
25.4
GX-19492
GX-19493
Forman et al. (1997)
Forman et al. (1997)
aht
5
10
1055765
2010775
26.0
23.6
GX-20741
GX-20742
Forman et al. (1997)
Forman et al. (1997)
14
19
25
2790770
4555780
5080780
24.0
25.1
23.4
GX-20743
GX-20744
GX-20745
Forman et al. (1997)
Forman et al. (1997)
Forman et al. (1997)
GX-18307
Forman et al. (1997)
GX-18316
GX-18312
GX-18310
GX-18309
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
GX-18315
Forman et al. (1997)
Mo-239
GX-18314
GX-18313G2
Grosswald (1963)
Forman et al. (1997)
Forman et al. (1997)
GX-18313A3
Forman et al. (1997)
GX-18308
AA-10247
Forman et al. (1997)
Forman et al. (1997)
Shoreline
altitude
(m aht)
Etheridge Island: highest raised beach 2871 m aht
2+m long log on descending raised
4
beach
1.5-m long log behind berm of raised
16
beach
1+m long log behind berm of raised
21
beach
1-m long log on descending raised
23
beach
Brady Island: marine limit 3471 m aht
2-m long log on raised beach
1-m long log on raised beach
2-m long tree root-plate buried in
raised beach
Whale skull partially buried in raised
beach
0.5-m long tree root-plate buried in
raised beach
1-m long log on raised beach
0.3-m long wood fragments within
raised beach
Leigh Smith Island: marine limit 4072 m
3-m long log on raised beach
0.5-m long tree root-plate buried in
raised beach
1-m long log in raised beach
8-m long log on raised beach
3-m long log buried in raised beach
Laboratory 14C
age or reservoir
corrected age1
(yr BP)
Haves (H), Fersman (F) and Newcombe (N) islands: marine limit 2171 m aht
1.5-m long log buried in raised beach
1
1075760
25.1
(H)
1.5-m long log on raised beach (N)
1.5
1830765
25.8
2-m long log on raised beach (N)
3
2040765
27.6
4+m long log on raised beach (F)
6
29807125
24.7
1-m long tree root-plate buried in
8
36357135
26.3
raised beach (F)
1-m long tree root-plate buried in
9
38857140
25.5
raised beach (N)
Driftwood
10
47757115
3-m long log on raised beach (N)
12
4315775
27.2
2-m long whale rib imbedded into
17
4935780
17.2
raised beach (N)
2-m long whale rib imbedded into
17
47757165
15.3
raised beach (N)
0.5-m long log on raised beach (H)
17
5435780
25.0
Paired Mya truncata from marine
>5
5090765
04
muds (H)
Driftwood (H)
10
47757115
Champ (C) and Wiener Neustadt (W) islands
Mya truncata valve from sublittoral
>9
sand (C)
Hiatella arctica valve from sublittoral
>3
sand (W)
Klagenfurt Island: Marine Limit 2071 m aht
1-m long log on raised beach
4
1.5-m long log on raised beach
7
9386790
+0.7
89707100
+0.9
1850765
3195770
23.8
25.2
et
et
et
et
al.
al.
al.
al.
(1997)
(1997)
(1997)
(1997)
Grosswald (1963)
GX-19027AMS
GX-21170AMS
GX-18298
GX-18297
Forman et al. (1997)
Forman et al. (1997)
Forman et al. (1997)
Forman et al. (1997)
ARTICLE IN PRESS
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S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
Table 3 (continued)
Dated material
1-m long tree root-plate buried in
raised beach
0.5-m long tree root-plate buried in
raised beach
0.75-m long log on raised beach
1-m long log on raised beach
Shoreline
altitude
(m aht)
Laboratory 14C
age or reservoir
corrected age1
(yr BP)
13
C
Laboratory
number
Reference
10
3635775
24.6
GX-18294
Forman et al. (1997)
14
48707155
25.4
GX-18295
Forman et al. (1997)
16
17
48307115
49257160
24.6
26.4
GX-2136
GX-18296
Forman et al. (1997)
Forman et al. (1997)
9757105
20407115
32957130
36607100
5255780
44257110
5205780
5830785
5880785
50307170
24.6
26.3
25.2
26.1
25.7
17.0
24.6
26.9
16.5
11.6
GX-18299
GX-18300
GX-18301
GX-21367
GX-18302
GX-21366G2
GX-18303
GX-18304
GX-18306G2
GX-18306A3
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
1100770
25.0
GX-19507
Forman et al. (1997)
14657105
1645770
28707105
3230785
3625790
6055795
64707100
22.9
26.0
26.8
27.1
26.1
25.9
24.8
GX-19501
GX-20748
GX-19502
GX-19504
GX-19503
GX-20747
GX-19505
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
73357105
79807140
25.3
25.8
GX-19506
GX-19508
Forman et al. (1997)
Forman et al. (1997)
13257105
2265785
3515785
23.7
24.6
23.4
GX-19496
GX-19497
GX-19498
Forman et al. (1997)
Forman et al. (1997)
Forman et al. (1997)
3770790
5010795
25.1
25.7
GX-19515
GX-19500
Forman et al. (1997)
Forman et al. (1997)
64907130
86557145
25.2
24.4
GX-19494
GX-19495
Forman et al. (1997)
Forman et al. (1997)
83107145
24.6
GX-19512
Forman et al. (1997)
94507165
17.3
GX-19511G2
Forman et al. (1997)
Wilczek Island: Marine Limit 2571 m aht
0.75-m long log buried in raised beach
4
2-m long log on raised beach
6
2.5-m long log on raised beach
10
0.75-m long log buried in raised beach
12
1-m long log on raised beach
15
Fragment from whale skull
16
1.5-m long log on raised beach
18
1.5-m long log on raised beach
20
Walrus skull in raised beach
22
Koldewey Island: marine limit 2471 m aht
2-m long log in raised beach behind
2
storm beach
1.5-m long log on raised beach
3
0.75-m long log on raised beach
14
2 m-long log on raised beach
6
1.5-m long log on raised beach
16
1-m long in raised beach
10
2-m long log in raised beach
20
0.5-m long tree root-plate buried in
21
raised beach
0.5-m long log on raised beach
23
5-m long log in raised beach at marine
24
limit
Outer Hall Island: marine limit 3272 m aht
1-m long log in raised beach
4
1-m long log in raised beach
7
0.75-m long tree root-plate buried in
9
raised beach
1-m long log on raised beach
11
0.3-m long wood fragments within
18
raised beach
1.5-long log buried in raised beach
23
1-m long log buried in raised beach
31
Severe Bay, Hall Island: marine limit 2372 m aht
2-m long splinter log found on raised
23
beach
Whale skull from washed sublittoral
>8
sediments
Paired valves of Mya truncata from
>3
delatic sands
Paired valves of Mya truncata from
>7
delatic sands
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
(1997)
(1997)
(1997)
(1997)
(1997)
(1997)
(1997)
(1997)
(1997)
(1997)
(1997)
(1997)
(1997)
(1997)
(1997)
(1997)
(1997)
96557100
+1.9
GX-19509
Forman et al. (1997)
82607115
+0.9
GX-19510
Forman et al. (1997)
1
440 years has been subtracted from 14C ages on marine subfossils to compensate for the 14C oceanic reservoir effect (Mangerud and Gulliksen
(1975); Olsson (1980); Forman and Polyak (1997)).
2
The collagen-dominated gelatin extract for all whalebones was dated.
3
Radiocarbon age on the apatite extract.
4
A 13C value of 0 was assumed for marine carbonate analyzed by the National AMS facility at the University of Arizona.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
1429
Appendix C
Radiocarbon ages on driftwood and associated
marine subfossils from raised beach sequences Novaya
Zemlya and Vaygach Island, Russia (Table 4).
Table 4
The radiocarbon ages on driftwood and associated marine subfossils from Novaya Zemlya and Vaygach Island, Russia is presented in Table 4
Shoreline
altitude
(m aht)
Laboratory 14C
age or reservoir
corrected age1
(yr BP)
13
C
Laboratory
number
Reference
Cape Bismarck: marine limit 1371 m aht
Partially buried 1.5-m long log
Whale vertebra
Driftwood log 2.5 m long
Decayed 2-m long log
Root section
Decayed 7-m long log
Partially buried 8-m long log
12.5 (10)
10
10
7.2
6.7
5.1
4.7
5365760
3710775
3485785
2985750
1365740
1350750
1875750
24.7
16.8
25.1
24.2
25.5
25.6
26.2
GX-25466
GX-25467G
GX-24850
GX-24851
GX-25465
GX-24852
GX-24853
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Cape Spory Navolok: marine limit o13 m aht
Log partially buried
3-m long log partially buried
Willem Barents’ ship timber
12
4.5
2
48607140
2955780
360
26.4
25.4
GX-18532
GX-23233
Zeeberg et al. (2001)
Zeeberg et al. (2001)
Gawronski and Zeeberg
(1997)
7.1
6.5
6.1
4.2
3.8
3.7
3.5
1.9
1.4
4380760
4000785
3710780
3200780
3205755
1930745
1570770
795765
770765
25.8
24.6
26.3
23.8
24.7
25.1
26.8
23.9
25.7
GX-25459
GX-24835
GX-24837
GX-24838
GX-24839
GX-25460
GX-24840
GX-24841
GX-24842
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
Dated material
Cape Zhelaniya: marine limit >10.5 m aht
Root section 1.5-m
Log 5-m long from snow bank
Log 2-m long from solifluction
Log >l-m long partially buried
Log 5-m long partially buried
Log >1 m long partially buried
Log 2.5-m long partially buried
Log 5-m long partially buried
Log 5-m long partially buried
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
Ivanov Bay: marine limit 13.571 m aht
Whalebone
Whalebone
Partially buried 3-m long log
Partially buried 3-m long log
Partially buried 2-m long log
Partially buried 4-m long log
Partially buried 2.5-m long log
Partially buried >5-m long log
13.5 (12)
13.5 (12)
8.8
7.8
6.8
5
4.3
4.2
68857105
70807105
3760745
3530750
2805750
805755
575740
1830750
17.2
17.1
23.8
24.5
25.3
26.6
23.0
26.4
GX-24843G2
GX-24844G2
GX-25464
GX-24845
GX-24846
GX-24847
GX-25462
GX-24848
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
Cape Medvezhy: marine limit 1271 m aht
Log 3-m long from base of solifluction lobe
Log o2.5-m long from snow bank
Partially buried >3-m long log
Decayed, part buried 7-m long log
Partially buried 2.5-m long log
Decayed, part buried 4-m long log
Decayed, part buried 2.2-m long log
10.5(10)
9
6.9
6.2
5.6
4.4
3.8
4070755
3635750
3070750
2125775
1665750
945755
295750
26.1
25.9
25.8
26.1
24.8
26.6
27.3
GX-24864
GX-24863
GX-24860
GX-24861
GX-24862
GX-24859
GX-24858
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
4145750
2890750
3105775
1535750
600745
175775
25.3
24.3
23.6
25.2
24.4
25.7
GX-24857
GX-25469
GX-24856
GX-24855
GX-25468
GX-24854
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
Zeeberg
et
et
et
et
et
et
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
(2001)
Russkaya Gavan’: marine limit 1271 m aht
Partially buried B2-m long log
Buried B3-m long log
Log 3-m long
Partially buried B3-m long log
Root of 4-m long log
Decayed 7-m long log
6.5
3.6
3.6
2.9
2.1
1.9
ARTICLE IN PRESS
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S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434
Table 4 (continued)
Laboratory 14C
age or reservoir
corrected age1
(yr BP)
13
C
Laboratory
number
Reference
445760
24.8
GX-17899
Forman et al. (1999a,b)
1380765
17257120
20407120
1510765
3775775
26657130
3625775
37507170
25.6
23.5
11.3
23.5
14.6
9.2
17.0
13.9
GX-18318
GX-18317G2
GX-18317A3
GX-17898
GX-18320G2
GX-18320A3
GX-18319G2
GX-18319A3
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
Forman
8057105
4425780
43257145
24.8
16.8
14.5
GX-18290
GX-18291G2
GX-18291A3
Forman et al. (1999a,b)
Forman et al. (1999a,b)
Forman et al. (1999a,b)
Vise Glacier-Inostrantsev Bay: marine limit 1071 m aht
1-m log on partially buried in beach gravels
3
3-m log on buried in beach gravels
5
7907105
24707120
25.3
26.1
GX-18292
GX-18293
Forman et al. (1999a,b)
Forman et al. (1999a,b)
Vaygach Island: Cape Bolvansky, marine limit B2 m aht
Partially buried 2.5-m long log
1.6
Partially buried B2-m long log
1
Partially buried root section of log
o1
540750
470740
270740
25.6
25.5
24.9
GX-27227
GX-27229
GX-27228
Zeeberg et al. (2001)
Zeeberg et al. (2001)
Zeeberg et al. (2001)
Dated material
Shoreline
altitude
(m aht)
Nordenskiold
. Bay: marine limit 1171 m aht
1.5-m log on vegetated surface above storm
beach
Wave abraded 1-m long log in beach gravels
Whale vertebrae buried in beach gravels
3.5
5
1.5-m long log behind raised beach berm
Walrus jaw bone on raised beach
5.5
8
Whalebone partially buried in beach gravels
9
Vilkitskiy Bay: marine limit 1071 m aht
5-m log on partially buried in beach gravels
Whale vertebrae buried in beach gravels
3
8
2
1
440 years has been subtracted from 14C ages on marine subfossils to compensate for the
(1975); Olsson (1980); Forman and Polyak (1997)).
2
The collagen-dominated gelatin extract for all whalebones was dated.
3
Radiocarbon age on the apatite extract.
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