Position paper
Rural Development
Strengthening the interaction of agriculture, society
and economy to achieve sustainable food security
Position Paper: Rural Development
WELTHUNGERHILFE
Our vision
What we do
We have the vision of a world where all people can realise their
right to live a self-determined life in dignity and justice, free
from hunger and poverty.
We help people in developing countries to provide for themselves
now and in the future. As a large German aid agency with many
years of international experience, we have been chalking up
success stories in Africa, Asia and Latin America. As part of our
political activities, we fight to change the conditions that lead to
hunger and poverty. In Germany, we mobilise people to support
and help implement our vision.
Who we are
Welthungerhilfe was formed in 1962 as part of a ground-breaking global campaign – the “Freedom from Hunger Campaign”.
Established under the umbrella of the UN Food and Agriculture
Organisation (FAO), we are now one of Germany’s largest private
aid agencies. We are an independent organisation and firmly
rooted in German society through our member organisations,
donors and supporters. We stand for courage, a passion for life
and humanity as part of our mission.
What we want
We promote food security for all people, rural development and
the preservation of natural resources. We believe in the power of
dreams because dreams drive people forward. For this reason,
we have increasingly been linking our partners in Germany and
the project countries to a dynamic global network and are making development cooperation a reality.
Position Paper: Rural Development
How we work
We pursue a holistic, quality- and impact-oriented concept ranging from immediate disaster aid and reconstruction through to
long-term development projects. In this context, we work with
the affected people on equal terms – offering competence, reliability and transparency. We support partner organisations in the
project countries thereby ensuring that structures are reinforced
from the bottom up and that successful project work can be
secured for the long term.
FOREWORD
In the 1990s, governments at summit conferences repeatedly
and solemnly stated their target of halving hunger by 2015. In
many countries, this target will not be reached. On the contrary,
the number of malnourished people worldwide is growing. This
is scandalous, because there is enough food, knowledge and
funding to prevent hunger. This Welthungerhilfe position paper
focuses on the improvement of living conditions in rural areas
in developing countries, where three quarters of the poor and
hungry live. Most of them are small-scale farmers and landless
families.
Supporting agriculture and rural development by helping people
to help themselves has been Welthungerhilfe‘s main concern
since it was founded 50 years ago. This position paper confirms
previous experience and describes new paths. At its core, it
deals with the development of site-specific agriculture and adequate development of rural areas. The dual challenge is to make
direct access to adequate food and essential social services
available to the poorest and to ensure sustainable food security
for a growing population. This is linked to a range of topics
from access to land and water to gender equality and climate
protection. Controversial topics are also addressed, including
organic versus conventional agriculture, genetic engineering for
agriculture, the competition between food crops and biofuels,
the state‘s obligation to implement the human right to food and
the rural population’s participation in the political process.
Position Paper: Rural Development
The position paper covers 14 aspects. Each section is clearly
and helpfully structured in three parts: an analytical introduction
followed by practical hints on points in which Welthungerhilfe is
involved in its programme and project work and a list of current
demands on national and international decision-makers. There
is no attempt to offer recipes for success; instead, complex
challenges in various situations are considered.
Rural areas in developing countries have been severely neglected
in the last two decades in terms of investment and political reform, both by their own governments and by development cooperation organisations. Recently there are signs that a change of
political direction is taking place. This paper is being published
at a suitable moment.
Development policy in rural areas can only succeed if it is oriented on the needs, rights and skills of the people who live there
and if it takes place in a wide and coherent working framework
of interests. I hope that the paper with this core message will
be met with broad interest and the readiness to put the ideas
into practice.
Prof. Dr. Hartwig de Haen
Welthungerhilfe Supervisory Board
Contents
Introduction and overview
1. Site-specific agriculture
precondition for rural development
2. Rural economy
expanding economic potential in rural areas
3.Agricultural trade
8. Civil society
a key pillar for sustainability
9.Land
fundamental to survival and a resource for rural
development
developing market access through fair framework
conditions
4. Social security
essential for the rural population
5. Micro financial services
inclusion of people in the regional economy
6.The human right to food
not just a guideline
7. Gender justice
equality for women as a driver for development
10.Access to water
making it equitable and efficient
11.Biodiversity and agro biodiversity
protect, utilise and preserve
12.Green genetic engineering
sustainable usefulness not yet proved
13.Energy
the issue of the future
14 Climate change
a global threat to rural development in the South
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Position Paper: Rural Development
Introduction
We have a vision of a world in which all people have the opportunity to exercise their right to a self-determined life in dignity and
justice, free from hunger and poverty. Rural development is one
of the most important aspects in reaching this target. In 2010,
925 million of the world’s population was going hungry, the vast
majority in developing countries. Although the number of urban
dwellers affected by poverty and hunger is rising in many parts
of the world, the majority of the poor live in rural areas, that
is, areas where food is produced. Most of them are small-scale
farmers or landless, labouring in agriculture and related rural
activities. They cannot feed themselves adequately on what they
grow, harvest, sell and receive as wages.
Increasing global demand for food and agricultural primary products is to be anticipated, so it is sensible and justified to focus
international development policy on agriculture and rural areas.
The German Federal Government, the EU, G8 and G20, the
African Union, the UN, regional development banks and the
World Bank have stated their determination to increase investments in agriculture and rural development in countries where
hunger prevails. It is important to ensure that political efforts
are focused on the needs and potential of the rural poor and that
all development strategies are based on appropriate, coherent
planning and implementation.
This position paper formulates Welthungerhilfe’s understanding
of agricultural and rural development focusing in particular
on small-scale farmers. It summarises political demands and
concrete options for development support. The statements are
based on the following principles: food security, poverty reduction, helping people to help themselves, sustainability, human
rights, participation and target groups orientation.
Welthungerhilfe has been supporting projects in rural and regional development, its most important sector of support, for 50
years. This position paper is based on our long-term experience.
Welthungerhilfe’s central concern is poverty reduction worldwide, whereby sustainable food security is a priority. Human
rights, in particular the human right to food, are central to our
Position Paper: Rural Development
work. Acknowledging that the poor rural population has rights
ensures that the people are involved appropriately in planning
and implementation of development programmes as responsible,
independent actors. Welthungerhilfe’s political demands and
project support are oriented on their concerns and needs.
We are not claiming to cover the field exhaustively with the
topics we have selected; rather these topics have emerged from
current discussions on rural development issues and relate to
Welthungerhilfe’s present strategy. The content is to be updated
regularly and the topic spectrum expanded if necessary. The
sequence of the sections has no relation to their significance:
Different aspects can be weighted differently depending on specific situations. Rural development activities are particularly
effective when the different areas of activity complement and
reinforce each other.
The position paper has been elaborated through a process of
consultation involving many experienced Welthungerhilfe staff
members from Germany and abroad as well as external experts.
It fulfils three functions:
1.It is primarily aimed at Welthungerhilfe staff and partners
and serves as an internal guide for strategically coherent and
effective project and programme work in rural development.
The paper shows the areas of rural development where Welthungerhilfe is particularly involved.
2.Looking outwards, the paper is intended to communicate
Welthungerhilfe’s work and policy direction to an interested
public and possible cooperation partners in Germany and
abroad.
3.The position paper points out that development policy can
only be successful if it takes place within a broad, coherent working structure. Therefore this position paper makes
concrete demands on politicians, on governments of both
developing and donor countries and equally importantly, on
international organisations.
Rural development
An overview
Access to sufficient, appropriate food, clean drinking water, education and the best possible health care has gained the status
of an inalienable human right through the adoption of economic,
social and cultural human rights.
Gender justice aiming to secure equal status for women is not
simply something to be demanded as a human right; it is essential if development is to be sustainable. Women are disadvantaged and suffer discrimination in almost all societies. They
carry out by far the greater proportion of unpaid work worldwide,
particularly in rural areas.
Very small farms are characteristic of many developing and emerging economies in Asia and Africa, where the average farm size is
only 1.6 hectares. There is no generally accepted definition for the
term “small-scale farmer”; however, it refers to people who (have
to) work on small plots of arable land with very limited equipment.
Small-scale farmers in developing countries usually produce very
small surpluses to sell. Most of them are subsistence farmers, producing mainly for their own use. Accordingly they are dependent
on the local environmental conditions and their cash income is
very small. Support for poor small-scale farmers and the landless
is one of the most important levers in overcoming hunger and
poverty. Site-specific agriculture is the basis of rural development.
It must address many issues: increasing harvests to ensure food
security and create income, while also contributing to the conservation of natural resources. Cultivation methods must be adapted
to local environmental conditions and the socio-cultural context,
and they must be developed on the basis of existing knowledge.
Furthermore, rural development will be successful only when
agricultural products from developing countries are integrated
into fairer international trade systems.
To enable sustainable economic activity, insurance against the
most significant social and economic risks is needed and primary education and basic health care must be available free of
charge.
Sustainable use of natural resources is a precondition for securing livelihoods. This includes protecting and preserving biodiversity and agro biodiversity. In this context, the importance
of participative cultivation and development of new varieties
of crops suitable for (small-scale) farmers cannot be overestimated.
Using water and soil carefully and efficiently is vital to the survival of the rural population. Securing access to safe water is
a particular challenge. Appropriate drinking water supply and
sanitary facilities are essential to sustainable development.
Climate change is a growing threat to rural development and will
have a range of consequences. A decline in agricultural productivity can already be foreseen, particularly in many developing
countries; increasing weather risks and new diseases affecting
people, livestock and cultivated plants are likely. Agricultural
productivity must be maintained and rural people’s resilience
to climate change – especially among vulnerable groups – must
be increased.
Because agriculture alone cannot provide sufficient income, the
rural population is already dependent on income from non-agricultural sectors. Specific support for other livelihood options is therefore important to rural development. This includes processing of
agricultural products, the development of physical infrastructure
(transport and storage) and provision of social services.
The economic development of rural areas requires energy. As
prosperity increases, rising energy consumption and greenhouse
gas emissions in developing countries are inevitable. The efficient use of energy and the rapid development of energy generation – preferably renewable – will contribute significantly to
overcoming energy poverty.
For inclusion of the rural poor in local, regional and national
economy and to safeguard development successes, effective
micro financial services are essential.
Social and economic development in rural areas will only become optimally effective if a suitable balance can be attained in
all the areas mentioned here, given local conditions.
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Position Paper: Rural Development
Section 1
Site-specific
agriculture
Precondition for rural development
Abstract
Agriculture has many functions: it must provide food, create income and contribute to the conservation of natural
resources. If they are to be appropriate to the location, cultivation methods must be adapted to local environmental
conditions, take cultural context into account and be based
on existing knowledge.
In developing countries, increasing and stabilising yields
and income through site-specific agriculture is an important
driver of rural development and poverty reduction. One of
the most important factors in overcoming hunger and poverty is the development of poor peasants to farmers whose
production is economically, ecologically and socially sustainable.
Although the importance of small-scale agriculture in developing countries is increasingly recognised as the most significant
lever in national strategies to combat poverty and provide food
security, it is rarely given the necessary political priority. Turning
unproductive small-scale and subsistence agriculture into an
economically viable, socially and ecologically sustainable productive sector is one of the most important factors in overcoming
hunger and poverty. To achieve this, it will be necessary to break
through the limitations to growth by implementing a socially
acceptable structural reform of rural areas.
The agricultural sector’s main potential for rural development
is to increase productivity; other factors include diversification
strategies, processing of produce, access to markets and provision of environmental services. The range of agricultural functions
– from insuring food security, adequate income and sustainable
use of natural resources to environmental protection and preservation of cultural assets – can only be fulfilled when site-specific
strategies can be developed and implemented. There are no
global solutions to this issue and no blueprints for success.
Environmental conditions, the level of development and the
cultural background in the different locations demand specific
agricultural solutions. Above all, agricultural strategies should
Position Paper: Rural Development
secure sustainable food supplies – even when the population
is growing. At the same time, the local economy, in particular
the creation of effective markets and processing structures of
agricultural produce, should be supported (cf. Section 2 on the
economy). Technologically appropriate processing and storage
to reduce post-harvest losses are also important.
Important features for sustainable agriculture comprise the
appropriate use of local natural resources including use of renewable energy sources, applying mainly organic fertilisers and
opting for integrated farming systems in which a high proportion
of nutrients are recycled. Organic agriculture seems to be the
ideal form of sustainable agriculture. It renounces genetically
modified seed, synthetic pesticides, chemical fertilisers and to
a large extent mineral fertilisers; it rejects the use of growth accelerators (antibiotics, hormones) and complies with high standards of animal protection. However, there also are environmentally friendly forms of conventional agriculture that use modern
means of production in crop cultivation and animal husbandry
while respecting the principles of environmental protection and
sustainable use of natural resources as well as ethical norms for
animal protection. The different forms of sustainable agriculture
utilise improved seeds, irrigation and mechanisation in order to
increase yields, within the framework of their specific standards
and regulations. In practice, the decision as to which mix of
methods best serves the needs and potentials of farmers must
be made with respect to location in order to combat poverty and
hunger most effectively.
Implementing site-specific agriculture to combat poverty requires
improved access to necessary resources, including availability
of financial means for investments (irrigation, mechanisation
etc.), reliable access to seeds, to relevant information (weather
forecasts, market data) and to education and research.
Site-specific cultivation methods can only make sustainable
contributions to the conservation of natural resources such as
soil, water, air and biodiversity if they are continually adapted
to changing framework conditions. Climate change is one of
the greatest challenges in this context (cf. Section 11 on agro
Section 1
biodiversity and Section 14 on climate change). The pressure on
natural resources has been growing for a long time, above all due
to population increases and changing consumption patterns.
Traditional cultivation methods are often no longer adequate in
view of the limited availability of agricultural land and the pressure for increasing production. There is a need for production
techniques based on traditional knowledge but at the same time
including innovative approaches, continually adaptable to environmental and market conditions.
Poverty can only be reduced by an economically viable agriculture. Surpluses must be produced in order to create and secure
income and jobs. Paying subsidies to farmers for services could
be appropriate for clearly defined measures (e.g. environmental
services, food security, social security) as long as they are transparent and equitable (cf. Section 3 on agricultural trade).
Welthungerhilfe’s involvement in relation to site-specific agriculture:
Supporting small-scale farming to increase productivity and
farmer’s incomes. The cultivation methods applied are innovative and efficiency-focused, based on up-to-date knowledge.
We support access to the necessary resources (loans, infrastructure, seeds, information etc.).
Orienting cultivation methods toward a diversity of plants and
varieties. The focus is on sustainable use of natural resources
(soil, water, biodiversity, energy). Agro-forestry and integrated
farming systems are significant in this context and are promoted, as are integrated crop protection systems, breeding of
adapted seeds, sustainable irrigation management and measures to improve soil fertility (compost, mulching, crop rotation,
erosion control and soil conservation techniques).
Supporting appropriate methods of keeping and feeding live-
Land and water are finite resources. In many countries, it is
already the case that these resources are no longer sufficient to
stock; including measures for growing feed crops and veterinary
secure the livelihoods of all subsistence and small-scale farmers
(cf. Section 9 on land and Section 10 on water). Agriculture as
the sole income source is a poverty trap for millions of small-scale
farmers; it only meets the requirements of social and economic
sustainability in very few cases (e.g. for indigenous peoples). For
social and economic development it is essential to create new
income sources in rural areas. In the medium run, site-specific
agriculture must progress beyond local self-sufficiency. To achieve this, farmers must diversify their production and their income
sources. The structural change needed to achieve this must be
poverty-oriented: The loss of agricultural livelihoods must be
balanced by the creation of alternative jobs, e.g. in processing
agricultural products (cf. Section 2 on the economy).
Promoting measures to support avoidance of post-harvest losses
provision.
(e.g. storage) to increase the availability of food and create
jobs.
Promoting marketing activities (local, regional and export) and
the processing of agricultural primary produce for strengthening
the local economy. This can take place in partnership with the
private sector in order to use existing know-how, capital and
logistics structures.
Welthungerhilfe’s demands relating to the implementation of
site-specific agriculture:
Poverty eradication and food security must be at the core of
national agricultural policy in countries affected by hunger.
Agriculture should be given higher priority in rural development by international development organisations, matched by
an equivalent level of funding. Site-specific agriculture is an
important tool for realising the human right to food.
Industrialised countries must reduce their agricultural and export subsidies where they impair the agricultural development
of poor countries by distorting the markets.
Development projects and private business should not use technologies or make investments which conflict with the conservation of natural resources and the implementation of the right to
an adequate standard of living in the recipient countries.
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Position Paper: Rural Development
Section 2
Rural economy
Expanding economic potential in rural areas
Abstract
In many developing countries, the majority of the population
works in agriculture. However, this sector is often unable
to provide sufficient jobs and income. Economic poverty
is therefore still one of the main problems in rural areas,
although many people already improve their incomes by
taking on supplementary work outside agriculture.
Support for businesses and services – particularly in preand post-processing of agricultural products – is of great
significance for the socio-economic development of rural
areas. This is the only way in which new sources of income can be developed for the rural population that is most
affected by hunger. The creation and expansion of physical
infrastructure is an essential precondition for this development, particularly in neglected rural areas.
Good governance also entails the creation of functioning
state institutions which ensure the implementation of participative regional planning and the development of physical
infrastructure designed to reduce poverty.
Rural development is usually assumed to mean diversifying
production and increasing productivity in agriculture. Both of
these factors are indeed worthy of support, as long as they are
carried out in a sustainable and appropriate manner. Increasing
productivity, however, also means that working capacities are
set free, hence, new jobs and income opportunities must be
created. Support for businesses and services, in particular in
respect to post-harvest processing of agricultural products, is
essential for a socially and economically balanced development
in rural areas. This is the way in which new sources of income
can be created for the rural population. Economic diversification
is essential for additional value creation (pro-poor growth) that
reduces poverty and promotes the sustainable overall economic
development.
The potential for this kind of development often arises directly
from agricultural production. Promising fields include the proPosition Paper: Rural Development
cessing (including minimising post-harvest losses, storage, preservation, packaging, transport and marketing) of agricultural
produce. In addition, services are necessary such as the repair
and maintenance of machines and tools, as well as services in
consulting, financial services, information and (further) education. Inputs for agriculture (equipment, construction) are also
necessary, as is product marketing. The preconditions for these
activities include adequate physical infrastructure such as roads,
storage facilities, energy supply and water infrastructure as well
as suitable institutions for education and vocational training.
Women and young people usually suffer discrimination in relation to access to production and financial support; special
support for these groups gives them new opportunities.
It also is necessary to look for solutions in respect to the disadvantages which result from the usually inadequate vocational
training opportunities in rural areas (cf. Section 7 on gender
equality).
Cooperatives and similar self-help business organisations are important instruments for the economic development of rural areas
and small-scale farming communities. Joint economic activity
reduces costs; depending on the situation, this may be through
cooperation in purchasing, transport, storage and marketing, as
well as in financing investments. Successful cooperative businesses can have a positive effect on the division of labour and
specialisation, which helps to improve product quality. Cooperatives can play an important role for diversification, if they expand
their activities to, for example, educational and financial services
or the trade of non-agricultural products. However, cooperatives
have not always proved to be efficient and effective. If there is
no foundation for self-organised responsible cooperation, then
either private business solutions or collaboration between selfhelp structures and the private sector are preferable.
In the medium run, support for the economy leads to reduced
dependency on a single sector. New sources of income increase
the population’s purchasing power, which also strengthens local
and regional markets. In this way, a diversified local economy
Section 2
provides more socio-economic stability in the long run than an
export-oriented economy which is highly dependent on a few
products and sectors and external market demand. A diversified economic structure is also more likely to be successful in
countering undesirable developments in the market economy
(e.g. price distortions, development of monopolies) and in intervening to regulate the situation. International markets can
provide important contributions to the economic development
of rural areas. However, they must be thoroughly analysed to
assess their true potential. International trade usually requires
a much higher degree of organisation. larger quantities of goods
and higher product quality.
Welthungerhilfe’s involvement in relation to developing economic potential in rural areas:
Supporting farmers in sustainably increasing agricultural production and productivity.
Supporting target groups in expanding pre- and post-harvesting
activities related to agricultural produce, in order to create diversified value chains with a range of income opportunities.
Promoting vocational training for the rural poor, with respect to
farming as well as in fields other than agriculture.
Strengthening self-help organisations and cooperative business
models.
Supporting measures designed to improve the functioning of
In order to be able to utilise international market opportunities
despite underdeveloped infrastructure and inadequate framework conditions, new industries in developing countries must
protect their products from superior competition. For this, developing countries should be able to make use of existing WHO
instruments (e.g. safeguards, green box) to fend off imports of
cheap, subsidised products which damage their domestic agricultural production and strategically important industries (cf.
Section 3 on agricultural trade).
markets for the local, regional and international exchange of
goods.
Promoting communication between market actors (producers,
traders, processors) to ensure cooperation and transparency of
relevant market information.
Welthungerhilfe’s demands in relation to the development of
economic potential in rural areas:
Industrialised and emerging countries must not be permitted to
thwart the economic development of poor countries by forcing
Functional physical infrastructure (transport infrastructure, water and energy supply, communications) is essential for the sustainable economic development of rural areas. Experience also
shows that financial services must also be extended in order to
cover investment and liquidity requirements (cf. Section 5 on
microfinance).
Local and regional administrative structures and governmental
institutions must also function adequately for promoting economic development. They are the main actors in establishing suitable instruments for supporting economic activity and in creating
appropriate framework conditions. This includes the rule of law,
for example in relation to the land ownership situation and land
use rights (cf. Section 9 on land). In addition, a coordinated
national policy for efficient regional planning and development
is needed: This can reduce urban-rural disparities and lead to
more effective coordination and implementation of economic
funding programmes at the regional level. Economic support
should also include active labour market policy, particularly in
relation to vocational education. Good governance is essential
for a pro-poor economic development.
them to open their markets or flooding them with imports.
Developing countries must make more use of the legitimate
(WHO) instruments to protect their (agricultural and other) producers from cheap imports.
(Suitable) vocational education and training are urgently required, as is the transfer of know-how and adapted technologies.
Products and processes which are linked to agricultural production or which provide value for rural areas should be promoted.
Locally and regionally emerging economic structures should be
given special support.
Developing countries should reform their market structures and
invest more in infrastructure. This includes rural markets and
social structures (overcoming the urban bias) as well as basic
physical services.
Developing countries must implement an integrated, transparent and participative regional policy which focuses particularly
on the agricultural sector and supports decentralised structures
for efficient public services.
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Position Paper: Rural Development
Section 3
Agricultural trade
Developing market access via fair framework conditions
Abstract
The majority of developing countries depend on agricultural
imports for their food security. Prices for agricultural products are rising and also becoming more volatile, so that
it is increasingly difficult for these countries to meet their
needs on the global market. Their own agricultural sectors,
mostly based on small-scale farming, must play the main
role with respect to domestic food security. Local and regional markets must also be strengthened and appropriate
agricultural strategies are needed for promoting stability
and competitiveness. Protectionist trade policies continue
to hinder access to international agricultural markets for
producers in poor developing countries. For effective rural
development the governments of affected countries must
invest more in rural areas. In the context of WHO negotiations, global agricultural trade must be regulated in such
a way that it promotes development and sustainable food
security in all countries.
Local availability of food in developing countries often fluctuates
considerably. Harvests can vary substantially due to factors such
as weather, pest infestations, crises and conflicts. Regional and
international trade must contribute to food security by balancing out shortages and overproduction. For decades, developing
countries were able to fill the gaps in their own agricultural
production by cheap imports. This was particularly beneficial
to the net buyers. The losers were the local small producers
who could not compete with the cheap imports because they
were produced by often-subsidised large-scale industrialised
agriculture at minimal cost. In recent years, this situation has
changed dramatically. World market prices for agricultural products are volatile and have risen greatly, making it very difficult
for developing countries to meet their needs at a reasonable
price on the global markets. It has therefore become even more
important to strengthen their own production and the local and
regional markets.
Industrialised countries have been boosting their agriculture for
decades by supporting production with subsidies and protective
Position Paper: Rural Development
tariffs. Their surplus produce was dumped onto the world market
at low prices, thanks to huge export subsidies. At the same time,
wealthy countries have used various instruments to protect their
agricultural markets, making market access very difficult for
developing countries. This is still the case e.g. due to the high
quality and safety standards for food in industrialised countries.
The gradual move away from an agricultural policy of supporting
producers’ prices and towards direct income payments to farmers in OECD countries and the subsequent reduction of export
subsidies and import restrictions in industrialised countries are
steps in the right direction. International trade can only be fair
if it is based on recognised rules. It is the WTO’s task to develop
and agree on these rules. However, so far the chance to use WTO
negotiations to combat hunger has been wasted.
Opening the markets in developing countries – a move that the
World Bank and IMF have long demanded for the agricultural
sector – primarily benefits the export interests of industrial countries. Developing countries lose import duty revenues and must
fear that their own structurally disadvantaged producers will
lose out even more with the influx of cheap imports. In order to
promote development, trade policy must be oriented toward the
marketability of product groups. Trade in products such as tea,
coffee or cocoa benefit from liberalisation, whereas cereals or
poultry and dairy production in many developing countries still
require special protection in order to gradually reach marketability. Due to the structural disadvantages, it will take many years
before the agricultural production of marginalised rural areas in
developing countries reaches competitiveness compared to levels of efficiency and quality found in industrialised countries.
For this reason it is essential that developing countries have the
right to protect their own agricultural sectors from cheap imports which obstruct their own production (e.g. through customs
duties and import restrictions) (cf. Section 2 on the economy).
At the same time, developing countries must ensure that they
do not disadvantage their own production through overly high
exchange rates, export taxes for agricultural products and import subsidies. Efficient administrative structures, investment in
market infrastructure and economic policies designed to reduce
Section 3
poverty are all essential in the bid to create adequate national
framework conditions.
However, protecting domestic production does not automatically
benefit all the poor of that country. Farmers produce for market benefit, while poor rural and urban consumers have to pay
higher prices. Protective measures should aim at achieving price
stability at a suitable level, rather than trying to push through
higher or lower prices.
Welthungerhilfe’s involvement in relation to promoting fair
trade conditions for small-scale farmers:
Promoting market access for small-scale farmers and the
marketability of their products by training and support
for farmers’ self-help structures (producer groups etc.).
Supporting investments in transport infrastructure and market
information systems in order to improve access to local and
regional markets.
Promoting storage and processing of agricultural products in
The concentration process leading to the dominance of a few
supermarket chains is an obstacle in international trade and
increasingly, in regional and local trade as well. Few small-scale
farmers are in a position to deliver the demanded standards in
terms of quality and quantity. They require training and counselling about standards of quality and hygiene, sanitation and
phytosanitation as well as access to suitable technologies. This
is becoming more important due to increasing consumer quality
awareness in developing countries too, and due to the growing
demand for refined and processed products. Unnecessary tech-
order to improve farmers’ negotiating position and their value
nical standards, e.g. in relation to the size and shape of agricultural products, must be reduced in the interests of supporting
small-scale farmers.
of international negotiations (WTO). However, industrialised
creation.
Supporting farmers with small incomes in order to utilise the
opportunities for certification and fair trade.
Supporting the marketing of farming products from developing
countries in Europe.
Welthungerhilfe’s demands for agricultural trade that reduces
poverty:
Fair trading conditions must be created within the framework
countries must also reduce their agricultural export subsidies
independently of the WTO negotiations.
Agricultural subsidies in emerging economies and industria-
Some companies are concerned about environmental and social
standards of production (organic cultivation, suitable working
conditions, rejection of child labour etc.). They are attempting
to establish markets for products produced to these standards
for which price advantages can be obtained. In this way they try
to develop exemplary, fair models which aim to directly improve
the conditions for farmers in the producing countries. Consumers are directly involved in trade strategies of this kind. The
initial result is simply to create a niche market – for example, to
improve quality in order to test the products’ marketability or to
open up new (international) marketing opportunities. However,
the innovations bear the potential to gradually introduce environmental and social standards for the entire sector.
That said, improved trade conditions are not enough to raise agricultural production sustainably. Small-scale farmers must also
be able to react to rapid alterations in demand due to unexpected weather conditions or fluctuations in international markets.
This aspect requires a response from developing countries themselves. Only if effective agricultural and development policies
are implemented can the interplay of fair trade conditions and
the support of rural areas lead to poverty reduction and improved
food security (cf. Section 2 on the economy)
lised countries which distort the international market must be
further reduced.
Qualitative import restrictions in industrialised countries for
agricultural products from emerging economies and developing
countries must be reviewed and adapted to be suitable for the
products.
Developing countries must be permitted to protect their local or
regional production from cheap imports if this helps to reduce
poverty.
Developing countries must build national and regional agricultural strategies which will promote food security, economic
development and international marketability.
Private companies and consumers in industrialised countries
are called on to support farmers in developing countries and
fair agricultural trade through “shopping basket policy” (i.e.
considering the impact of consumption behaviour).
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Position Paper: Rural Development
Section 4
Social security
Essential for the rural population
Abstract
Every society should aim to ensure for all its members a
dignified living standard. An important precondition for
achieving this is the provision of a safety net to protect
people from the greatest social and economic risks. Primary education and basic health care should be available to
everyone free of charge. The ratification of economic, social
and cultural human rights has given these political targets
the status of an inalienable human right.
Health and education are important for full participation in
economic, social and cultural life. Social security measures
must therefore become an integral part of rural development. Private business and self-help systems play an important role in this regard, but above all, it is the responsibility
of governments to take the initiative in their countries and
create favourable framework conditions. In states where government structures are fragile or inadequately equipped,
the international community should support the provision of
social security – preferably involving local civil society – at
least intermittently.
Social security entails protection from economic misery. Beyond
securing pure survival, it aims at assurance of living standards
compatible with human dignity for all members of a society.
Fundamental risks must be insured against in order to avoid
dependency and poverty. People who are unable to earn a living
and contribute to the social security system also have the right
to a life compatible with human dignity. This includes assured
access to food, health services and education.
Traditional social security structures (family, clan) tend to function less satisfactorily in many developing countries. This makes
state benefits (income transfers in the form of social welfare
payments) increasingly important. Public, private and self-helpbased institutions also play an important part in providing instruments for social security and income transfer. State monitoring
and regulatory mechanisms are essential in order to guarantee
that these institutions function effectively.
Position Paper: Rural Development
State social programmes (e.g. minimum wage, social welfare)
have become increasingly important in developing and emerging
countries since the turn of the millennium. To date, at least 45
states have such programmes, reaching a total of 110 million
families – about half a billion people in all. Many studies prove that people involved in these programmes are healthier and
better nourished, that their children go to school more regularly
and that they work more productively than comparable groups
who have no access to social services. Cash transfers do not
only support survival; they also stimulate the economy and help
people to help themselves.
In rural areas, the impacts of social security systems are becoming increasingly visible. Cash transfer based on preconditions
– linked for example to work (cash for work), participation in
training and education or to health care services – can support the development of rural infrastructure. They also have
indirect positive effects such as contributing to higher wage
levels and encouraging growth of the local economy (productive
safety nets). Due to such programmes, the poorest people are
no longer forced to accept work under any conditions. Income
support can strengthen the position of women in the village
community. New concepts to protect particularly vulnerable
groups (children, orphans, the old, the sick and people with
handicaps) are becoming increasingly important because even
in rural areas, traditional family structures are eroding – partly
due to migration.
In some cases it can make sense for the social security system
to be supplemented by private providers. This is particularly the
case in relation to limited, clearly defined risks, e.g. to cover
funeral costs or redemption of a credit through a life insurance.
Insurance for the farming population (e.g. against loss of harvests) could have great economic and social impact (cf. Section
5 on microfinance).
Social security in its wider sense could include all state measures and those of public institutions and organised (civil) society
which have socio-political targets. This primarily covers health,
educational and labour policy.
Section 4
Health care in rural areas is generally less effective than in urban
agglomerations. Large numbers of people work in the informal
sector; this includes landless people and seasonal migrants in
search of work. These groups usually have no access to formal
social security systems at all (health and pensions insurance,
social security). There is also a lack of rural social infrastructure.
Health care institutions are usually far apart and difficult to
reach, due to the lack of transport facilities. They are often poorly equipped and run by inadequately trained healthcare staff.
Several studies have shown that poor people are more frequently
ill and on average die younger than those with means. They are
often unable to afford the cost of treatment, which means that
they sink even deeper into poverty. Micro insurance can make a
significant contribution if there is no access to comprehensive
social security systems. Women have particular health-related
rights and needs. The human right to sexual and reproductive
health includes the right to family planning and safe pregnancy
and birth (cf. Section 7 on women).
Welthungerhilfe’s involvement in relation to social security for
the rural population in developing countries:
Supporting people in disaster-related emergency situations by
the immediate, unconditional provision of food and materials
and promoting reconstruction by cash-for-work or food-for-work
measures.
Promoting self-help-based insurance for the rural poor. Measures of this kind not only improve social security in the villages
but also give communities more negotiating power vis-à-vis
health care providers.
Supporting people in claiming the social security payments
to which they are entitled (e.g. National Rural Employment
Guarantee Scheme in India).
Supporting partners in the fight against corruption, particularly
in the health care system, in order to improve the effectiveness
of social systems.
Education and health care are supported as an integral aspect
of rural development projects.
In addition, the rural population needs access to effective educational institutions. The infrastructure problems listed above
in relation to the health care system also apply to education.
Formalised structures for vocational training are practically
nonexistent in rural areas; illiterate people are usually excluded
from educational opportunities. There is little formal vocational
training in agriculture. Local agricultural extension services are
often understaffed and employees are badly paid. The demands
made on schools and on non-school education have changed
greatly in recent years. Rural households must be strengthened
so that they can meet economic and social challenges (cf. Section 8 on civil society).
Welthungerhilfe’s demands relating to social security for the
rural population:
Donor countries should make funding available for the development and maintenance of social security systems from the
funds for development cooperation.
Governments should take steps to allow free access to primary
education and basic health-care for the whole population.
Developing countries must fulfil their human rights obligations
to ensure basic social security for their citizens. This includes
state financed, preferably free primary education and basic health care.
Developing countries must introduce laws and monitoring systems so that public institutions and private businesses can
provide effective and efficient social security.
Particularly vulnerable groups (e.g. people with handicaps,
the old, orphans) not possessing property or working capability
should be provided with special support.
One effective measure to reduce the rural exodus is to make rural areas more attractive by introducing education and training
opportunities (school systems and vocational training).
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Position Paper: Rural Development
Section 5
Micro financial
services
Inclusion of people in the regional economy
Abstract
The support for financial services can make a significant contribution to reducing poverty and to the sustainability of rural
development – but only if they are adapted to local conditions.
Functioning financial services are essential to allow the rural
poor to take part in regional and national economic activities
and to ensure that development processes are sustained.
Experience so far has shown, however, that the availability of micro financial services is not automatically linked
to economic development and poverty reduction. For this
reason, micro financial services should be combined with
supplementary social and economic measures.
For micro financial institutions to function satisfactorily,
governments must regulate the conditions in the financial
markets in such a way that the micro financial services are
attractive, without triggering negative social effects.
A small loan can improve an individual’s life. The money can
be used to develop an economic activity and so contribute to
increased and diversified income. It can be used to survive a
time of need – for example a natural disaster – and can reduce
vulnerability to failed harvests and disease. In addition, integrating the rural poor into the money economy is a precondition
for a sustainable development process. Micro financial activities
help to increase productivity and to counter the risks of unstable
weather conditions (cf. Section 2 on the economy).
For micro credits, no appraisal of credit worthiness takes place
and no collateral is required. The typical process usually takes
the form of a savings and credit group whose members in turns
take out a loan and stand surety for each other. This enables loans
to be taken out by poor population groups who would normally
have no access to capital. For a long time, microloans have been
viewed as the key to combating poverty; however, an increasing
number of studies are revealing the excesses and distortions in
the fast-growing sector and advise caution. Microfinancing cannot remove poverty’s structural causes. Microfinance institutions
Position Paper: Rural Development
(MFIs) can only make a contribution to sustainable poverty reduction when embedded in comprehensive development processes.
The spectrum of MFIs ranges from self-help groups and their
associations through cooperatives to micro banks and agricultural
development banks. In 2009, the 1,000 largest MFIs worldwide
served 100 million loan customers and employed around 500,000
people. The total global volume of microloans has now reached
around 45 billion euros. It is estimated that 90 investment funds
are active in the market with a total volume of six billion euros.
The World Bank anticipates growth to 15 billion euros in this field
alone by 2015. It is not surprising that private players are entering the market. The potential gains are enormous. However the
high interest rates which are due for micro credits must cover the
high costs for supervision and should not be skimmed by global
financial players, for example through investment funds.
Micro credits are often targeted towards women because they
are statistically more reliable than men in making repayments.
They also are more likely to use the money for purposes which
promote social development, so the economic benefit is not limited to themselves alone. The positive effects of micro credits
on women’s’ self-confidence and social status can clearly be
seen (cf. Section 7 on gender equality). On the other hand, it
must be stated that a loan is not a social instrument and is only
of benefit to people who can work and who have sufficient status
in their neighbours’ eyes to be considered creditworthy. The old,
the sick, children and the very poor are normally excluded from
micro credits.
To achieve development goals and combat poverty sustainably,
micro financial services should be promoted in conjunction with
supplementary support measures. These include:
Investment advice and support for management qualifications
Health support and preventive measures
Education and literacy training
Vocational training
Nutrition counselling
Section 5
Promoting micro financial activities in rural areas is important
because commercial banks and insurance companies are not
keen to provide services in thinly populated areas where logistical costs are high and turnover comparatively low. In many
cases, microfinance is also used to bridge financial gaps which
often occur with the purchase of agricultural materials (seed,
equipment etc.) or the building of small-scale agricultural infrastructure (bridges, irrigation systems etc.).
Micro insurances are a useful element of basic social security. Even poor people can use micro insurance as a protection
against serious risks. Micro insurance is aimed at people of
the informal sector who have no access to formal insurance
systems or cannot afford high insurance premiums. For these
people, micro insurances offer protection from economic shocks
and crises such as illness, accidents or natural disasters (cf.
Section 4 on social security). To spread the risks, there must
be a sufficient number of participants and risk exposure must
be spread as widely as possible. For example, health insurance
cannot function if the only people who have insurance are those
who are ill. Micro health insurance can be run effectively on a
self-help basis with little external support. This makes sense
particularly in places where the state has not created or does
not support suitable structures. Inter-regional cooperation and
collaboration with large insurance companies could help to even
out the social balance.
Welthungerhilfe’s involvement in relation to micro financial
services in developing countries:
Enabling training for our partners’ staff and the members of
MFIs. This includes training courses and communicating experiences in relation to supporting self-help groups, providing
fully planned training modules and exposure visits to model
projects and successful organisations.
Supporting the establishment of self-help structures on the
basis of savings and other financial activities.
Supporting the development of financial literacy of the target
groups. This includes contract and management issues as well
as advice on the use and repayment of loans.
Arranging and promoting contact to funding organisations,
MFIs and formal banks.
Subsidising and counselling partners to supplement funding for
productive and development-oriented application of loans.
Offering assistance to partners searching for refunding sources
for self-help groups and MFIs.
Supporting innovations in the field of micro financial services.
These include micro savings, credit cards, the use of non-cash
financial transfers in programmes for food security or self-help
based micro insurance approaches.
Welthungerhilfe’s demands relating to micro financial services:
Micro finance must not be misused as a new type of investment
In addition to credits and insurance, new financial services are
continually being set up as development tools. These include
mobile bank services (branchless banking) that enable customers to manage their accounts using SMS messages, as well
as savings models (e.g. for retirement provision or a housing
loan), credit cards (to provide a flexible way of bridging periods of low income) and leasing options (for large agricultural
investments).
Welthungerhilfe sees a fundamental conflict of roles between
the activities of a development-oriented NGO and an MFI. An
NGO’s primary role is to offer advice and support, aiming to
promote and strengthen its target groups. An MFI on the other
hand must behave as a business, whose existence is determined
by the market and by financial success. For this reason, Welthungerhilfe does not operate an MFI itself and usually does not
take on credit guarantees.
in the international financial market. The interest rates must be
used mainly to cover running costs.
Developing countries must shape their national financial structures so that they do not contribute to reinforcing economic
inequalities. Micro financial services must be regulated in a
poverty-oriented way.
Developing countries must establish a financial structure to suit
their needs, one that aims to supply liquidity in the real market
and does not just accelerate speculation.
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Position Paper: Rural Development
Section 6
The human right
to food
Not just a guideline
Abstract
Access to sufficient, appropriate food is a human right.
Governments of countries affected by hunger have the obligation to create the framework conditions to enable people to gain access to sufficient, nutritious and culturally
appropriate food.
Governments in the North have to evaluate the policy
measures of all their departments with respect to possible
exacerbation of hunger in other countries. Civil society in
both North and South should utilise the right to food as
an instrument for monitoring state actions, for demanding
suitable strategies to combat hunger and for ensuring that
they are implemented.
Within the framework of international agreements, governments
have the obligation to implement the right to appropriate food.
It is part of binding international law and set down in Article 11
of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights (social pact) of 1966. States have the obligation to respect, protect and guarantee the human right to food. In order
to promote the implementation of the covenant, the “Voluntary
Guidelines to Support the Progressive Realisation of the Right
to Adequate Food in the context of national food security” were
adopted by 187 states in the FAO Council in 2004. Access to
sufficient and appropriate food can be achieved by producing
one’s own food or by earning enough money to buy food. If this
is not possible, social security measures and emergency aid such
as cash payments or provision of food aid must take effect (cf.
Section 4 on social security). In these cases, it must be ensured
that the food distributed does not contain hazardous substances
and that it is culturally acceptable.
All states that have signed the Guidelines are directly bound
to the obligations derived from international agreements on
the right to food. This also has consequences for the work of
international aid organisations, whether governmental or nongovernmental. Emergency aid and development support in this
sense are more than just charity. On the contrary, industrialised
Position Paper: Rural Development
countries are obliged to support people in developing countries
in claiming their rights. National and international development
organisations must orient their work on the needs identified
by the people themselves and on the strategies undertaken by
governments in the affected countries to meet the requirements
of the right to food (e.g. Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers). At
the global level, the recommendations of the UN committee for
economic, social and cultural rights with regard to the human
right to food should be followed.
A programme approach oriented toward the right to food is needsbased. In the context of rural development, this includes:
Supporting locally adapted agricultural advisory services and
research
Supporting small-scale farming families and households
headed by women in producing food for their own needs
and for sale
Implementing poverty-oriented land reforms
Ensuring access to financial means and appropriate technologies
Special support for disadvantaged social groups
Setting up social security structures in rural areas.
The experience of Welthungerhilfe and its partners shows that project work and political work on the right to food can supplement
each other very effectively. Supporting sustainable agriculture and
rural development (e.g. setting up small-scale farming producer
groups and marketing groups or providing training in respect to
sustainable cultivation and appropriate nutrition) have a direct
effect on improving food security. Harmful framework conditions
can be identified within the context of development programmes.
Based on this, political lobbying can then focus on corrective measures to improve the situation. Governments must regulate land
rights issues; they are responsible to create market transparency
and set standards in food quality and safety. These are sovereign
state issues which should not be handled by private actors.
The right to food is an essential self-help tool. Poor and malnourished people gain a new self-awareness when they know
Section 6
they have a right to food. They are transformed from recipients of
charity into people with a say in their own future. In many countries affected by hunger, the state’s responsibility to ensure the
right to food has been substantiated by governments or courts.
Poor and marginalised people often do not know their rights or
how and where they can claim them. Here, international development organisations and local partners can provide support.
Even in countries where the right to food has not yet been given
concrete forms and cannot be claimed, civil society can still
hold the state to account. National and regional hunger indexes,
for example, can direct attention to the extent and causes of
hunger. Civil society reports on implementing the right to food
can document weaknesses in state action and cases of discrimination in access to appropriate food. In such reports, NGOs
can also frame strategies for meeting the challenges (cf. Section
8 on civil society).
The right to food strengthens the position of individuals vis-àvis their governments. Civil society has to seek dialogue with
the government in each case in order to lobby towards changes
on the ground. In view of often difficult framework conditions
local players know best the forms and intensity of possible political action. The scope of foreign organisations is very limited
in this respect, although these organisations can act as agents
for change in initiating processes for creating transparency and
building awareness of problems. They can provide funding to
initiate dialog and ensure follow-up. Another role of international
organisations is to ensure that partners in the South are heard
on the political level in the North. A responsible food policy
which promotes the right to food of all people everywhere is
required globally.
Obligation Description
Respect
Examples of failure to
comply
The state must not in- State expropriation of land
fringe on the right to without adequate compenfood
sation to those affected,
so that their livelihoods
are not secured
Protect
The state must ensure An investor overuses wathat third parties (e.g. ter resources to the extent
companies) do not in- that local agriculture is defringe on the human prived of water. The state
right to food
is aware of the situation
but takes no action
Guarantee The state must gradu- Particular social groups
ally introduce measures are not benefiting from
to ensure the right to state transfer payments
food for all
for securing people’s basic needs
Welthungerhilfe’s involvement in relation to the right to food:
Carrying out informative work on the right to food as a component in rural development programmes and projects.
Supporting partner organisations which use the right to food as
an instrument to evaluate their government’s activities and to
demand responsible strategies to combat hunger.
Carrying out civil society lobbying and awareness building in the
North to raise consciousness and find consensus that private
consumption, economic strategies and policy design must not
have negative impacts on the right to food in countries in the
South.
Welthungerhilfe’s demands in relation to promoting the global
right to food:
Donor countries should place the human right to food at the
core of their development policy for rural areas and intensify
consultancy and awareness-raising on the topics of land rights
and sustainable land use.
The governments of industrialised countries in particular must
put an end to all policies which infringe upon or endanger the
right to food for people in the South (e.g. agricultural export
subsidies or over-ambitious bio-energy targets).
International obligations on combating hunger must be fulfilled
(e.g. implementation of the Millennium Declaration).
Developing countries must give highest priority to combating
hunger.
Developing countries must implement the “Voluntary Guidelines
to Support the Progressive Realisation of the Right to Adequate
Food in the framework of their national food strategies”.
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Position Paper: Rural Development
Section 7
Gender justice
Equality for women as a driver for development
Abstract
Gender equality is a human right. Women are disadvantaged
in almost all societies and suffer discrimination in many
places. They perform the larger proportion of unpaid work,
particularly in rural areas. They often bear alone the burdens of running households, taking care of and bringing up
children as well as caring for the old and sick.
In Asia and Africa it is estimated that half of all food is
produced by women; in Latin America the figure is about
20 percent. This makes it particularly important to strengthen the position of women in countries affected by hunger.
Investments in women’s education and health are of great
significance in the battle against poverty.
Development efforts can only be successful when all actors (men and women) build on the active participation of
women – who usually form the most active population in
small-scale agriculture. Apart from recognising the value of
their work, securing their economical inclusion and ensuring
that they are receiving fair benefit from the fruits of their
work, it is also important to effectively reinforce women’s
rights to social and political participation. Gender justice is
essential to achieving sustainable rural development.
For all the diversity of women’s situations in developing countries, they have one thing in common: Their contribution to
the production and processing of local basic foods is always
decisive. Agriculture is becoming “feminised”, particularly in
regions where it provides only marginal income opportunities.
It is almost always women who care for particularly vulnerable
groups such as children, old people, the sick or disabled; they
also do almost all housework. At the same time, women are
disproportionately affected by poverty and hunger. The number
of women living below the poverty line has increased by half
since the 1970s, while the number of men affected has risen
by 30 percent. If the status of men and women were brought
into line, the number of malnourished children in South Asia
would decrease by 13.4 million and in Africa by 1.7 million.
Position Paper: Rural Development
In regions where women have a better position (education,
access to resources, income, political representation, legal status), they are better fed and can provide better for their families.
However, it is not enough to focus on the welfare of women and
their families. Women’s human rights overall must be put into
practice. Only then will women be able to participate in political
decision-making processes, articulate their own interests, earn
money and be self-sufficient. To achieve this, the power balance
between men and women must be resolutely shifted in favour
of women.
The empowerment of women has long been a goal of development cooperation. Gender mainstreaming is currently the most
popular instrument. Using this tool, development programmes
and projects are monitored and assessed in relation to their
effectiveness in promoting gender equality. This also applies in
cases where at first glance the decisions to be taken have nothing to do with gender issues. To give two examples: Would those
involved in a project prefer food or cash in return for their work?
Men usually go for the cash. Which crops should be cultivated?
Men usually prefer crops that can be exported.
Gender justice and equal opportunities must be part of all rural development programmes. In many societies, this entails
changing patterns in the division of labour. In most developing
countries, men are engaged in the cash economy while women
are responsible for the production of food and the household
tasks. Women need opportunities to take up formal and informal work outside the home. It is important in this context that
they do not end up in marginalised sectors but are given real
opportunities in the market. For fair competitiveness, support
especially in relation to their education and access to resources
is needed (cf. Sections 2 on the economy, 8 on civil society and
9 on access to land).
Awareness raising and capacity development are also required
to encourage women to make their voices heard on an equal
basis on all political and social issues. Educational opportunities
are just as vital in this context as in relation to strengthening
women’s’ economic position.
Section 7
In principle, the same options and freedom of action that men
expect must also be available to women. Men must learn to
share power and responsibility, this includes taking on tasks
which have previously been carried out by women. If this does
not occur, the economic inclusion of women will simply result
in an additional work burden. In general terms, men’s behaviour has a great influence on the achievement of gender justice.
This can be seen directly in regard to the welfare of women
and girls. Domestic violence decreases when the position of
women is strengthened. Less obviously, the general prosperity
of the household (including that of the men in it) increases
when women have a relatively strong position. This also applies
in cases where the man migrates to the city in order to improve
the family income.
Welthungerhilfe’s involvement in relation to empowering
women:
Gender justice is a crosscutting issue, i.e. in all Welthungerhilfe
supported projects and programmes the effects on the situation
of women and gender justice issues will be taken into consideration. This applies wherever possible, from situation analysis
and project planning through implementation to monitoring
and evaluation.
Strengthening women’s role as (agricultural) producers.
Enabling women to participate in political and social decisionmaking processes and to speak up for their own interests.
Supporting women’s networks and countering discrimination
against women.
Taking into account women’s particular needs e.g. in relation
Women’s rights also include their sexual self-determination and
reproductive health. One third of all illnesses affecting women of
childbearing age are due to problems of sexual and reproductive
health. To tackle this situation, women-oriented health care is
required and pregnancy and birth must be made safer (cf. Section 4 on social security). It is equally important to ensure that
women have a genuine right to self-determination so that they
also have a say in family planning. Of course this also requires
access to modern contraceptive methods and the necessary information.
to their budgeting of time, cultural factors (e.g. in relation to
travelling) or the necessity of childcare. This explicitly includes
planning and provision of necessary materials and funding.
Applying principles of gender equality to staff appointment
to positions in projects and programmes (e.g. women as trainers).
Ensuring that activities in project work do not simply result
in additional work for women. The aim is to make women’s
working days easier.
Welcoming the improvement of gender equality through the
application of quotas.
Welthungerhilfe’s demands in relation to gender equality and
equality for women:
Targeting support for women in countries affected by hunger.
Giving priority to investment in women’s education and health
in the context of combating poverty.
Strengthening women’s political and social participation as well
as their economic integration.
Working to decisively reduce gender-based differences of
access to education, health, markets, land, economic and
natural resources and political bodies.
Developing countries must ensure that there are no laws on the
books that are discriminatory against women. This is particularly important in relation to marital and family law, the law of
inheritance and the right to own or use land and capital.
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Position Paper: Rural Development
Section 8
Civil society
A key pillar of sustainability
Abstract
No development is possible until people are able to organise themselves; this is an essential foundation for selfdetermination and self-reliance. Civil society organisations
enable people to articulate their needs, pursue common
goals and so contribute to the shaping of political, social,
cultural and economic life. In rural areas the focus is usually
on providing social services, establishing institutional and
physical infrastructure and dealing with issues concerning
the use of natural resources and food security.
A strong civil society which participates in political processes and is actively involved in shaping development is
essential for progress. Citizens’ involvement is a significant
factor in establishing fair economic and social development,
fighting corruption and progressing towards gender equality,
sustainability, democracy and the rule of law.
For all the above reasons, it is important to promote civil
society organisations by strengthening self-help capacities
and support civil society’s ability to take part in political
dialogue. This applies also in emergency aid situations and
in fragile states. At the same time, the international community must increase political pressure on countries that
suppress the creation of an active civil society. Respect
for and exercising of human rights play a key role in this
regard.
Village councils, water committees, trade unions, farmers‘ organisations, cooperatives, village women’s meetings, NGOs and
religious communities are all civil society institutions securing
civic participation in social, economic, cultural and political
life. When people organise themselves, they identify and articulate their problems strongly and find better, more thoughtful
solutions. They can formulate their interests more precisely and
put them forward more emphatically; they can strengthen their
own and others’ awareness of their rights as well as take hold
of and defend their rights more effectively (cf. Section 6 on the
right to food).
Position Paper: Rural Development
Civil society’s self-organisation is important for self-confident
participation in political discourse. It expands the understanding
of democratic roles and processes. Civil society involvement
opens up new opportunities for discussions and negotiations
with state and international institutions. Civil society must become involved at local, regional, national and international levels
to shape sustainable development. In the context of a rightsbased approach, social security issues as well as institutional
and physical infrastructure are of particular importance, along
with all issues concerning natural resources and food security
(cf. Sections 9 on land, 10 on water and 11 on agro biodiversity). However, it is not easy for people in remote rural areas to
organise themselves on the regional or national level. In this
context, strengthening community-based organisations (CBOs)
is of particular importance.
A vital step is to involve public authorities and government bodies in the effort to improve living conditions sustainably so
that the establishment of social structures parallel to those of
the government are avoided; civil society organisations neither
can nor should take on the state’s responsibilities. However,
depending on how legitimate and effective the national government is, civil society organisations do take on important tasks
which may temporarily include services provided by the state.
This is particularly the case in fragile states (cf. Section 4 on
social security). In any case, state bodies must become accustomed to working with civil society organisations, because the
latter will gain in self-confidence in their watchdog function,
demanding transparency, accountability and the ensuring of
their rights. Conversely, an effective civil society is an essential
precondition for creating ownership (and hence sustainability) in
respect to the achieved social progress. Civil society involvement
is a significant factor for economic and social development, for
fighting corruption and for progress towards gender equality,
sustainability, democracy and the rule of law (cf. Section 7 on
gender equality).
In order to shape development in their interest, people, organisations and societies must have sufficient capacity. Development
of this capacity takes place on political, social, institutional
Section 8
and individual levels. Spreading of information and awarenessraising should be included in school education and vocational
training as well as in training programmes of staff in NGOs
and state institutions. Comprehensive processes are necessary
to implement capacity development successfully. NGOs must
be strengthened in their competencies in recognising and describing problems, planning and administration for monitoring
progress. In order to work effectively, they must be familiar with
the legal issues and able to recognise und utilise options. The
ability to think and act in economic categories is also important
for promoting rural development. Social skills such as effective
communication and conflict management are also required.
Welthungerhilfe’s involvement in relation to strengthening civil
society:
Supporting self-organisation and management skills as well as
technical infrastructure of local NGOs and self-help groups.
Promoting dialogue and mutual learning.
Supporting cooperatives, trade unions, NGOs and local selfhelp structures as part of (self-reliant) civil society, identifying
and strengthening their self-help potential. This also applies in
emergency aid situations and in fragile states.
Promoting communication skills between local NGOs and selfhelp groups as well as strengthening their capacity for dialogue
and assertiveness in claiming their rights.
A lively civil society requires networking of individual organisations. This enables the different groups to learn from each other
and to enter into powerful dialogue with relevant actors (e.g.
public authorities, scientific institutions, politicians or companies). When organisations work together it increases their impact
(critical mass). Networks are helpful in developing strategies for
rural development and solutions to conflicts. They also provide
platforms for organized advocacy.
Supporting programmes and projects for policy monitoring, lobbying and advocacy work.
Supporting activities for the mobilisation of resources and fundraising.
Supporting the networking of NGOs at local, regional, national
and international levels to share experiences and to strengthen
their capacity for influencing politics. At the same time, the involvement of NGOs from the South will be facilitated in respect
to international debates on development policy in the North.
Collaboration with partners in the South on equal terms is often
the result of a long process of cooperation. However, partnerships with civil society organisations in the South are both the
foundation and the goal of supporting self-help oriented development processes. Dialogue, solidarity, respect and mutual learning are the basis of capacity development. Cooperation based
on mutual respect helps to identify the needs of the people on
the ground, to ensure their rights and to encourage democratic
behaviour.
In fragile states where the rule of law is not prevalent, trust in civil society organisations and their ways of working is particularly
important. In this context, attention must be given to preventing
violence. In both fragile and authoritarian states, the influence
of civil society structures is very limited. Although civil society
is exceptionally important in these two situations, it is usually
underdeveloped and often harassed by powerful elites.
Welthungerhilfe’s demands in relation to successful civil society involvement in rural development:
Donor countries must make sufficient funding available for
sustainable, planned, effective support for NGOs which is not
subject to any political or economic conditionality.
Donor countries should take into account the concerns of organised civil society groups; this will make ownership of development possible.
Developing countries must establish legal regulations which
enable NGOs to pursue their justified concerns without disproportionate legal or formal obstacles.
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Position Paper: Rural Development
Section 9
Land
Fundamental to survival and a resource
for rural development
Abstract
Land is used in many different ways: for forestry, agriculture and grazing as well as for settlements and infrastructure. It comprises important natural habitats and
mineral resources. The pressure on land has increased
enormously, leading to conflicts of interest. In order to
avoid conflicts and settle them peaceably, it is essential
that participative, future-oriented land use planning be
established under the authority of the state. In this process, land rights – including traditional rights – must be
taken into account.
On the basis of proper planning, targets for different forms
of land use can be formulated. In the context of rural development, agriculture is the main issue. People’s sustainable
food security and right to food must have priority. At the
same time, soil fertility must be maintained or improved,
natural reserves must be protected and the sealing of fertile
land minimised.
Investments in land and land use policy must be in harmony
with the right to food. People must be supported in dealing
with land ownership issues and the management of conflicts
over land. At the political level, commitment to the creation
and implementation of internationally accepted guidelines
is a significant factor in supporting poverty-oriented access
to land and other natural resources.
Land has more than one essential function for rural development.
The primary function is the economic dimension, which includes
the production of food, feed and industrial or energy crops, as
well as forestry products. However, the way in which these crops
are grown is relevant. A wide range of socio-economic factors
results in very diverse farming systems, with different effects on
land. Wrong cultivation practices can result in loss of agricultural land; investment in irrigation or drainage systems, terracing
and erosion protection can improve land, making it more productive. The most important target is to maintain soil fertility
(cf. Section 1 on agriculture).
Position Paper: Rural Development
Important socio-economic functions of land relate to property
rights and land-use rights. These are building assets and constitute a certain level of social security. In many cases, land
use rights – particularly traditional rights – are not sufficiently
recorded, registered and certified, or they contradict modern
land rights. Secure, poverty-oriented access to land is, however,
an essential factor in food security and in realising the right to
food. In this context, customary law must also be taken into
account. Women are often particularly disadvantaged in their
access to land (cf. Section 7 on gender equality). Land use rights
of indigenous communities are often undocumented or insufficiently documented. However, distribution of property titles is
not always an adequate solution to providing poverty-oriented
access to land; during the title-giving process marginalised population groups are often disadvantaged. Hunter-gatherer societies or pastoralists do not require titles to land, but recognition
of their user rights.
Unused arable land is virtually nonexistent today, and continuing to turn forest areas into arable land is often considered
an unacceptable alternative. The rising demand for agricultural
land is causing an increase in conflicts over an increasingly
valuable resource. On the one hand, division and fragmentation of arable land is observed, mainly due to population
growth and unfavourable inheritance rules (equal division of
land among inheritors). At the same time, marginal land and
land which cannot be mechanically cultivated is losing value.
On the other hand, there is a trend towards concentration of
property in the hands of a few financially solvent investors who
buy large fertile areas or lease them long-term. Such investors
often benefit from the fact that property and user rights are
often insufficiently clear in the target country or that public
authorities and local elites allocate areas arbitrarily. This often
leads to so-called land grabbing. In some cases, problems arise
from the incompatibility between modern and traditional land
use policy. Corruption is frequently massive in relation to land
allocation. Considering the increasing potential for conflict, it is
necessary to give food security for the local population priority
over secondary interests such as maximising profits or earning
foreign currency.
Section 9
Pressure on the resource land is also increasing from growth
of the national economy. Cities are growing rapidly all over the
world, hence there is a need to balance the interests of urban
and rural populations. Efforts should be made to ensure that the
loss of agricultural land is avoided as far as possible. This also
applies to constructing infrastructure, in particular large dams
or industrial parks.
Welthungerhilfe’s involvement in relation to access to land:
In social and cultural terms, land also unites a range of functions: land rights and land use often reflect the development
stage and the power structure of a rural society. It reflects the
relative status of the various groups. Poverty-oriented, participative and socially balanced land use planning is a precondition
for the peaceful coexistence of people and their various forms of
land use. Only if all those involved are able to participate in the
process can conflicts be identified and worked on in advance.
Special attention must be paid to the food security of particularly vulnerable and marginalised groups.
Supporting efforts to avoid and to solve land (use) conflicts.
Focusing project support on maintaining soil fertility and sustainable use of soils – in particular by supporting measures to
protect natural resources and promote the sustainable use of
soils.
Supporting environmentally friendly methods of reclamation
and melioration of unused land.
Promoting legal advice and raising awareness; in particular,
promoting women’s rights and access to land.
Help rural poor affected by land ownership conflicts to secure
land rights, and if necessary, improve their access to land.
Supporting programmes to ensure the livelihoods of people
living in and on the fringes (buffer zones) of nature reserves.
Supporting the political work of our partners in the South on
land rights issues and supporting victims of land grabbing.
Welthungerhilfe’s demands in relation to access to land:
Finally, land fulfils basic environmental services. Natural reserves are habitats for a diversity of biological life. It is important
to maintain the soil’s natural functions – primarily protecting
biodiversity and storing nutrients and water, thus preserving
soil fertility (cf. Section 10 on water). There is also a range of
functional links between soils and the climate, which should be
taken into account in land use planning. Intact soils can store
CO2 whereas degraded land has lost this function (cf. Section
14 on climate change). For all these reasons it is essential to
use natural resource land in an economically, socially, culturally
and ecologically sustainable way.
Developing countries need poverty-oriented participative land
use planning in order to balance the diverse user interests and
to prevent possible conflicts.
Governments must enforce national regulations on land rights
based on the “Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests”.
Governments of developing countries – with the support of international donors – should establish land registers and ensure
transparency and reliability in granting land ownership.
Land investments and land use planning should be undertaken
in such a way that they have sustainable positive effects on
rural development and poverty reduction and are compatible
with the right to food.
Maintenance of soil fertility should be given priority over shortterm business interests.
Land reform should ensure that poorer sections of the population and in particular women are granted more equitable access
to land and that the special situations of indigenous communities are taken into account.
Developing countries must set up and implement laws and
guidelines for promoting poverty-oriented access to land.
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Position Paper: Rural Development
Section 10
Access to water
Making it equitable and efficient
Abstract
Water is life. Access to water is a human right. Yet around
900 million people worldwide have to survive without clean
drinking water and 2.6 billion do not have even the most
basic sanitary facilities. Each year, 1.9 million people die of
diarrhoeal diseases as a consequence of drinking polluted
water. The right to water security aims to counter this situation: it states that every person should have guaranteed
access to adequate quantities of clean water at all times.
This limits the use of water as a commodity for profit.
By far the largest amount of water worldwide is used for
the irrigation of agricultural crops. Of those who have to
survive without clean drinking water and sanitary facilities,
80 percent live in rural areas in developing or emerging
countries.
Rural development policy must concentrate on both supplying water to the population and providing sufficient water
for agricultural requirements. Hence an integrated management approach to water use is essential. In order to ensure
this, all sections of the society must have a voice in planning
investments in infrastructure for water supply and for waste
water disposal as well as in respect to the management of
the necessary related services at the local level.
can lead to wasteful use in irrigation, for example. It is important
to consider water supply together with basic sanitary and hygiene requirements (integrating water, sanitation and hygiene in
the WaSH concept). Only then will the development targets with
respect to health care be attainable. This entails setting up and
operating toilet facilities and appropriate hygiene measures. Service structures must be established to ensure the management
and operation of water and wastewater infrastructures (wells,
pumps, reservoirs, dams, sewage systems etc.). This includes
local self-help structures as well as private and public service
providers. Water supply management should be inclusive, i.e.
complying with social criteria (social water management) so that
the poor also have an adequate water supply (cf. Section 8 on
civil society).
Sixty-nine percent of fresh water is used to irrigate about 17
percent of global agricultural land – and in countries where water
is scarce, the rate can be up to 90 percent. These areas produce
40 percent of the world’s total harvest. As the demand for agricultural products rises, fertile areas with an assured water supply
(rainfall or irrigation) will become increasingly important. One of
the main reasons for large-scale purchases of land in Africa is
the availability of water there (cf. Section 9 on land). Extreme
weather events due to climate change due to climate change
will lead to increasing difficulties in securing access to water for
agricultural production (cf. Section 14 on climate change).
Water is subject to diverse demands: it is used for drinking,
hygiene, food production and various commercial and industrial
purposes, e.g. as a coolant, an auxiliary material or for energy
storage. Waterways are often used for transport and to provide
energy. Four fifths of the people who have no access to clean
water and sanitary facilities live in rural areas in developing
countries.
The fact that a considerable amount of water is wasted must
also be taken into account. In industrialised countries, around
25 percent of water is lost in the distribution system. The losses
in developing countries can be up to 50 percent. Irrigation of
crops is also often very wasteful. On only 11 to 16 percent of the
irrigated land worldwide, efficient systems (sprinklers, microirrigation or drip irrigation systems) are used.
Water supplies should aim at ensuring the right to water security:
Everybody should have ensured access to adequate quantities
of clean water (WHO standard) at all times. Water should be
affordable and delivery should be reliable. Proper pricing should
be designed to promote efficient water use. Free access to water
Investment in irrigated agriculture, water retention and storage
(cisterns, retention ponds, dams, water harvesting techniques)
should be implemented in a socially balanced way and should be
planned and managed in a participatory manner. The structures
and systems should be operated preferably by the users or user
Position Paper: Rural Development
Section 10
groups and special training should be an integral part of the
investments. This is particularly important because incorrectly
operated irrigation systems can result in permanent, irreversible
soil degradation, and agriculture can also cause water pollution.
Site-specific agriculture can make an important contribution
to water protection: Soil improvement measures increase the
soil’s water storage capacity and control erosion. Suitable vegetation cover slows down water run-off, hence it contributes
to erosion prevention and renewal of groundwater. Additional
efforts are needed to improve efficiency in rain-fed agriculture
– site-specific agriculture takes this into account (cf. Section 1
on agriculture).
Welthungerhilfe’s involvement in promoting equitable and efficient access to water in developing countries:
Supporting integrated water and watershed management.
The establishment or rehabilitation of irrigation systems are
supported, however, projects to increase the efficiency of rainfed agriculture are more important and are especially focused
on.
Promoting the rational and appropriate use of water in agriculture (avoiding waste and salinization).
Promoting water retention and water storage systems (e.g. retention ponds, dykes, water harvesting) and small hydroelectric
power stations.
Supporting the construction and rehabilitation of water sup-
In water scarce areas disputes about its use often lead to conflicts which may turn violent. Disputes of this kind could arise
on the basis of ethnic origin; they also occur between states (e.g.
countries bordering the Nile). On the other hand, treaties and
agreements on joint water use may lead to better neighbourly
relations (Manu River Union).
ply and wastewater disposal systems. The target group’s basic
sanitary requirements and hygiene measures will be equally
taken into account.
At the planning stage water projects take into account local
conditions and the expected demand (drinking water, water for
other uses, agricultural usage).
Supporting conflict mediation in respect to water rights dis-
Finally, water can also be a source of risk to people, particularly in the form of flooding. Extreme weather events can cause
considerable problems and damage (e.g. mudslides, droughts).
However, the greatest health risk is caused by pollution of drinking water. The WHO estimates that 1.9 million deaths each year
are due to water-related illnesses, mainly diarrhoeal diseases
– typhus, cholera, dysentery and diarrhoea caused by coliform
bacteria.
putes.
Welthungerhilfe’s demands in relation to the equitable and sustainable access to water in developing countries:
All those involved in development cooperation should link water
management and food security.
National and international donors should be more willing to
plan and implement water projects, not only in the context of
emergency and rehabilitation aid.
The international community needs agreements which ensure
the peaceful use of joint water resources (above all surface
water, but also including groundwater sources).
Developing countries should integrate programmes for drinking
water treatment and storage into drinking water schemes.
Developing countries need legal regulations which ensure equitable access to water and for preventing conflicts. At the same
time, socially acceptable price policies should ensure that water is used efficiently.
Developing countries should protect their water catchment
areas and water sources from pollution and over-use (e.g. by
setting up water pollution control areas). Regulations can be
made more workable by appropriate land use planning and
decentralised water management.
16/12
Position Paper: Rural Development
Section 11
biodiversity and
agro biodiversity
Protecting, utilising and preserving
Abstract
Biodiversity and agro biodiversity are of fundamental importance to sustainable food security. The multitudes of life
in fields, meadows, forests, rivers and lakes, on the coasts
and in the oceans are essential to human survival, whether
directly utilised or not. Biodiversity and agro biodiversity are
the basis of the ecosystem services which nature provides.
The wide range of natural income sources, the contribution
of ecosystems to the purification of air and water and the
reservoir of medical substances are all examples of these
services.
The destruction of natural habitats and the related loss of
species of plants, animals and microorganisms is a cause
for great concern. The variety of human food is reduced
to a few species of plants and animals and the loss of diversity within the different species of crops and domestic
animals limits our possibilities of reacting to food security
challenges.
The preservation of the diversity of species and varieties
must be integral to development policy agendas. Participative breeding and development of seeds which are appropriate for (small-scale) farmers play an important part
in this task. The farmers’ rights (to reproduce his/her own
seeds from patented varieties), the breeder’s right and the
freedom of research (to use a patented variety to breed a
new variety) must be reflected in the national seed laws
in developing countries and in the relevant international
agreements.
The production of food crops in developing countries rose between 1961 and 2001 from 800 million tonnes to 2.2 billion tonnes (FAO 2011). The green revolution in the 1960s,
which brought the development of high-yielding crop varieties,
investment in irrigation, increased use of agrochemicals and the
promotion of mechanisation, made a significant contribution
to this increase. However, these achievements came at a high
price. Intensive agriculture has resulted in the degradation of
Position Paper: Rural Development
fertile areas in many places as well as overuse of ground water,
increasing pest infestations, pollution of air, water and soil and
not least to a reduction in (agro) biodiversity. Only two crop
species (rice, wheat) provide 50 percent of human nutrition
requirements worldwide. At the same time the genetic variety
within each species is continually declining.
The genetic variety of species and varieties is particularly important in regions with a wide range of weather events. A large
agricultural gene pool is vital in order to be able to adapt to the
increasing environmental changes (e.g. more rainy seasons, irregular rainy seasons, periods of droughts and extreme precipitation or infestations of pests and disease). The diversity of species
and varieties cultivated and robust domestic animals reduce the
risk of losing an entire food base in bad years. Preserving agro
biodiversity – including related knowledge on cultivation needs
of species – is part of risk prevention and constitutes a decisive
element in food security (cf. Section 14 on climate change).
Commercial breeders concentrate their efforts on a few crop species and on a few high yielding genotypes within that spectrum.
To use its potentials fully, these breeds need standardised cultivation conditions and the plants must receive optimum care,
particularly in relation to water, fertiliser and pesticides. Additionally, economic constraints require the cultivation of large
areas. This results in the expansion of an inappropriate type of
industrialised agriculture which contributes to the impoverishment of the natural environment.
Linking commercial crop breeding to the (ex-situ) preservation of genetic resources through a state-financed gene bank is
not an adequate solution for farmers in developing countries.
Required is in-situ preservation and ongoing breeding of crops
to enable continuous, location specific adaptation to changing
environmental conditions. This refers not only to the main food
crops but to traditional local crop species, medicinal plants and
domestic animal breeds as well.
More than a billion small-scale farmers, fishermen and livestock
owners can make a significant contribution to the conservation
of biodiversity. They have already done this in two ways. On the
Section 11
one hand, they have created a huge pool of genetic diversity
over a period of 12,000 years which is an essential source for
breeding new crops and animals. On the other hand they have
decisively shaped their local environments and enriched the
natural environment through a multitude of farming systems
(e.g. various agricultural systems and crop sequences, terracing, selective use, cultivation of marginal lands, wetlands and
forests).
So it seems obvious that those rural communities which actually use the genetic diversity of crops and locations should be
the ones in charge of safeguarding, caring for and developing
it in the future. Traditionally, women play an important part
in the breeding of seed, maintenance of seed variety and experimentation with new varieties. Participative plant breeding,
i.e. the direct cooperation of breeders and farmers, explicitly
focuses on keeping a wide gene pool of seeds or seed mixtures
used for cultivation. The cooperation of farmers with international research institutions and private seed companies would
ensure sustainable access to adapted, high-quality seeds while
the breeding results would remain in the farmers’ hands and
the necessary knowledge could be preserved and developed.
Experience has shown that farmers often have extensive knowledge of ways to reduce cultivation risks efficiently (selection
of species, varieties and cultivation methods). For this reason,
farmers’ rights to breed and cultivate their own seeds must be
ensured, as well as free access for scientists to patented seed
varieties for research.
Welthungerhilfe’s involvement in preserving biodiversity:
Supporting projects for the sustainable management of areas
on the periphery of wildlife parks and nature reserves. This
includes measures to reduce poaching and illegal land use
within the natural reserves. The aim is to create alternative
income sources (e.g. tourism) to increase the local population’s
acceptance of preserving biological resources.
Supporting awareness-raising in relation to the importance of
biodiversity and conservation of natural resources.
Supporting farmers’ organisations and social movements which
are involved in safeguarding agro biodiversity (plants and animals).
Promoting farming systems which are directed towards diversified production (e.g. local varieties, diverse livestock breeds
and crop species, medicinal plants, perennial crops).
Promoting farmers’ networks to exchange seeds and knowledge
about breeding methods.
Supporting seed banks and seed production for safeguarding
agro biodiversity as well as breeding of local livestock races
and crop species.
Welthungerhilfe’s demands in relation to the preserving of biodiversity in developing countries:
Preserving the diversity of species and varieties is a task for the
whole of society. Nature reserves and public gene banks must
be set up where necessary.
In order to preserve agro biodiversity, freedom of research, the
farmers’ rights and breeder’s right must be ensured: These
Site-specific agriculture is usually environmentally friendly, but
it must also provide social and economic security for well over
one billion people. Yield losses resulting from public services
to protect nature and safeguard biodiversity must therefore be
compensated. Where this cannot be achieved through higher
market prices for their produce, the costs for the protection of
plants and animals must be borne by transfer payments from
public funds.
rights must be recognised in international agreements and in
the laws in developing countries.
The protection and increase of the diversity of species and
varieties should be on the agenda of development policy. Farmers’ own breeding efforts play a significant role. The in-situ
preservation of agro biodiversity must be recognised as breeders’ service.
The development of farming skills such as livestock breeding,
seed breeding, production, testing and marketing of seeds must
be given greater prominence in projects.
The partnership between farmers and breeders and exchange
of knowledge between farmers in different countries to develop
successful adaptation and preservation strategies should be
promoted.
Farmers must be compensated for their achievements in preserving biodiversity if this results in reduced yields.
Plant species, medicinal plants and livestock breeds which
have been neglected must be promoted to increase their economic value.
16/12
Position Paper: Rural Development
Section 12
Green genetic
engineering
Sustainable usefulness not yet proved
Abstract
Pressure for increased efficiency in agriculture is rising as
global food requirements increase and the demand for agrobased products is growing. Genetic engineering can make a
significant contribution to increasing and stabilising agricultural yields. But can genetic modified of agricultural crops
also play a central part in providing food security for the
rural poor? Facing the insufficiency of scientific knowledge
in relation to the opportunities and risks of this technology
and based on project experience of its partners in developing countries Welthungerhilfe has come to the following
conclusion:
A sustainable increase in income for small-scale farmers in
developing countries has so far hardly been proved; nor is
there evidence of a significant contribution to reducing hunger. On the other hand, genetic engineering entails the risk
of economic dependency and social exclusion. In addition,
ecological diversity and sustainability are in danger due to
uncontrolled transgenic releases, and health risks have not
been sufficiently researched.
In view of the lack of consensus regarding the evaluation
of benefits and risks of genetic engineering for agriculture,
Welthungerhilfe promotes existing technological options for
efficient site-specific agriculture and will continue not to
recommend the application of genetically modified seeds
in its projects and programmes until a broad consensus has
been reached that their positive social, economic and ecological usefulness outweighs the risks. The dissemination
of genetically modified food and seeds is excluded from our
aid deliveries as far as possible.
The rising demand for agricultural goods is a real challenge for
plant breeding. Scientists and politicians claim that genetic engineering will provide higher, more reliable yields despite shortages of fertile land and water. In the future, genetic engineering
should make a decisive contribution to food security and to fulfilling the rising demand for agro-based resources. Plants have
Position Paper: Rural Development
already been genetically modified to enrich them with nutrients,
to avoid nutrient deficiencies in people’s diets.
From the perspective of development policy, agriculture must
meet two main requirements: it must provide food for all and
make a significant contribution to poverty reduction. This means
that in addition to increased, reliable yields, additional basic
demands are placed on new plant breeds (cf. Section 1 on agriculture):
Seeds must be affordable to small-scale farmers with low
purchasing power and they must lead to increased income.
Seeds which cannot be reproduced by the farmers themselves create dependency on seed companies, a fact which
needs to be taken into consideration; seeds must also be
available in remote areas.
Ecologically sustainable and socio-culturally adapted agricultural practices must not be adversely affected by squeezing out traditional cultivation methods.
The coexistence of traditional and genetically modified
plants must be ensured. Where both varieties are planted
next to each other, it must be possible to distinguish between
them. This also applies to separate processing of agricultural
produce and food marketing. So far, the ecological and legal
consequences of spontaneous out-breeding of genetically
modified plants and mixing in food production are not fully
clear.
The risks for human health and for diversity of species must
not be greater than for conventional breeds.
So far, green genetic engineering has produced very few products
which fulfil these requirements. Hardly any long-term research
in relation to sustainable poverty reduction for small-scale farmers in developing countries has taken place. Breeding genetically modified seeds usually focuses on resistance to insects
and herbicides, which is mainly of significance in industrialised
agriculture. Welthungerhilfe’s target groups, however, produce
primarily for their own requirements or local markets. They do
this in diverse farming systems which are highly labour intensive, including diversified cultivation practises and a wide range
Section 12
of species and varieties but using little capital. For this reason
they cannot really benefit from the potentials of genetically modified varieties; income increases due to the use of genetically
modified seeds are usually small; they may even be negative in
the long run.
The introduction of breeding protection and patents on plants
has resulted in a rapid increase in private company breeding
in recent decades. For centuries, the results of breeding were
a public good which could be used by all farmers. Nowadays,
farmers are increasingly losing control of their seeds. This particularly affects women farmers in their function as the main
preservers of seeds. The traditions of production and storage of
seed and free exchange between farmers is becoming increasingly restricted. Patents protect genetically modified seeds from
being reproduced; through hybridisation of seeds and terminating genes even for farmers’ own use a reproduction is in most
cases not possible. This creates a strong dependency on one or a
few private seed producers (cf. Section 11 on agro biodiversity).
This trend seems irreversible at present, because there is too
little public research in genetic engineering to counter privately
financed agricultural research.
Guidelines for Welthungerhilfe’s involvement in rural areas in
relation to green genetic engineering:
Promoting agriculture which focuses on site-specific cultivation
methods and improved inputs for market production.
At present, no genetically engineered products will be used in
our projects, nor will their use be supported until there is clear
scientific evidence of an overall benefit for people and the environment from genetically modified plants and seeds.
Welthungerhilfe will exclude genetically modified food and
seeds when distributing relief supplies (e.g. through spot
checks).
Empowerment of local partner organisations in respect to sitespecific agriculture will be supported. This also includes transparent discussion on genetic engineering.
Integrating experience and demands of local partners into the
policy dialogue with industrialised countries (advocacy).
Welthungerhilfe’s demands in relation to the role of green genetic engineering in rural development:
Politicians, scientists and private industry must hold an open,
transparent debate on genetic engineering which can be followed by producers and consumers alike.
The debate on green genetic engineering lacks transparency.
Reliable information about the state of research, potentials, risks
and approval procedures is hard to find. The public debate is
dominated by the conflicting interests of research, marketing
and environmental protection. It often takes place in a heated
ideological context. This is not a satisfactory basis on which
consumers, farmers and policy-makers in developing countries
can make free, qualified decisions for or against genetic engineering. It is almost impossible for the respective bodies in
developing countries to assess the benefits as well as ecological
and health-related effects of genetic engineering due to lack of
reliable information, let alone access to a suitable techniques
for testing of the products.
Green genetic engineering is an expensive technology. Up to
now, it has been designed for the requirements of agriculture
in industrialised and emerging economies, with very few exceptions. In fact, most small-scale farmers could increase their
yields and incomes more efficiently by using conventional farming practises and support structures. This would include improved local plant breeding, investment in infrastructure, water
management, post-harvest protection, establishing sustainable
production and marketing structures, and access to loans and
increased value creation through processing and marketing (cf.
Sections 2 on the economy and 5 on micro financial services).
The safeguarding of biodiversity must be in the focus of plant
breeding and cultivation. Risks (above all to health and environment) entailed in genetic engineering must be systematically
determined through appropriate, neutral testing including longterm observations.
More research into green genetic engineering should be carried
out with public funds in developing countries (e.g. by national
agricultural research institutes) involving farmers. Research
into genetic engineering, however, should not lead to the neglect of other plant breeding methods.
If both genetically modified and conventional plants are cultivated, it must be possible to distinguish clearly between them
during cultivation and throughout the production and value
chain process.
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Position Paper: Rural Development
Section 13
Energy
The issue of the future
Abstract
A reliable energy supply is the basis of both economic and
social development (e.g. for communications and health
care). Even today, 1.6 billion people have no access to
electricity supply. Rural development needs energy, although increasing energy consumption still entails increasing
greenhouse gas emissions. The local use of renewable energy sources must therefore be the main option in overcoming
energy shortages in the context of pro-poor green growth. It
is the key for combining economic and social development
with environmental protection goals. Nevertheless, the cultivation of energy crops for export has so far brought more
harm than good to poor populations in the countries of the
South. The cultivation of energy plants is only legitimate if
it can be proved to have no adverse consequences on the
human right to food.
Around two billion people worldwide are dependent on firewood
and charcoal as their main energy sources, above all in rural
areas. Collecting and chopping wood can take several hours’
work per day in arid rural regions. In Africa alone, almost half
a million people – mostly women and girls – die annually from
health problems caused by open fires in insufficiently ventilated
rooms. A dramatic overuse of wood resources is taking place
(particularly in arid areas and near cities) leading to soil erosion
and the loss of water reserves (cf. Section 9 on land and Section
10 on water). An initial step to improving the situation would be
to use wood and charcoal more efficiently. This is an important
step because introducing new, preferably renewable energy sources is a long-term process. Introducing fuel-efficient stoves and
regulating charcoal burning are important interim stages on the
way to developing sustainable energy supplies for rural areas.
Information and training on saving energy are also important. In
regions where heating is needed, building insulation contributes
to a rational use of energy.
Development requires energy – this also applies to rural areas.
For economic growth, increasing energy consumption and rising
greenhouse gas emissions are inevitable in developing countries
Position Paper: Rural Development
for the foreseeable future (cf. Section 14 on climate change).
Appropriate energy solutions based on existing technologies can
help to combat poverty and hunger. They contribute to improving social services, the use of energy in households becomes
more effective and healthier, transport costs are reduced and
access to modern information and communications technologies
improves.
Around 80 percent of household energy consumption in developing countries is used for cooking and lighting. Nevertheless it
is important to expand modern, sustainable forms of local energy
generation in rural areas to enable productive use. Agricultural
production requires energy; post harvest activities, such as food
processing, and the rural crafts also benefit from energy provision. In this way the feed-in or locally generated energy can be
used to create value (cf. Section 2 on the economy).
Decentralized energy solutions are particularly interesting for rural areas. There are still huge areas without inter-regional energy
supply networks (electricity, gas) available for the foreseeable
future. Local, sustainable energy generation must make use of
all the available potentials (water, sun, biomass, geothermal
sources etc.) and determine the most suitable form of energy
generation or the best energy mix. In this context, it is necessary to be aware that all modern forms of energy generation are
complex and require expertise and trained personnel to operate
them effectively.
At first sight, the idea of cultivating energy crops for agro-fuels in
developing countries (as well) seemed appealing. Industrialised
countries have a lively interest in the large-scale cultivation of
energy crops in order to reduce their dependency on oil and
to improve their CO2 emissions. However, the contribution of
agro-fuels to reducing CO2 emissions is a controversial topic;
change in land use – for example, deforestation of intact forests
to cultivate energy crops – may result in a negative CO2 balance
(cf. Section 14 on climate change).
The rapid expansion of areas used for the large-scale cultivation
of agro-fuel in the countries of the South is already causing con-
Section 13
siderable damage. Firstly, this is due to the competition between
the cultivation of energy plants and food crops. The issues of
concern here are access to land and water, provision of labour
and inputs such as fertiliser, pesticides and herbicides, but also
state subsidy programmes, resources for research and finally
capital. Secondly, the cultivation of fuel crops is dominated by
industrialised agriculture. Small-scale farmers cannot compete
and are driven out (cf. Sections 1 on agriculture, 9 on land and
10 on water). In this way, the cultivation of energy crops leads
directly and indirectly to infringement of the human right to
food. In addition, food prices are soaring – and the demand for
energy crops is accelerating this trend.
Using energy locally can provide considerable increases in
income. Ideally, the necessary biomass is a by-product (after
harvest) or it is produced in small-scale cultivation and is appropriate to local conditions. It should on no account endanger
the people’s food security. The local population’s use (such as
making electricity or running combustion engines on vegetable
oil) must have priority over energy exports. This type of solution
is possible in a decentralised set-up and can often be developed
from existing technologies. Key technologies such as fuel distillation must be developed and simplified. Biogas installations are
currently proving very successful. They are fairly complicated to
construct but do not compete with food cultivation in terms of
area and hardly in terms of water. They not only produce energy;
they also help to compost vegetable waste and /or animal dung
to make better quality fertiliser. In this way, this technology can
contribute to improving agricultural productivity.
Welthungerhilfe’s involvement in relation to energy poverty in
developing countries:
Promoting energy-saving measures such as energy-efficient
ovens in households and commercial contexts.
Supporting the introduction of modern forms of energy generation, preferably renewable energy using adapted technologies
(photovoltaics, small hydroelectric power stations, wind energy,
biogas).
Promoting energy production by small-scale farmers if it is proved to increase the target groups' income, does not compete
with the cultivation of food crops and is produced using sustainable cultivation methods.
Welthungerhilfe’s demands in relation to energy poverty in
developing countries:
Industrial countries must not impede global food security
through their energy targets (estimating the consequences of
policies). Developing countries must also give priority to the
right to food and, if necessary, reject demands for bio-energy
and bio-fuels.
Industrial countries must increase the technology transfer with
developing countries. This includes training experts as well
as research into and further development of locally adapted
modern forms of energy generation and use.
The energy requirements of rural areas should be taken into
account in developing countries in their state energy supply
concepts – including in large-scale projects.
National standards and international agreements must ensure
that the production of agro-fuels is socially, economically and
ecologically justifiable. These should be mainly used locally
and their cultivation must not infringe upon the human right
to food.
Importing agricultural produce from developing countries, in
particular energy plants, should only be acceptable if the production can be shown to be sufficiently social and ecologically
satisfactory.
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Position Paper: Rural Development
Section 14
Climate change
A global threat to rural development in the South
Abstract
Through its emissions (mainly of carbon dioxide, nitrogen
oxides and methane), humanity is triggering a greenhouse
gas effect which is causing long-term global warming. Climate change is threatening development chances of the
rural poor, although their direct contribution to the causes
is very small. Climate change is becoming a growing threat
to rural populations. Some consequences can already be
foreseen, such as reduced agricultural productivity, increasing risks of extreme weather events and the spread of new
diseases affecting people, livestock and crops.
It is important therefore that developing countries take adaptive measures to retain agricultural production and increase the resilience particularly of the poorer sections of the
population to climate change. International climate policy
must shape climate mitigation and adaptation strategies in
such a way that they contribute to reducing poverty and improve food security. Industrial nations, mainly responsible
for global warming, should take on the obligation to bear
most of the burden of reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
The impacts of climate change on rural development and agriculture will differ from region to region. A temperature rise of
just one or two degrees Celsius causes a measurable increase of
seasonal droughts in tropical and subtropical areas. Fluctuations
in rainfall and more frequent extreme weather events are direct
challenges for those affected. In the long run, increasing dryness
particularly in arid areas means that the land must be used differently and certain areas will no longer be suitable for agriculture
at all. Because most developing countries are located in tropical
and subtropical regions, they are disproportionately affected by
global climate change. In Africa, and in the high mountainous
regions of Asia and South America, a considerable decline in
agricultural yields is anticipated. In this context the issue of land
use rights gains a new significance (cf. Section 9 on land).
The availability of water will be less in many locations, particularly in developing countries. It can already be foreseen that in
Position Paper: Rural Development
the near future, many more people will suffer water shortages
and agricultural yields will decline. This gives even more importance to water-saving and water storage technologies such
as terracing, rainwater harvesting, adapted irrigation systems
and the regeneration of degraded areas. (Small-scale) farmers
require special support in carrying out adaptations of this kind,
because it is more difficult for them to raise capital compared to
farmers in industrialised agriculture. Low incomes and limited
investment potential lead to more severe climate change impacts
on small-scale farmers than on large agricultural producers, who
can survive a failed harvest much better.
Natural disasters hit the poorest people hardest because they are
lacking resources to prevent disasters or to compensate for the
losses. The number of extreme weather events is set to increase,
so investments are required in early warning systems, improved
and decentralised disaster prevention and comprehensive risk
management. These systems must be established at the national
level, to set up strategic food reserves, to expand and secure
rural infrastructure, to adapt land, settlement and land-use planning and to construct technologically appropriate buildings.
Provision of micro-insurances, particularly for crop failures, is
also part of comprehensive risk management strategies (cf. Section 5 on microfinance).
The consequences of global warming for the spread of livestock
and plant diseases have hardly been researched so far. For example, the tsetse fly as the carrier of sleeping sickness is a
growing threat to domestic animals. The pathogens causing hoof
and mouth disease also react to changes in temperature. In the
context of plant diseases, the spread of pests into previously
cooler regions is to be anticipated.
Diversified income structures reduce the risks caused by climate
change. For this reason it is important to improve infrastructure,
transport facilities, market access and energy supply. These factors improve the rural population’s resilience (cf. Section 2 on
the economy and Section 13 on energy). Climate change will
lead to changes and a considerable reduction in biodiversity and
also increases the probability of losing crop varieties or even
Section 14
whole species of crops and cultivated plants (cf. Section 11 on
agro biodiversity), so it is important to extend seed preservation
Welthungerhilfe’s involvement in relation to climate change:
and environmental protection activities (particularly of forests
and coastal biotopes) in a socially acceptable way.
programmes. A key strategy is to include climate proofing at
Certain diseases will spread due to climate change; for example,
malaria-carrying mosquitoes may move into new regions or the
incidence of cholera may increase if availability and quality of
drinking water declines. Extending the health care systems and
educational opportunities in rural areas are therefore also part
of the needed adaptation to climate change. Curricula must be
extended to include climate-relevant material as a matter of
urgency. In many developing countries, further decentralisation
seems to be advisable because this favours decision-making
at the local level. The self-help capacity of rural populations
contributes to their capacity to deal with the impacts of climate
change (cf. Section 4 on social security, Section 7 on gender
equality and Section 8 on civil society).
Agriculture makes a considerable contribution to greenhouse
gas emissions worldwide. However, food security in developing
countries must have priority over the reduction of emissions.
Adaptation measures to climate change should be supported
for social, technological and economic reasons. Site-specific
agriculture can reduce emissions to a minimum in the context
of climate smart agriculture (cf. Section 1 on agriculture).
Climate change is a crosscutting challenge for development
an early stage of project planning.
Promoting climate adaptation measures in relation to agricultural techniques and practices, the rehabilitation of degraded
areas and multiple resource protection measures.
Supporting local measures to improve the resilience to climate
change of particularly vulnerable people in rural areas.
Supporting disaster risk reduction and disaster prevention, including local information and knowledge management (such as
drawing up risk analyses and preparing prevention plans), setting up local early warning systems, establishing rescue teams
and construction of protective buildings.
Promoting the participation of civil society organisations in national programmes for climate protection.
Welthungerhilfe’s demands in relation to climate change:
The international target of restricting global warming to less
than two degrees Celsius must be binding.
Industrialised countries must focus their climate-related support for developing countries more towards adaptation. Emissions reduction must take place mainly in industrialised countries.
Industrialised countries should use an additional 0.3 percent
of the total GNP for climate protection. This money should be
The mitigation of climate change is primarily the task of industrialised countries, which have caused the lion’s share of the
emissions. This is a matter of fair burden sharing. There are only
very limited opportunities for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in developing countries, which need scope for their own
development. For technical and financial reasons, developing
countries are dependent on technological support. It is expected
that industrialised countries develop technologies for their own
energy-efficient development and make them available globally
(cf. Section 13 on energy).
made available to developing countries for supporting adaptation to climate change.
Disaster risk reduction should be understood as an integrated
principle of rural development.
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Position Paper: Rural Development
Welthungerhilfe
publications
On rural development
Rural development, agriculture, nutrition
Global Hunger Index 2009: The Challenge of Hunger: Focus on
Concept Paper Food Security. Guidelines for the Promotion and
Execution of Food Security Projects by Deutsche Welthungerhilfe. Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V. (2004), Bonn.
Concept Paper Rural Development. Guidelines for Supporting
Rural Development Projects. Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V.
(2000), Bonn
The struggle against hunger is determined in rural areas. Policy
Paper Nr. 2 (2008), Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V., Bonn.
Krawinkel, M., Mahr, J. (2004): Grüne Gentechnik – Chancen für
die Ernährungssicherung und Risiken. Study commissioned by the
Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V., Bonn.
Weingärtner, L., Trentmann, C. (2011): Handbuch Welternährung. Issued by Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V. Campus Verlag, Frankfurt a. M.
Hunger. Ausmaß, Verbreitung, Ursachen, Auswege. Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V. (2005), Bonn.
Financial Crisis and Gender Inequality. Issued by Deutsche
Welthungerhilfe e. V., International Food Policy Research Institute, Concern Worldwide, Bonn, Washington D. C., Dublin.
Welthungerhilfe in Fragile States. Policy Paper Nr. 3 (2010),
Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V., Bonn.
Society, culture, rights and social issues
Bues, A. (2011): Increasing Pressure for Land – Implications for
Rural Livelihoods in Developing Countries: The Case of Cambodia.
Study commissioned by the Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V.,
Bonn.
FIAN International, Welthungerhilfe (2007): Screen state action against hunger! How to use the Voluntary Guidelines on the
Right to Food to monitor public policies? Heidelberg, Bonn.
Orientational Framework for Activities in the Area of HIV/AIDS in
the project work of Deutsche Welthungerhilfe. Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V. (2005), Bonn.
Orientation Framework: Conflict-Sensitive Approach in Overseas
Cooperation. Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V. (2007), Bonn.
Orientational Framework: Partnership for Development. Deutsche
Welthungerhilfe and its partners in overseas cooperation. Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V. (2005), Bonn.
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Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V. (2007), Bonn.
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Bonn, Heidelberg.
Position Paper: Rural Development
Environment, climate, water, energy
Garbers, F. (2009): Ländliche Entwicklung braucht Energie. Kleinbauern zwischen Energiearmut und Agrartreibstoffboom. Study
commissioned by the Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V., Bonn.
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Security under Changing Climatic Conditions. Study commissioned
by the Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V., Bonn.
Orientierungsrahmen WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene). Issued
by Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V. (to be published in 2012),
Bonn.
Climate Proofing: An instrument for taking into consideration
climate change and its impacts in the projects and programmes of Welthungerhilfe. Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V. (2011),
Bonn.
Trade, economy, microfinance
Burmann, A. (2004): Regionaler Handel in Afrika. Umfang und
Bestimmungsgründe. Study commissioned by the Deutsche
Welthungerhilfe e. V., Bonn.
Kerkow, U. (2005): Die überschätzte Gefahr. Subventionierte
Milch(pulver)exporte: Probleme von Milcherzeugern und -konsumenten in Entwicklungsländern. Study commissioned by the
Deutsche Welthungerhilfe e. V., Bonn.
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e. V. (1998), Bonn.
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March 2012
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