International Journal of Korean History (Vol.18 No.1, Feb. 2013)
39
Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao)
and the Xiyu*
Cho, Yun Jae (Cho Yunjae)**
Introduction
Before Nanchao, there had already been frequent exchange of people
throughout the Han Dynasty, three Kingdoms and Wei-Jin period. Thus
perception towards the Western Regions has been matured. But the
frequency and scale of cultural exchange were varied depending on
political tuburlence of China. In particular, conflicts between the south
and the north during the Nanchao period, had distracted the direct
contacts and exchange of goods and people.
On the other hand, internal political turmoil within Roman Empire
affected the cultural exchange network between the west and east.
Relations between the Beichao and the Western Regions were active with
a favored geographic environment and shared historical ties1. However,
the diplomatic relationship between Nanchao and the Western Regions
had never been cut off2. Paths were more diversified by securing westsouth route and the southern coast route, facilitating the direct contact
with the Western Regions3. Even the cultural exchange between Nanchao
and Beichao was more flexible and active than we assume. In particular,
** This work was supported by the Korea Research Foundation Grant funded by the
Korean Government (KRF-2009-32A-A00026).
** Assistant Professor, Department of History and Archaeology, Inje University
40
Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
various trade schemes of Nanchao have been underestimated, compared
to those of Beichao. The simple biased view to understand Chinese
ancient traffic routes led to assumption that interchange between Nanchao
and the Western Regions was repressed due to political conflicts between
Nanchao and Beichao. Nanchao maintained cultural exchange with the
Western Regions via Tuyuhun with a stronghold in Bashu utilizing
Yangtze river traffic resource. In addition, it indirectly kept relation with
South-East and Southern Asian empires via maritime routes along the
East-south coastline. Indirect cultural exchange between Nanchao and the
Western Regions through impressions of the western regions embedded in
Beichao culture was recognized. Such socio-political situations played a
role in leaving the trace of cultural impressions of the Western Regions in
the cultural relics of Nanchao.
The context and details of relations between Nanchao and the Western
Regions was recorded in the text, which provides factual evidence to
explain their relations. In this paper, literature and related archaeological
records were reviewed and the process of cultural exchange and the
attitude of Nanchao towards the Western Regions to reveal a part of westeast cultural exchange.
Diplomacy of Nanchao (the Southern Dynasties) toward
Western Regions
Indirect interchange though the relations with the Northern Dynasties
After fall of Western Jin(西晉), the upper class society with a traditional
stronghold in the Lo-yang(洛陽), the capital of Jin and its surrounding
regions, migrated to the south. Thus Lo-yang lost its position as the
cultural core of China. The long-term warfare and frequent invasions of
the Northern tribes made Eastern Jin based in the south of Yangtze river,
so called as Jiangnan(江南), to be considered as the sole legitimate regime
for Han people. Such intensive and constant conflicts among ethnic
Cho, Yun Jae
41
groups caused the chaotic state all over China. Despite this complicated
political situation, exchange of people and goods, visits between the south
and the north had never been ceased. All the regimes in the north
attempted to remain in touch with the Eastern Jin during the Five
Barbarians and the Sixteen Kingdoms period (Wu Hu; 五胡十六國時期).
Later, in Northern Dynasties, one emperor of the Northern Wei, Xiao
Wen Di (孝文帝) even tried to adopt Jiangnan culture actively. Such
attitudes created new cultural atmosphere in both societies, and also
opened up the path for the Western Regions’s exotic culture in the
Northern Dynasties (Beichao) to be introduced to the Southern Dynasties,
so called Nanchao, later.
The direct interchange through so called ‘Henan Circuit (河南道)’,
the Southwestern Silkroad
The traditional route to the Western Regions passing through Hexi or
Gansu Corridor (河西走廊), Yumen (玉門), Yangguan (陽關), was
occupied by the Northern Dynasties. Thus Nanchao secured a new route
to the Western Regions via Yizhou(益州) by opening the diplomatic
relations with several regimes in Liangzhou (諸凉). That is so called
‘Henan Circuit(河南道)4.
The Western Region regimes posted delegates for economic benefits
and political negotiations to Nanchao under permission of Tuyuhun (土谷
渾). These include Jushi-gaochang (麴氏高昌), Baishi-guic i(白氏龜玆),
Hotan (于闐), Gepantuo (葛盤陀), Roulan (柔然)5, Ephtal (壓達), Sogd (粟
特), Sassanian Persia (波斯), Northern India (天竺國), Baitimoju (白題末
局). This served as an opportunity for the Western Regions’ goods to be
introduced to Nanchao.
Direct and indirect cultural exchanges through Southwestern maritime route.
The main sea voyage route between the ancient China and the Western
Regions runs through the South Sea and the Indian Ocean6. Along the
42
Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
coast of the Indian Ocean, it sets off via the Mediterranean to get to
Europe. That route is so called the ‘Maritime Silk Road’.
The exploration of Southwestern sea route was already recorded in Han
Shu 漢書- the book of the Han Dynasty. However, it could be traced back
to 222 BC. After unification of China by the Chin Dynasty, the
conquering expedition on Nanyue Province became intensified and the
use of sea route in the Southwestern coast was eased by setting up proChinese colonial regimes such as 閩中郡 (minzhongjun), 南海郡
(nanhaijun), 桂林郡 (guilinjun), 象郡 (xiangjun). Later, the cultural
exchange became more intensive and frequent during the Han Dynasty7.
Opening up the cultural exchange in the earlier period eventually led to
a favourable environment for Nanchao occupying the Jiangnan and
Lingnan provinces to have active extravert activities. For Nanchao,
cultural exchange with the southern sea region had been continued since
the Emperor Wu of Han(漢武帝). Roman and Persian merchants had
expanded their market to the Southern Sea and toward inland of China.
<Figure 1> Reconstructed Silkroad routes map
* Liuyingsheng, 1995, 『Silkroad, vol.maritime』, Zhejiang People's Publishing House
43
Cho, Yun Jae
This private trades led to form direct diplomatic relations between
Nanchao and the Western Regions.
Context of diplomatic relations between Nanchao and the
Western Regions.
Diplomatic relations between Nanchao and the Western Regions
Few contextual evidence about diplomatic relations between Nanchao
and the Western Regions are known. It appears that the lack of detailed
record must be due to instable political situation of that time8.
The articles stating the diplomatic relations between Nanchao and the
Western Regions in the historical texts are mostly about delegates posted
from the Western Regions to Nanchao. Although there was a few
delegates from Nanchao to the Western Regions, which was a rare
occasion of sending envoys due to a need for coordinating military affairs.
<Table 1> Envoys from the Western Regions to Nanchao
Date
Relations (offerings) between the
Western Regions and Nanchao
Reference
439, 元嘉十六年
沮渠高昌 envoy to Nanchao
『魏書』卷一百二·西域傳
442, 元嘉十九年
沮渠高昌 envoy to Nanchao
『南史』卷二·宋本紀
『魏書』卷三十九·李寶傳
443, 元嘉二十年
沮渠高昌 envoy to Nanchao
『宋書』卷五·文帝紀
444, 元嘉二十一年
沮渠高昌 envoy to Nanchao
『資治通鑑』卷一百二十四·宋紀
459, 大明三年
沮渠高昌 envoy to Nanchao
『宋書』卷六·孝武帝本紀
502~519, 天監年間
鞠氏高昌 envoy to Nanchao
『太平廣記』卷八十一·梁四公
535~546, 大同年間
鞠氏高昌 envoy to Nanchao
『南史』卷七十九·夷陌傳
503, 天監二年
白氏龜玆 envoy to Nanchao
『南史』卷六·梁本紀
521, 普通二年
白氏龜玆 envoy to Nanchao(梁) 『南史』卷七十九·夷陌傳
510, 天監九年
于闐 envoy to Nanchao (方物)
『南史』卷七十九·夷陌傳
44
Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
Date
Relations (offerings) between the
Western Regions and Nanchao
Reference
514, 天監十三年
于闐 envoy to Nanchao
(波羅波步障)
『南史』卷七十九·夷陌傳
519, 天監十八年
于闐 envoy to Nanchao (琉璃器)
『南史』卷七十九·夷陌傳
『南史』卷六·梁本紀
541, 大同七年
于闐 envoy to Nanchao (玉佛)
『南史』卷七十九·夷陌傳
546, 梁中大同元年 渴盤陀 envoy to Nanchao (方物) 『南史』卷七十九·夷陌傳
442, 元嘉十九年
柔然 envoy to Nanchao (方物)
『南史』卷二·宋本紀
『宋書』卷五·文帝本紀
463, 大明七年
柔然 envoy to Nanchao (方物)
『南史』卷二·宋本紀
『南齊書』卷五十九·茹茹虐傳
467, 泰始三年
柔然 envoy to Nanchao (方物)
『宋書』卷八·明帝紀
468, 泰始四年
柔然 envoy to Nanchao (方物)
『宋書』卷八·明帝紀
471, 泰始七年
柔然 envoy to Nanchao (方物)
『宋書』卷八·明帝紀
472, 泰豫元年
柔然 envoy to Nanchao (方物)
『宋書』卷九·后廢帝紀
480, 建元元年
柔然 envoy to Nanchao(方物)
『南齊書』卷五十九·茹茹虐傳
『南史』卷四·齊本紀
柔然 envoy to Nanchao (齊),
483~493, 永明年間 (醫員, 工匠, 指南車 demanded
for 南齊 rejected)
『南齊書』卷五十九·茹茹虐傳
515, 天監十四年
柔然 envoy to Nanchao9*
『南史』卷七十九·夷陌傳
516, 天監十五年
柔然 envoy to Nanchao
『梁書』卷二·武帝紀
520, 普通元年
柔然 envoy to Nanchao
『梁書』卷五十四·諸夷傳
528, 大通二年
柔然 envoy to Nanchao
『南史』卷七·梁本紀
529, 中大通二年
柔然 envoy to Nanchao
『南史』卷七·梁本紀
538, 大同四年
柔然 envoy to Nanchao
『梁書』卷二·武帝紀
『南史』卷七·梁本紀
541, 大同七年
柔然 envoy to Nanchao
『梁書』卷三·武帝紀
『南史』卷七·梁本紀
516, 天監十五年
壓達(Ephtal) envoy to Nanchao
(方物)
『梁書』卷五十四·諸夷傳
520, 普通元年
壓達 envoy to Nanchao (貢物)
『梁職貢圖』10*
『南史』卷七·梁本紀
526, 普通七年
壓達 envoy to Nanchao (貢物)
『梁書』卷三·武帝紀
45
Cho, Yun Jae
Date
Relations (offerings) between the
Western Regions and Nanchao
Reference
535, 大同元年
壓達 envoy to Nanchao (貢物)
『梁書』卷三·武帝紀
541, 大同七年
壓達 envoy to Nanchao (貢物)
『梁書』卷三·武帝紀
441, 元嘉十八年
粟特(Sogd) envoy to Nanchao
『南史』卷二·宋本紀
粟特(Sogd) envoy to Nanchao
457~464, 大明年間
(火浣布, 獅子, 汗血馬)
『南史』卷二·宋本紀
530, 中大通二年
波斯(Persia) envoy to Nanchao
(佛牙)
『南史』卷七十九·夷陌傳
533, 中大通五年
波斯(Persia) envoy to Nanchao
『南史』卷七·梁本紀
535, 大同元年
波斯(Persia) envoy to Nanchao
『梁書』卷三·武帝紀
503, 天監二年
中天竺國 envoy to Nanchao (梁) 『梁書』卷二·武帝紀
504, 天監三年
北天竺國 envoy to Nanchao (梁) 『梁書』卷二·武帝紀
524, 普通元年
白題末國 envoy to Nanchao (梁)
『南史』卷七·梁本紀
『南史』卷七十九·夷陌傳
<Table 2> Envoys from Nanchao to the Western Regions
Date
428, 元嘉五年
Relations (offerings) between the
Western Regions and Nanchao
南朝(劉宋) envoy to 河南國11*
南朝(劉宋) envoy to 柔然
477~479, 升明年間
(military coalliance)
Reference
文獻記載 間의 記述이 相異
『資治通鑑』卷一百三十五·齊紀
479, 建元元年
南朝(劉宋) envoy to 柔然 & 河南 『南齊書』卷五十九·河南傳
485, 永明三年
南朝(劉宋) envoy to 柔然 & 河南 『資治通鑑』卷一百三十六·齊紀
490, 永明八年
南朝(劉宋) envoy to 河南國
491~493, 永明年間 南朝(劉宋) envoy to 丁零(高車)
『南齊書』卷五十九·河南傳
『南史』卷七十二·丘冠先傳
『南齊書』卷五十九·茹茹虐傳
Expeditions of Buddhist monks
Apart from the official diplomatic relations, attention should be paid to
frequent visits of the foreign buddhist monks travelled from Western
Regions and Chinese monks from Nanchao to the Western Regions12.9
46
Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
The traffic route linking to the outer world and internal expansion of
culture is highly associated with the diffusion route of Buddhism, in
particular the route via capital by monks.
<Table 3> A list of relevant literature
Date
Route
Reference
420, 永初元年
釋曇無竭/ 高昌, 龜玆, 沙勒, 疎勒,
west Asia
『大藏經』2059
『高僧傳』卷三
423, 景平元年
佛駄什(北印度)/ 楊洲
『大藏經』2059
『高僧傳』卷三
424, 元嘉元年
曇摩密多(北印度)/ 龜玆, 凉州, 江左,
蜀, 荊州, 京師(建康)
『大藏經』2059
『高僧傳』卷三
424, 元嘉元年
442, 元嘉十九年
繮良耶舍/ 沙河, 京師, 岷蜀, 江陵
『大藏經』2059
『高僧傳』卷三
424~437, 元嘉年間
釋智猛(京兆新豊)/ 天竺, 蜀, 成都
『大藏經』2059
『高僧傳』卷三
433, 元嘉十年
僧伽跋摩(天竺)/ 流沙, 京邑(建康)
『大藏經』2059
『高僧傳』卷三
436~452, 元嘉末年
釋慧覽(酒泉)/ passing through Henan
Circuit
『大藏經』2059
『高僧傳』卷十一
439, 元嘉六年
沮渠安陽/ 姑藏, 建康
『大藏經』2059
『高僧傳』卷二
Unknown
釋僧隱/ arrived at 巴蜀, 江陵 through
Henan circuit
『大藏經』2059
『高僧傳』卷十一
475, 元徽三年
釋法獻/ 巴蜀, 茹茹, 于闐, 葱嶺
『大藏經』2059
『高僧傳』卷十一
479, 升明三年
釋玄暢/ 岷江支道 沿線, 南朝西北邊界地域
『大藏經』2059
『高僧傳』卷七
518, 神鬼元年
惠生 및 宋雲/ 流沙, 吐谷渾, 鄯善,
且末城, 于闐
『洛陽伽藍記』
卷五·城北
502, 天監初年
釋明達(康國, Samarkant)/ 吐谷渾, 益州
『大藏經』2060
『續高僧傳』卷二十九
559, 武成初年
闍那堀多(Ghandara)/ 迦畢試國(Bactria),
渴盤陀, 于闐, 吐谷渾, 壓達, 和田
『大藏經』2060
『續高僧傳』卷二
Cho, Yun Jae
47
Relations between Nanchao and the Western Regions revealed
through archaeological evidence
The majority of artifacts with the Western Regions’ origin discovered
inside the capital city of China during ‘Wei Jin Nan-Bei Chao’ are
currency (coins) of that time, golden and silver dish, fabric, and
glassware13.10The majority of them was found in the sites belonging to
Beichao period. Relatively, The number of artifacts originating in the
Western Regions’ found in the territory of Nanchao are relatively smaller.
Artifacts with influence of the Western Regions in Nanchao area
Glassware
Glassware discovered in the Southern China, so far, are mainly
excavated from the mound tombs of Estern Jin period. 18 glassware in
total were found in the 15 mound tombs in Liuchao. Just one mound tomb
is thought to belong to Nanchao period. Use of glassware seems to be
very unusual at that time.
Introduction and gradually increased use of glassware in the Southern
China is highly related to Liuchao’s general (cultural and social) context.
Thus, glassware made prior to Nanchao period has to be considered all
together. Previously, glassware from Liuchao’s mound tomb were
suspected to be “Roman glass” based on the results of analysis on raw
material of glass. But the recent research raised the possibility that they
might be the products from Persia, Kushan or Bartria14.11In particular, the
origin of raw material and the place of manufacturing has to be
distinguished.
Such a detailed research could reveal the actual process of glassware
production and their distribution covering several variables such as
diffusion of technology, trade and, immigration of non-indigenous
population.
48
Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
<Figure 2> Glassware discovered in the Southern China
1. Hubei Ezhou Wulidun M4012(湖北 鄂州 五里墩 M4012)
2. Nanjing Xiangshan M7(南京 象山 M7)
3. Nanjing Xianheguan M6(南京 仙鶴觀M6)
4. Jiangsu Province Jurong liusong yuanjia 16 years tomb(江蘇省 句容 劉宋元嘉十六年墓)
5. Guangdong Province Zaoqingping Eastern Jin Daning 3 years tomb
(廣東 肇慶坪 東晉太寧三年墓)
6. Nanjing Fuguishan M14(南京 富貴山 M4)
<Table 4> Glassware found from Six Dynasty period
tomb
period
Hubei Province
1 echeng gangyinliaochang Eastern wu
(湖北 鄂城 鄂鋼飮料廠墓)
quantity
color, height(cm)
1
colorless-transparent
Hubei Province
2 ezhou wulidun
(湖北 鄂州 五里墩墓)
Late western Jin
~Early Eastern Jin
2
colorless-transparent
yellowish green
9.4cm
3
Nanjing xiangshan
(南京 象山墓)
Early Eastern Jin
2
colorless-transparent
yellowish green, 10.4cm
4
Nanjing xianheguan
(南京 仙鶴觀墓)
Early Eastern Jin
1
transparent cyan, 7.0cm
5
Nanjing fuguishan
(南京 富貴山墓)
Early Eastern Jin
1
transparent light blue,
7.8cm
6
Nanjing Univ. beiyuan
(南京大學 北園墓)
Early Eastern Jin
1
colorless-transparent
7
Nanjing shangfang licun
(南京 上坊 李村墓)
Early Eastern Jin
1
transparent blue
8
Nanjing shimenkan
(南京 石門坎墓)
Early Eastern Jin
1
green
49
Cho, Yun Jae
tomb
Anhui Province
9 dangtu lailongfu
(安徽 當塗 來隴村墓)
period
quantity
color, height(cm)
Early Eastern Jin
1
light green
Guangzhou Province
10 shizigang
(廣州 獅帶崗墓)
Early Eastern Jin
1
blue
Guangdong Province
11 zaoqingping shigang
(廣東 肇慶坪 石崗墓)
325, Eastern Jin
1
transparent light green,
6cm
1
transparent yellowish green
2
transparent light blue
blue
Fragments
colorless-transparent
blue, green
1
transparent light blue,
6.5cm
12
Hubei Province hanyang
Early Eastern Jin
caidian (湖北 漢陽 蔡甸墓)
Nanjing qilundianjichang Mid-term of
(南京 汽輪電機廠墓)
Eastern
Nanjing guijiashan
14
Late Eastern Jin
(南京 郭家山墓)
13
Jiangsu Province
15 jurong chuncheng
(江蘇 句容 春城墓)
Liusong, Southern
Dynasties
<Figure 3> Trade of glassware through maritime silkroad in ancient East Asia
* James W. Lankton, 2010, 『Silk Road Glass in Korea: Archaeology and Scientific Analysis』
50
Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
<Figure 4> Main glassware manufacturing places in Central Asia
coin as currency
Sassanian-persian coins discovered in China are from Gaochang,
Tulupan, Lo-yang and Xian. 24 Sassanian coins from Nanchao mound
tombs located in Guangdong and one from Nanjing were reported15.12
Sassanian coins from Guangdong were considered to have been
transported from the Persian gulf to Guangdong via the sea route. The
silver coins found in the farthest east is the one mint during the reign of
the King, Piruz(Peroz) from Nanjing. During Qi(齊) and Liang(梁) period,
kunlun- slave from Southeast Asia, musicians, and officials from the
Western Regions had lived in Jiankang city.
『南齊書』卷三十一·列傳第十二: “昇明初，……景真於南澗寺捨身齋，
有元徽紫皮袴楚A餘物稱是. 於樂遊設會，伎人皆著御衣. 又度絲錦與崐
崘簎蝟f，輒使傳令防送過南州津.”
From the buried pit sites of Nanjing(南京東八府塘國稅大廈 南朝窖藏),
a large amount of 梁(liang) 鐵五銖(wuzhuqian) and golden and silver
dishes were accompanied with Sassanian-persia coins. It might be
possible to trace the chronological date of burying pits, given that it was
51
Cho, Yun Jae
<Figure 5> Reconstructed Silkroad routes map
* Shapur III type: 1, 2
* Yazdegerd II type: 3, 4
* Peroz A type: 5, 6
* Peroz B type: 7, 8
likely associated with the stability of political situation.
Uprising of Houjing(侯景) at the last year of the Emperor Wu of Liang
(梁武帝)’s reign, triggered the chaos in the society and illegal production
of coins became common. Thus Wuzuqian (鐵五銖) used since Putong of
Liang (梁 普通) year of 4 (523 AD) lost its function as currency and
burial of Wuzuqian (鐵五銖) was practiced. It corresponded to the time
when Sasan Dynasty and Liang initiated the diplomatic relations.
『 南史 』 卷七十九·列傳第六十九·波斯國: “波斯國 ， ……國東與滑國
西及南俱與娑羅門國北與泛慄國接. 梁中大通二年(530年) ， 始通江左 ，
遣使獻佛牙.
<Figure 6> Sassanian-persian coins discovered in South china
1
2
1. Guangdong yingde Nanqi tomb Peroz coins
2. Guangdong Qujiang Southern Dynasties tomb Peroz coins
3. Nanjing Dongbafu Southern Dynasties cellars Peroz coins
3
52
Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
Golden and Silver dishes
Golden and silver dishes with Western Regions’ origin during Nanchao
period are not many. All of them are excavated from mound tombs and
pits. Golden and silver dishes are thought to have been produced under
the cultural influence of Sassanian-Perisa, as evidenced by decorative
motifs and inscription in Persian language.
<Figure 7> A silver dish with a Persian language inscription from 廣東遂鷄南朝窖藏
<Figure 8> Golden and Silver dish discovered in the Balkan Peninsular and
Sogdian district
53
Cho, Yun Jae
<Figure 9> A golden bowl discovered in Guangdong suixi Southern Dynasties’
cellars
<Table 5> Sassanian coins from Nanchao mound tombs
Date
Location
Coins and discovery context
Reference
497년
廣東英德南齊墓
Piruz A type and Piruz B type found
inside the red coloured wooden bowl
with a cover
『考古』
61.3
5세기말
廣東曲江南華寺墓
Piruz
『考古』
83.7
5세기말
廣東遂溪南朝窖藏
Shapur Ⅲ (383-388) and Yazdgerd Ⅱ
(438-457)
Piruz A type and Piruz B type found
inside the jar with a cover: all coin are
percolated in center
『考古』
86.3
6세기초
南京東八府塘國稅大廈
Piruz C type with wuzhuqian(鐵五銖) of 『中國錢幣』
Liang
04.1
Grave goods from mound tombs
Ceramic figurines with the Western Region’s appearance in the mound
tombs indicates the presence of people from the Western Regions in
Jiangnan and Jiankang City indirectly16.13Such terracota figurines in a
shape of people from the Western Region’s indicates the cultural
exchange between Nanchao and the Western Regions. Further evidence
of the Western Regions’ cultural influence is bronze decoration of a
winged angel shape from the tombs located at Xiangfan city in midYangtze basin.
54
Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
In 2008, one very special artifact was discovered from a brick-built
tomb of Wei and Jin Nan-Beichao found during the road construction at
the Xiangfan City Hobei Province. A bronze winged angel was the firstly
found in the mound tombs of the southern area. Its shape has a similarity
with angels of Miran temple. They exhibit artistic styles observed in the
Eastern Rome or the West Asia, which are considered as diffused cultural
traits. Given Miran temple site’s function as a Buddhist monastery, in
specific, eastward expansion of Gandhara style might be the direct
medium of cultural diffusion. However, the number of such figurine
sharply decreased in the Nanchao era, compared to the Eastern Jin, so that
the diplomatic relations appear to have been rather restrained.
Some of discovered goods exhibit elements of foreign origins,
distinguishable from traditional traits.
<Figure 10> Grave goods from Six-Dynasty mound tombs
1
2
1. Terracota from Nanchao tomb
2. Bronze figurine of winged angel
<Figure 11> Xinjiang Province Miran Temple angel(M-III, V)
Cho, Yun Jae
55
<Figure 12> Figures of angels drawn upon the ceiling of the sacred container of
Buddha’s statue in Hadda Begram Afghanistan
The Western Regions’ traits observed in Nanchao’s architectural style.
The main characteristics of Nanchao’s royal and aristocrat’s graveyards,
are stone statue displayed on the ground. In particular, gravestone, stone
animals and stone columns are not observed in the graveyards of earlier
times.
Graveyard statuary
The most distinctive characteristics in the royal tomb statuary of the
Nanchao era are stone sculptures in the both sides of the spirit way, which
is also peculiar in that of Wei Jin Nan-Beichao. They are lined by a
succession of statues, pillars and stale. The stone pillars and animal
statues are special, which began to appear since the Han Dynasty and
likely derived from the Han Dynasty era. Perhaps these are the
consequences of cultural adoption through interchange with Rome and
Persia17.14
Stone sculptures stood at both sides of the spirit way, serve as a mark of
the tomb and they varied over time. The array of stone sculptures follows
the order of stale - stone pillar- stone animal.
Placing stone animals on the ground appears to have started from the
Eastern Han period. The origins of stone columns: The gigantic column is
one element of architectural style of Percepolice, the capital of
56
Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
Achaemenid Dynasty. The construction period of Percepolice is B.C 515330. In the Sasan Persian’s Shapur palace, the stone column is observed.
Completion of the palace was right before or after the death of Shapur
Ⅰ
(272 AD).
Before the Han Dynasty, such tradition of stone column has not been
found, so introduction from outer place is presumed, Given the interaction
and trade between China, Persia and Northern India, the cultural diffusion
route is likely to have begun in this area, But the fact that it became a part
of graveyard decoration components in China, exhibiting a different
function from the original is noticeable.
<Figure 13> Liang Xiaoshun and Xiaojing mausoleum columns, Southern Dynasties
<Figure 14> A columns of Persepolis and King Asoka column of India, Maurya
Dynasty
Cho, Yun Jae
57
Graveyard of Nanchao’s gravestone patterns and the Western Region
religion
On the gravestone surface of Nanchao, the symbol of main religion of
the Western Regions, Zoroaster, the alter of fire is embodied. Thus
introduction of religion was thought to have occurred. In addition,
decorative motifs related to Zoroaster remain in the head and sides of
gravestone in the spirit way.
<Figure 15> A decorative motif of Zoroaster in the head of XiaoHong gravestone
<Figure 16> A decorative motif of Zoroaster in the head of Sogdian Sabao Anjia
gravestone
58
Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
Pictorial and stamped motifs on bricks and stones
In the Nanchao era, a brick-built tomb is usually decorated with
pictorial slabs and bricks. The subjects of pictorical bricks’ motifs include
Buddhism, expedition, epics, grass, portrait of people, mystic animals. In
particular, a vase shaped motif appears to have originated from Persia and
later adopted in the Nanchao era. In addition, a portrait of people with
Western Regions’ physical characteristics is considered to be one of used
motifs.
Their appearance has a similarity with angels of Miran temple. They
exhibit artistic styles observed in the Eastern Rome or the West Asia,
which are considered as diffused cultural traits. Given Miran temple site’s
function as a Buddhist monastery, in specific, eastward expansion of
Gandhara style might be the direct medium of cultural diffusion.
<Figure 17> Grave goods from Six Dynasties mound tombs
Influence of the Western Regions on the Nanchao’s Buddhist culture
Buddhist art and culture had been highly sophisticated during Nanchao
Cho, Yun Jae
59
period, far surpassing that of Northern Wei. In particular, Liang
Dynasty’s Buddhism had a profound impact on emperors, the upper
classes, and intellectuals’ philosophical perception. The large number of
Buddhism related sites and artifacts are dispersed in this region with this
historical background. Among them, the Buddhist sites and goods found
in Sichuan province are significant. The sites and statues belonging to
Nanchao in this region have often inscribed date and exhibit distinctive
characteristic of that time in style. They provide very crucial information
to understand chronological development of Buddhist art and culture.
The Statue of a Buddha imitating the King Ashoka (阿育王像) from the
mid Nanchao’s Buddhist temple, Wanfosi (萬佛寺) shows a strong
influence of Gandhara style, and a representative of infusion of the
western region’s Buddhism. In particular, Buddha imitating the King
Ahsoka (阿育王像) of Liang Dynasty dated to 551 AD found at the Xian
Street (西安路) in the capital of Sichuan Province, indicates the obvious
foreign cultural traits observed in the head style and beard on face18.15
<Figure 18> The Statue of a Buddha from Wanfo Temple, Sichuan Province
60
Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
Conclusions
The dynamic interchange between the Western Regions and Nanchao
are supported by rich archaeological data. Beyond geographic limitation,
cultural exchange had maintained using the existing traffic routes and
diplomatic relations with the Western Regions, might have been more
intensive than we previously thought. Therefore, it calls for more updated
and detailed discussion on this issue , emphasizing the cultural network
between the east and the west civilizations. I believe it will serve as a prerequisite to explore another intriguing topic regarding the relations
between the Korean peninsular and the Western Regions.
Notes :
1 Shi Yuntao, Sānzhìliùshìjì sīchóuzhīlù de biànqiān [Changes of the Silk Road
in three to six century], (Wénhuàyìshùchūbǎnshè, 2007).
2 “Weilue (魏略),” 『Xīróngchuán, in Sanguozhi weishu (三國志·魏書)』
wuhuanxianbeidongnanyizhuan(烏桓鮮卑東南夷傳).
3 Liangshu [梁書] (Hainan zhuguo zhuan).
4 Tang Zhangru, “Nanbei chaoqijian Xiyu yu nanchao de liudao jiatong”
[Western and southern mainland road traffic in Northern and Southern
Dynasties period], in Weijin Nanbei Chaoshi Lun Shiyi [History of the Weijin
nanbei chao] (Beijing: Zhonghuashuju, 1983).
5 “Changjinghe Nandao er diyizhou Nanqishu,” 『nanqishu(南齊書)』 vol.59
(卷五十九·茹茹虐傳): “常經河南道而抵益州.”
6 Shi Yuntao, Zaoqi Zhong-Xi jiaotong yu jiaoliu shigao [Early communications
with the China-West and exchanges in the Historical Manuscript] (Beijing:
Xueyuan Chubanse, 2003)
7 Chen Yan, Haishangsichou zhi lu yu zhongwai wenhua jiaoliu (Beijing:
Beijing Daxue Chubanshe, , 1996).
8 Yu Taishan, Xihan weijin Nanbei chao yu Xiyu guanxi shi yanjiu [Study on
relations history of West Northern and Southern and Western Regions]
Cho, Yun Jae
61
(Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chubanshe, 1995).
9 After a request for sending craftmn and offerings was rejected during the
Yong-Ming periods, the number of envoys to Nanchao from Roulan decreased.
10 Su Bai, “Zhongguo jingnei faxian de zhongya yu xiya yiwu” [Central Asian
and Western Asian relics found within Chinese territory], in Zhongguo
dabaike quanshu kaoguxue (Beijing: Dabaike Quanshu Chubanshe, 1986).
11 James W. Lankton, “Silk Road Glass in Korea: Archaeology and Scientific
Analysis” (paper presented at Eleventh Annual Conference on Tomb Culture,
Busan Museum, 2010).
12 Wang Zhigao, “Liuchao muzang chutu bolirongqi mantan—jian lun Chaoxian
bandao sanguo shidai boli rongqi de laiyuan” [Talk for Six Dynasties tombs
unearthed in glass containers – sources of glass containers on the Korean
peninsula during the Three Kingdoms period] (paper presented at the
Thirteenth Annual Conference on Tomb Culture, Gyeonggi Provincial
Museum, 2011).
13 Sun Li, “Sashan yinbi zai Zhongguo de fenbu jiqi gongneng” [Distribution of
Sassanian Silver Coins and their functions in China], Kaoguo Xuebao 1 (2004).
14 Shao Lei, “Nanjing chutu Sashan beilu si yinbi kao lue” [Research on
unearthed Sassanian Peroz silver coins in Nanjing], in Yeshan Cungao
(Beijing: Fenghuang Chubanshe, 2004).
15 Nanjing Shi Bowuguan, “Jiangsu Nanjing shi fuguishan liuchao mudi fajue
jianbao” [Excavation of a tomb from the Eastern Jin to the Late Southern
Dynasties at Fuguishan in Nanjing, Jiangsu], Kaogui 8 (1988).
16 Fu Xinian, Zhongguo gudai jianzhushi—Sanguo Liang Jin Nanbei chao
suiting wudai jianzhu [History of architecture of ancient China -Three
Kingdom, Western and Eastern Jin, Southern & Northern Dynasties] (Beijing:
Zhongguo Jianzhu Ongye Chubanshe, 2001).
17 Lin Shuzhong, “Zongjiao zaoxiang yishu,” in Liuchao Yishu (Nanjing:
Nanjing Chubanshe, 2004).
†
Submission Date: 2012. 11. 15.
Accepted: 2013. 1. 19.
Completion Date of Review: 2012. 12. 25.
62
Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
<Abstract>
Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao)
and the Xiyu
Cho, Yun Jae
Previous studies have reported that China had frequent correspondence and
exchanges with western countries through the Three Kingdoms period and the
Disunity period from the Han Dynasty period. Thus, it is thought that the Nanchao
regime's awareness and understanding of the western countries already reached a
matured phase. However, the frequency and scale of exchanges show different
aspects depending on China's own political changes. China sharply stood face to
face in terms of political domination because of its two civil divisions into north
and south regimes, especially during the Nanchao period. During the Nanchao
period the direct approach to and negotiations with western countries was
somewhat inconvenient.
In the meantime, the Roman Empire's internal political vortex also had a
significant impact on the network in East-West cultural exchanges. On the other
hand, the Northern dynasties' bargaining with western countries proceeded with
very active exchanges due to geographical environment and history. However, the
bargaining between the Southern Dynasties and western countries was neither
disconnected nor unfulfilled. Rather, the passage of negotiations became more
diversified. In particular, since new bargaining routes were secured, direct contact
with the west was still in progress. These external backgrounds left considerable
cultural factors on the societies of the Southern Dynasties. This therefore enables
us to conclude the bargaining between both parties.
Since the specific bargaining situation between the Southern Dynasties and
western countries is observed in records from archaeological data and in some
literature, it serves to provide objective evidence. This paper attempts to look into
Cho, Yun Jae
63
the aspect of East-West civilization exchanges at the time by reviewing
archaeological materials related to literature records and at the same time
discussing the Southern Dynasties' bargaining process and form.
Keywords : Western Countries, Nanchao, China, East-West Exchanges, Traffic
Routes, Bargaining Process
64
Relations between the Southern Dynasties (Nanchao) and the Xiyu
<국문초록>
西域과 南朝의 文物 交流
조윤재(인제대학교 역사고고학과 조교수)
주지하다시피, 서역과 남조의 교섭에 앞서 그 이전시기인 漢代부터, 三國, 魏晉
代를 걸쳐 중국은 서역과 잦은 왕래와 교류가 있어왔다. 그래서 남조정권의 서역
에 대한 인식과 이해는 이미 성숙된 단계에 이르렀다고 할 수 있다. 다만 중국 자
체의 정국변화에 따라 교류의 빈도와 규모가 각기 다른 양상을 보여주고 있을 뿐
이다. 특히 남조 시기는 정치적 판도가 남북으로 갈라져 첨예하게 대립하고 있던
상황이라 남조의 경우 서역과의 직접적인 접근과 교섭이 다소 불편했던 시기였다.
한편 로마제국 내부의 정치적 소용돌이도 동서문화교류의 네트윅에 상당한 영향
을 주었다.
반면 북조정권의 對西域 교섭은 지리적 환경과 역사성으로 인해 여전히 매우
활발한 교류를 진행하고 있었다. 그러나 남조정권과 서역의 교섭이 단절되거나 전
혀 이루어지지 않은 것은 아니다. 교섭의 통로는 사실 더욱 다양해졌으며 특히 서
남교통로와 남해 연안해로의 새로운 교섭루트가 확보됨으로써 서역과의 직접적인
접촉은 여전히 진행되었다. 이러한 대외적 배경은 남조사회에 적지 않은 서역의
문화적 요소들을 남기면서 양자의 교섭을 想定할 수 있게 되었다.
남조와 서역의 구체적 교섭상황은 고고자료 및 일부 문헌기록에서 관찰되고 있
어 당시의 대외관계를 설명하는데 객관적 증거를 마련해주고 있다. 본문은 이러한
문헌기록과 관련 고고자료를 함께 검토해 보고 또 남조의 對西域 교섭과정과 방
식에 대한 고찰도 병행함으로써 당시 동서문물교류의 일면을 조명해 보려한다.
주제어: 서역, 남조, 중국, 동서교류, 교통로, 교섭과정
1 Shi Yuntao, Sānzhìliùshìjì sīchóuzhīlù de biànqiān [Changes of the Silk Road in three to six century],
(Wénhuàyìshùchūbǎnshè, 2007).
2 “Weilue (魏略),” Xīróngchuán, in Sanguozhi weishu (三國志·魏書)』wuhuanxianbeidongnanyizhuan(烏桓鮮卑東南夷傳).
3 Liangshu [梁書] (Hainan zhuguo zhuan).
4 Tang Zhangru, “Nanbei chaoqijian Xiyu yu nanchao de liudao jiatong” [Western and southern mainland road traffic in Northern and Southern Dynasties period], in Weijin Nanbei Chaoshi Lun Shiyi [History of the Weijin nanbei chao] (Beijing: Zhonghuashuju, 1983).
5 “Changjinghe Nandao er diyizhou Nanqishu,” 『nanqishu(南齊書)』vol.59(卷五十九·茹茹虐傳): “常經河南道而抵益州.”
6 Shi Yuntao, Zaoqi Zhong-Xi jiaotong yu jiaoliu shigao [Early communications with the China-West and exchanges in the Historical Manuscript] (Beijing: Xueyuan Chubanse, 2003)
7 Chen Yan, Haishangsichou zhi lu yu zhongwai wenhua jiaoliu (Beijing: Beijing Daxue Chubanshe, , 1996).
8 Yu Taishan, Xihan weijin Nanbei chao yu Xiyu guanxi shi yanjiu [Study on relations history of West Northern and Southern and Western Regions] (Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chubanshe, 1995).
10 Su Bai, “Zhongguo jingnei faxian de zhongya yu xiya yiwu” [Central Asian and Western Asian relics found within Chinese territory], in Zhongguo dabaike quanshu kaoguxue (Beijing: Dabaike Quanshu Chubanshe, 1986).
11 James W. Lankton, “Silk Road Glass in Korea: Archaeology and Scientific Analysis” (paper presented at Eleventh Annual Conference on Tomb Culture, Busan Museum, 2010).
Wang Zhigao, “Liuchao muzang chutu bolirongqi mantan—jian lun Chaoxian bandao sanguo shidai boli rongqi de laiyuan” [Talk for Six Dynasties tombs unearthed in glass containers – sources of glass containers on the Korean peninsula during the Three Kingdoms period] (paper presented at the Thirteenth Annual Conference on Tomb Culture, Gyeonggi Provincial Museum, 2011).
12 Sun Li, “Sashan yinbi zai Zhongguo de fenbu jiqi gongneng” [Distribution of Sassanian Silver Coins and their functions in China], Kaoguo Xuebao 1 (2004).
Shao Lei, “Nanjing chutu Sashan beilu si yinbi kao lue” [Research on unearthed Sassanian Peroz silver coins in Nanjing], in Yeshan Cungao (Beijing: Fenghuang Chubanshe, 2004).
13 Nanjing Shi Bowuguan, “Jiangsu Nanjing shi fuguishan liuchao mudi fajue jianbao” [Excavation of a tomb from the Eastern Jin to the Late Southern Dynasties at Fuguishan in Nanjing, Jiangsu], Kaogui 8 (1988).
14 Fu Xinian, Zhongguo gudai jianzhushi—Sanguo Liang Jin Nanbei chao suiting wudai jianzhu [History of architecture of ancient China -Three Kingdom, Western and Eastern Jin, Southern & Northern Dynasties] (Beijing: Zhongguo Jianzhu Ongye Chubanshe, 2001).
15 Lin Shuzhong, “Zongjiao zaoxiang yishu,” in Liuchao Yishu (Nanjing: Nanjing Chubanshe, 2004).