Archetypes of the Network Age:
Articulating the New Public Service
Reality
May 2003
Archetypes Of the Network Age:
Articulating
thethe Network Age:
Archetypes of
Articulating
the New
Public Service
New
Public Service
Reality
Reality
May 2003
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
The Public Policy Forum
Striving for Excellence in Government
The Public Policy Forum is an independent, non-profit organization aimed at improving the quality of
government in Canada through better dialogue between government, the private and the third sectors.
The Forum’s members, drawn from business, government, the voluntary sector and the labour
movement, share a common belief that an efficient and effective public service is a key element in
ensuring our quality of life and global competitive position.
Established in 1987, the Public Policy Forum has gained a reputation as a trusted, neutral facilitator,
capable of bringing together a wide range of stakeholders in productive dialogue. By promoting more
information sharing and greater linkages between government and other sectors, the Public Policy
Forum ensures that Canadaís future directions become more dynamic, coordinated and responsive to
the challenges and opportunities which lie before us.
For more information, please visit the Public Policy Forum Web site, www.forumpp.ca.
ISBN 0-9732003-7-5
©2003, Public Policy Forum
Public Policy Forum
130 Albert Street
Suite 1405
Ottawa, ON, K1P 5G4
(613) 238-7160
Facsimile (613) 238-7990
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
The Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
E-Government in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Articulating the Change and Setting the Learning Agenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Why Use a Set of Archetypes as a Learning Tool? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
THE ARCHETYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Archetype 1: The Front-line Worker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Archetype 2: The Caseworker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Archetype 3: The Expert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Archetype 4: The Information Synthesist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Archetype 5: The Policy Analyst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Archetype 6: The Communications Officer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Archetype 7: The Consultation Officer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Archetype 8: The Cluster Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Archetype 9: The Regional Program Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Archetype 10: The Integrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Appendix I The Government On-Line Initiative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Appendix II - Enabling the Network-Age Government: Technologies and Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Appendix III - Interview and Roundtable Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
FOREWORD
The network age is radically changing both the workplace and the nature of work. It is particularly
difficult for workers in large organizations such as government departments to understand and adapt to
the new environment.
In Archetypes of the Network Age: Articulating the New Public Service Reality, author Elisabeth
Richard uses archetypes as a learning tool to explore and illuminate the challenges that the networked
environment brings to public servants.
The idea for this publication grew from Ms Richard's experience managing the Government of
Canada's primary Internet site when it was launched in 1995, where she saw first-hand how
"e-government" was transforming the daily lives of her colleagues.
In her research, Ms Richard conducted interviews with over 100 public servants, using archetypes to
bring a human dimension to large scale, complex organizational change. The result is a series of
contemporary, engaging portraits of work life in the electronic era, as well as insights into ways to
improve organizational design and behaviour.
The Public Policy Forum is dedicated to improving the quality of public policy and public
management in Canada. We hope that this report contributes to a better understanding of the impact of
information technology on the public service, and helps public servants to use new technologies more
effectively in communicating with the public and with one another.
David Zussman
President
Public Policy Forum
1
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Elisabeth Richard is Acting Director, Government and Technology Partnerships, E-government
sector, Public Works and Government Services Canada. Creator of the Government of Canada
Primary Internet site in 1995, she has researched extensively the impact of electronic democracy in
the public service. She has contributed to the development of a framework for public service
organizations' use of two-way on-line communication, both in Canada and internationally. She
co-edited the G7 White Paper on Governments On-line and Democracy (1997) and published "Tools
of Governance" (1998), "Report from the Roundtable on On-line Engagement" (2000) and
"Lessons from the Network Model for On-line Engagement" (2000). Prior to joining the
government, Ms Richard spent 15 years as a journalist and host at the Canadian Broadcasting
Corporation and Radio Canada. She is a graduate from the Economics and Finance program of the
Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Paris.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my appreciation to the roundtable and interview participants who, collectively,
brought the archetypes to life. I would like to thank Michael Turner, who made the project happen and
helped shape the ideas, as well as the E-Government Sector team, who supported the work with rigour
and imagination. Gratitude also goes to Frances Horibe, who guided the preparation of the report and
the learning event. David Snowden, of the Cynefin Centre for Organisational Complexity-IBM Global
Services, also provided invaluable insight into the methodology. David Zussman, long-time observer of
both public service transformation and the network age, gave precious encouragement and insight. I am
also very grateful to colleagues in the Privy Council Office and the Treasury Board Secretariat for their
steady support. Finally, thanks to Theresa Wallace for her excellent editorial help.
Elisabeth Richard
2
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Introduction
Archetypes are increasingly being used to assist the process of change in complex organizations.
Archetypes encompass job descriptions and competencies but go far beyond them to tap the true nature
of functions, so they are excellent cognitive tools for understanding an emerging
culture and a rapidly evolving work environment.
The 10 archetypes presented here are based on the real-life experiences of 100 practitioners who
worked in small groups as part of a larger roundtable event held in 2002. The findings from that
session were further refined and validated at a learning event that took place early in 2003. The
archetypes describe in human terms the challenges, complexities and constraints facing a new
generation of front-line and back-office public servants whose roles and occupations are being
transformed in the network age. The resonance of their observations about each archetype comes from
the fact that these observations are rooted in the reality of the participants but are also universal.
The Ten Archetypes
The ten archetypes are: the front-line worker, the caseworker, the expert, the information synthesist, the
policy analyst, the communications officer, the consultation officer, the cluster manager, the regional
program manager, and the integrator.
The order of presentation of the archetypes reflects their functions. The archetypes are clustered around
three groupings: those who directly serve Canadians, those who develop policies, and those who
represent the new breed of managers in the information age.
The Front-line Worker and the Caseworker
The front-line worker and the caseworker existed before the network age but their jobs have changed
dramatically.
The number of network-age front-line workers is growing because of the federal government's
client-centred service agenda. Front-line workers interact with the public in person, on the telephone or
via e-mail. Although they are not always recognized as knowledge workers, desktop computing
capacity and database integration empower front-line staff, including call-centre operators, to respond
to citizens who expect comprehensive answers rather than bits of information. These front-line workers
need superior language skills and have to fight the use of jargon. They also need tools to track trends.
Front-line workers can be more efficient if they work closely with multimedia and communications
functions.
Caseworkers have been around for decades-tracking the needs of health patients, youths in care, or
offenders in rehabilitation programs, for example. What distinguishes the caseworker from the other
nine archetypes is that the caseworker is more likely to make decisions on behalf of or about clients. In
the network age, ICTs can help reduce the time caseworkers spend on non-client activities and improve
3
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
the quality of their "face time" with clients. Caseworkers want staff to be involved in the design of case
management applications.
The Expert and the Information Synthesist
Next, the expert and the information synthesist have become central characters who interact with either
those who directly deliver services or with policy developers.
Experts may be found in a scientific category or as part of a clerical group. Experts love difficult
questions-their passion is creating knowledge. Having spent most of their career behind the scenes,
many experts now find themselves in the limelight as their expertise is highlighted and direct contact is
established on their department's Web site or through the media. A growing number of these experts are
trained in very specific subject areas. More than ever, experts are working as members of multidisciplinary teams. The use of guides-human or technology-enabled-is also necessary to help locate experts
with very specialized information.
Information synthesists are like network-age librarians. They work within business units, creating value
by integrating databases and interpreting results from a variety of powerful analytical tools. They know
where to find information on-line, but more importantly they know how to interpret this information.
They can transform a database into a priceless source of information. Their ability to extract business
intelligence from on-line activities in order to help sketch out the future is a critical component of the
network age. Information synthesists want data to be linked and relevant to communities of interest.
One of their challenges when constructing information products is to build trust in order to leverage
information from people who may not want to give it up.
The Policy Analyst, the Communications Officer and the Consultation Officer
The policy analyst, the communications officer and the consultation officer are key to connecting
citizens and applying the benefits of this connectivity.
Often selected for their analytical skills and accustomed to spending most of their time feeding memos
upward, policy analysts now find they are involved in Internet-enabled networks of participants from
the very early stages of agenda-setting through decision-making and implementation. Policy officers
are widening their traditional skills and, enabled by on-line technologies, they are engaging in more
direct consultation with stakeholders. However, long-term approaches are not encouraged, and much of
the research and analysis is strictly oriented toward the present. Also, the Internet can be used to get
insights from local staff on policy issues. However, after using Internet technology to reach out to the
local level to guide policy development, policy analysts must avoid the temptation to use that same
technology to centralize implementation-room must be left for front-line program officers to exercise
judgment.
Communications officers help get the federal government's message out to the media and the public.
Because information travels much faster and is more accessible than ever, communications officers in
the network age are taking on a different role. Instead of broadcasting, they are "narrowcasting"4
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
producing more pre-approved, made-to-measure information products in a variety of formats, including
print,compact disc (CD), and video. Faced with multiple target audiences that prefer content tailored to
their needs, communications officers are also working with local opinion leaders and emulating cyberactivists in using technology to manage issues and engage the grassroots. For communications officers,
working in the network age means issue management is more critical. The Internet facilitates the quick
solidification of support and momentum around issues of public concern. Communications officers
must use the power of networks to track issues, to get to know stakeholders, and to take advantage of
the distributed structure of peer groups.
The job of the consultation officer is to do just that-consult with Canadians. In an effort to reconnect a
disengaged citizenry, consultation officers are applying key internal learnings on the effective use of
technology to their external relations. Through careful planning and the use of a highly skilled
facilitator or moderator, consultation officers can make on-line consultations more effective.
Consultation officers must also establish on-line mechanisms to quickly communicate policy issues to
relevant stakeholders.
The Cluster Manager, the Regional Program Manager and the Integrator
Finally, the most explicit examples of how the information age transforms the public service are found
among managers. The forces of centralization and decentralization create new inter-jurisdictional
patterns and the cluster manager, as well as the regional program manager, experience these forces
profoundly as they sometimes work hand in hand and sometimes clash with the integrator.
Clusters are groups of citizens with common characteristics-seniors, for example. Cluster managers are
responsible for gathering and blending cluster-related information, allowing citizens easy access to this
information. Clustermanagers must manage many relationships and become masters of joint
accountability: always vertically accountable, they are now struggling with diagonal lines of authority
and accountabilities that are not always as clearly defined as they used to be. Cluster managers are
often virtual team members with a heavy reliance on information technology for task integration-they
have to make the rules as they go. Cluster managers need support as they try to manage their
extraordinarily large number of complex relationships. Their success can be measured through
stakeholder engagement. Working horizontally in a vertical structure, cluster managers find that
successful horizontal integration depends very much on the support of those close to the top-highly
successful clusters usually have a champion among senior management.
Citizen-centred government is turning regional offices into multi-jurisdictional units. Regional
managers are facing new challenges because there is more relationship building among federal,
territorial and provincial jurisdictions than ever before. Regional program managers are delivering
services at the community level with a multiplicity of players and striving for a climate of cooperation
and gain sharing. In this multi-jurisdictional environment, regional program managers can sometimes
experience conflicts over allegiances. They need to have a vision of service improvement, providing
ongoing training to staff and establishing clear measures of success for services.
Almost any manager in any government department who has been involved in the Government
On-Line initiative fits the profile of an integrator. An integrator is a manager who coordinates the
5
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
integration of information or transactions to meet e-government service delivery improvement
objectives. Integrators restructure processes. Whether they are standardizing clusters of Web sites or
having a more profound impact on the way services are organized, integrators are improving the look
and overall image of the government. Integrators want to track knowledge and connect with internal
and external communities. They want to create expertise locators. Once they've found the experts,
they'll work with them, help them simplify their terminology, and assist in the creation of communities
of interest around these experts. Integrators need to strategically use intranets to get key messages
across, and to recognize individual contributions at the same time as they foster a team culture.
Conclusion
Considered together, these 10 archetypes help capture the new public service reality. It is clear from the
examination of these archetypes that knowledge management-whether through information
technologies or community approaches-is at the centre of the network-age public servant's vision of the
future. Public servants also want and need more technology training in many areas.
Canada has made huge inroads in e-government and is recognized worldwide for using networks to
maintain high standards of client-centred service delivery. Keeping these high standards will require
enormous efforts in infrastructure and strategy, but the success of such efforts is contingent upon the
continuous capacity and latitude of public service employees to innovate and to bring e-government
strategies to maturity.
The sustainability of Canada's lead in e-government depends on it.
6
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
INTRODUCTION
Overview
This study begins by outlining the context of network-age government and how archetypes are useful
tools in current efforts to articulate change and set the learning agenda for the federal public service of
the future.
Each of the 10 archetypes is then examined in terms of: the environment in which the archetype
operates; how the archetype itself was received, explored and developed in the roundtable small
groups; the key learnings and applications of these learnings that resulted from roundtable
explorations; and the relationship of the archetype to other archetypes. Key findings are summarized in
the Conclusion.
Appendix I contains a primer on the Government On-Line initiative. The material in Appendix II
identifies areas of technology that facilitate and enable the work of employees associated with the 10
archetypes. A list of participants, which identifies the archetype that each participant most closely
identified with in the interviews and roundtable, is included as Appendix III.
The Context
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are transforming the nature of work in all
sectors.
Among the new rules in this more complex work environment is that decisions must be made quickly.
Perceiving central management to be too slow for the avalanche of decisions required in a rapidly
evolving work environment, many organizations have created autonomous divisions to give flexibility
to individual lines of business. In turn, technology has allowed these independent divisions to converge
in a wide variety of configurations, and nimble has become a key word. The most effective network
age organization is designed to arrange and rearrange resources in order to meet changing needs and
respond to opportunities. Traditional vertically structured organizations are at a disadvantage in this
fluid environment.
As well as being sources of turbulence because of the rapid change they induce, ICTs are providing a
measure of stability to these new autonomous structures by allowing rapid communication and
exchange through an information infrastructure connecting internal networks and databases.
ICTs also dramatically reduce the cost of an organization's internal and external transactions. ICTs
allow multiple participants to contribute in specific domains where they have an advantage.
Organizations can include customers within their boundaries, suppliers and a variety of stakeholders at
the periphery. New concepts emerge to measure efficiency, and the capacity for inter-organizational
cooperation becomes a key factor of success.
In business, networked organizations have taken many forms: strategic alliances, joint ventures, and
virtual corporations. For governments, the emerging network economy has led to the creation of
7
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
policies supporting tightly coupled, more intense and persistent relations. For example, the Dutch
Ministry of Economic Affairs has pursued a policy of cluster development since 1996.1 This policy
promotes relationships among firms and between firms and governmental organizations.
Enabled by an increasingly integrated information infrastructure, networks have started to become a
key conduit for program delivery. One example is the consortium that built the Secure Channel,
Canada's secure on-line information infrastructure. Another is the Integrated Proceeds of Crime
Initiatives (IPOC) which brings together five departments and agencies-Justice Canada, the Royal
Canadian Mounted Police, Public Works and Government Services Canada, Solicitor General Canada,
and the Canada Customs and Revenue Agency-in a small multidisciplinary unit.
In many departments, the way value is created changes dramatically in a networked environment. For
example, the business model for call centres has changed. Several years ago, when a Federal Budget
was issued, 10,000 citizens would call the budget hotline. In 2002, this number was down to 300. Due
to the decline in volume, the cost of the call centre has gone from $90 to $3,000 per phone call.
Briefing sessions for stakeholders are still relevant but they take different forms–on-line chats, for
example. There is less effort to capture every bit of knowledge and more emphasis on where the
knowledge is located.
A close examination of the impact of networks on the public service shows deep organizational
implications. In fact, jobs are mutating on the spot as people try to adapt to the information age.
Competencies are changing: cross-skilling has become a necessity and many public servants must add
skills like project management and communication to their core capabilities. A simple search on the
Government Electronic Directory services shows dozens of functions that did not exist 10 years
ago-the most visible example is the cluster manager, a direct product of the information age, who
managescontent and links for client-centred clusters of information made possible by the Internet.
From the top down, there are significant changes in government processes. Networked information
flows are very different from the bureaucratic flows that preceded them. The coordination role of
government is shifting profoundly under the influence of networks, which alter time, distance, and
organizational memory. Communication networks enabled by information technology are being built
within sub-units and agencies inside and outside government. They help manage horizontal policies or
program clusters. This leads to many new arrangements, not only for program design and service
delivery but also for policy formulation.
This development does not mean that hierarchies or bureaucracies are no longer relevant. The
top-down pyramid will still have the final say on policies, procedures, roles and regulations. But
networks of individuals, small groups and teams at all levels of the organization, as well as
inter-organizational networks have been added to the bureaucratic mix.
E-Government in Canada
In the Government of Canada, many mechanisms have been put in place to support this change toward
e-government. Under the leadership of the Clerk of the Privy Council, e-government is becoming a
way to look at new relationships with citizens and other stakeholders, thus transforming the
1
See, for example, the Netherlands page on the UNESCO Web site at www.unesco.org and follow the links for publications about the Dutch Digital Delta.
8
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
organization. For example, the Chief Information Officer's Branch of the Treasury Board Secretariat
plays an active role in empowering the public service to deliver the Government On-Line agenda. This
role includes fostering competencies that are often unique to the public sector, such as for access to
information and privacy administrators and archivists. Programs are in place to develop the needed
skills from within and to build communities of practice to strengthen emerging professional groups.
Also, the Task Force on Modernizing Human Resources Management in the Public Service is preparing
the ground for a cultural change, moving away from a traditional model of the public service based on
hierarchical, directive management to values-driven and knowledge-based people management. In
Canada's Parliament, the Standing Committee on Government Operations and Estimates is reflecting
on these changes in a study on new public management and ICTs.
Government work is undergoing a transformation. However, the new culture is still hard to describe.
Efforts to capture new public service roles, responsibilities and skills in competency profiles remain
abstract. What's clear is that electronic government is quite different from industrial-age government,
which is characterized by hierarchy, departmental silos, command-and-control, specialization of labour,
and rules-based decision-making. But since e-government is a recent concept, even its definition is still
debated.
Indeed, a review done in 2002 by the Privy Council Office's interdepartmental e-government policy
network shows that there are three main schools of thought for defining the scope and meaning of
e-government. The first and most popular, driven by an e-commerce perspective, equates e-government
with electronic service delivery. The second one sees e-government as a government able to harness
ICTs to improve what it does and how it does it, while the third school views e-government as a new
model of government and governance for the knowledge age that functions electronically. The last
definition is relevant to the knowledge age and incorporates a continuously pulsating electronic
platform where democratic reform runs parallel to public service restructuring to facilitate a successful
transformation to e-government.
However e-government is defined, its advantages abound. Clusters, enabled by the network
environment, facilitate client-centred services. Networks of public, private and/or civil society
participants can be organized to deliver government services and enable stakeholder participation in
government processes. The government can tap the knowledge and resources of the market and civil
society. Policy webs are created, leading to the design of more relevant programs and services.
Practitioners and functional communities innovate with the help of networked-enabled communities of
practice.
Several research groups, consulting firms and government organizations have attempted to produce
worldwide rankings of electronic government service delivery and related areas. A recent review of six
such surveys showed that Canada consistently ranks among the leading countries. Almost unanimously,
research communities have recognized that Canada is at the forefront of user-centric service delivery,
and that it is among the world leaders in e-government.2 This fact reflects the comparatively high
availability of national ICT infrastructure, the maturity of several on-line government initiatives, as
well as Canada's commitment to user-centric electronic service delivery. Canada's leadership role in
2
See, for example, a study by Accenture (formerly Anderson Consulting) published as part of its Government Executive Series, eGovernment Leadership:
Engaging the Customer, April 8, 2003, p 7. Available at http://www.accenture.com/xdoc/en/newsroomepresskit/egovernment/egov_epress.pdf.
Or see http://www.accenture.ca for a summary of the report.
9
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
e-government worldwide has been enhanced by a commitment to provide a mix of policies, tools and
guidelines that can be used and adapted by departments and agencies to undertake self-assessments.
These include policies and guidelines about the accessibility of Web sites, the Common Look and Feel
initiative for all federal government Web sites, and the use of focus groups and usability studies.
Articulating the Change and Setting the Learning Agenda
The challenge now is to ground the efforts of many innovative officials in shaping the public service of
the future. Not all the initiatives can be expected to tie together neatly-being in the lead means that you
have to try new approaches, and Canada's public service is indeed going through a vigorous
exploration stage.
When trying to define the nature of an e-government learning agenda, officials have to recognize that
jobs are evolving rapidly as a result of radical changes intended to transform the Government of
Canada. Many layers have to be taken into consideration: legislation, training, business process
re-engineering. The Federated Architecture Program of the Treasury Board Secretariat is intended to
guide the development and construction of the government's common information management and
information technology infrastructure.3 This program is an example of how an integrated infrastructure
can trigger profound changes. These changes are ongoing and highly fluid, and may never settle into a
final form.
The e-government learning agenda continues to evolve in content, context, and practice. The body of
knowledge has yet to solidify into a commonly accepted set of practices or even beliefs. For example,
the Canadian Centre for Management Development is aware that the response to this challenge may
not be formal classroom lessons so much as a way of connecting pockets of expertise within a fluid
and dynamic context.
A common concern has surfaced around various tables in central agencies and learning organizations:
people. Given the scope of the change, how does this sophisticated transformation stick in people's
minds? Do working level employees recognize themselves in the conceptual vision articulated by
leaders? Are the new ways of working being invented on the front lines and back offices making their
way through the layers of bureaucracy to be recognized as models?
What seems clear is that the days when the success of public managers was related to their
ability to work effectively in static structures are gone. Their success now depends on their ability to
bring together actors in a growing number of interagency and trans-sector networked arrangements for
policy making, implementation, service delivery and enforcement.
In this environment, a critical skill is the ability to trade data and terminologies so that they can be
translated into meaningful intelligence across organizations. Employees possessing these skills are
described as "symbolic analysts," rendered essential by the explosion of ICTs. They simplify reality
3
For more information on the Federated Architecture Program, go to http://www.cio-dpi.gc.ca/fap-paf/index_e.asp.
10
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
into abstract images that can be rearranged, juggled, and experimented with. That's where archetypes
become useful as a learning tool.
Why Use a Set of Archetypes as a Learning Tool?
An archetype is a character embodying qualities or shortcomings that describe a universal
phenomenon. Usually typical images and characters, archetypes also include narrative designs and
themes present in all literature. Archetypal stories allow us to understand extreme aspects of the
societies that invent them. Carl Jung, a founder of modern psychology, was one of the first researchers
to define the concept of archetype as a collective unconscious, or theoretical pool of memories that
everyone shares.
Archetypes express a variety of roles and behaviours that are part of the collective unconscious; their
use as a means of learning is a pillar of civilization. Mount Olympus citizens-Mars, Venus, Zeus,
Athena-are all archetypes. Similar archetypes span cultures and are found, for example, in the Chinese
I Ching and the Middle Eastern Mulla Nasruddin. Westerners gain the essence of corporate wisdom-or
foolishness-from Dilbert cartoons. In the film odyssey Star Wars, Luke Skywalker and Han Solo depict
powerful archetypes.
Various researchers have described the use of archetypes, from a tool to carry us instinctively to
spiritual goals, as elaborated by Carl Jung,4 to the expression of an organization's vision. David
Snowden has shown how archetypes, like cartoons, create an indirect way of characterizing behaviours
and connecting with what really makes an organization tick.5 Mark Stefik describes how the
metaphors about the Internet influence what we think it could become-a marketplace, a digital community forum, or a digital library. He proposes universal archetypes like the Warrior, the Trickster and the
Wise Old Man to help readers envision the Internet.6 Nancy White describes the influence of personal
styles and archetypes in the dynamics of on-line communities.7 For Peter Senge, there are systems
archetypes: generic structures or common patterns that are either helpful in conveying concepts or
destructive when they reinforce difficulties.8
In an organizational context, goals are often expressed through the vision provided by leaders. An
archetypal example is Santa Claus. A straight job description of Santa Claus would read something like
this: "Delivers presents to children on Christmas Eve." This might be taken further to include
competencies required such as driving an airborne sleigh with eight reindeer in any and all
meteorological conditions. But to understand Santa Claus, one needs to grasp the roles, the common
practices, and the attitudes that create a culture of giving and sharing and hope.
4
See, for example, C.G. Jung, “Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious” in Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Volume 9, Part 1. Edited and translated by
Gerhard Adler and R.F.C. Hull (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968).
5
D.J. Snowden, “Archetypes as an Instrument of Narrative Patterning.” Arc Knowledge Management Magazine Special, Vol. 5, Issue 4 (November 2001).
6
Mark Stefik, ed., Internet dreams: Archetypes, Myths and Metaphors (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996).
7
Nancy White. “It Ain’t Easy Being Green: Posting Archetypes in Online Conversations,” Washington: Full Circle Association, 2000.
8
Peter Senge, The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization (New York: Currency Doubleday, 1991).
11
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Modern archetypes can be used to probe the undercurrents of an organization and identify what really
makes it tick. Archetypes increase the predictability of human interactions and help people reach a
common level of understanding, even in ever more complex organizations. Thus, archetypes may
encompass job descriptions and competencies, but extend beyond to tap emotions and the true nature
of a function.
Under evolving government systems and emerging social structures, archetypes serve as cognitive tools
to understand an emerging culture. They create trust by generating a shared framework. Archetypes
also help employees create an island of stability within an unstable environment. They allow us to
weave change into our culture and everyday behaviour.
Today, the job of public service managers is to make sense of the ever-changing environment and
interpret those changes for their staff. They are also key connectors, associating pockets of expertise in
a fluid environment. Harvard's Jane Fountain has shown that the revolutionary infrastructure provided
by the Internet for communication, coordination and control creates deep structural changes carried out
primarily by public servants and their networks.9 Quite simply, in this environment of profound and
rapid change, the use of archetypes as a learning tool helps to get to the heart of the matter.
9
9 Jane E. Fountain, “The Virtual State: Toward a Theory of Bureaucracy for the Twenty-First Century,” in Elaine Ciulla Kamarck and Joseph S. Nye, eds.,
democracy.com, Governance in a Networked World (Hollis, NH: Hollis Publishing Company, 1999), p. 133
12
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
METHODOLOGY
The project that led to the publication of this study began with a conceptual paper written in the winter
of 2002 to examine the impacts of network-age government on the people who develop policies and
deliver services. In preparation for the interviews and roundtable, 10 archetypes of the network-age
government were chosen arbitrarily through observations arising from the author's experience as
manager of the Government of Canada primary Internet site when it was inaugurated in 1995.
Interviews and a roundtable followed in the spring, summer and fall of 2002. Another follow-up
learning event was held early in 2003. (See Appendix III for a complete list of participants to the
interviews, roundtable and learning event.)
Through the administration of a tailored questionnaire, questions of identity, technology and trends
were explored during initial telephone interviews. By using a series of metaphors and archetypes to
help participants connect with their own feelings, and by gathering observations about concrete issues
and changing structures, the interviews served to validate and summarize trends in industry and
government.
From these interviews, the main roundtable questions and topics emerged. A concrete description of
each archetype was developed. To add context and to demonstrate how the workplace is changing, an
accompanying description of the environment in which the archetype operates was also produced.
The roundtable series, launched in July, began with a presentation developed to accompany the
conceptual paper, tailored to each roundtable group based on observations gathered in the lead-up
interviews with selected participants. In each roundtable group, the archetypes were
further developed, modified and validated. A careful mix of participants coming from a wide
variety of departments and functions was a key factor. For each archetype, a group of five to ten public
servants was selected on the basis of their work experience or their keen interest in the network
environment. (To help understand the relationship of each archetype to the public service functions
represented by that archetype, readers should consult the list of participants in Appendix III.)
The 10 archetypes are: the front-line worker, the caseworker, the expert, the information synthesist, the
policy analyst, the communications officer, the consultation officer, the cluster manager, the regional
program manager, and the integrator. Of all the archetypes developed in these small groups, only onethe cluster manager-is entirely new. Others, such as the information synthesist and the caseworker, are
evolving into a variety of different forms. Some archetypes such as the regional program manager
already exist, but the interviews with practitioners in the field suggested that this function has changed
enough in substance to be included in the list.
The analysis of roundtable meetings led to key learnings and applications for managers. It also led to
sketches of emerging relationships among archetypes, an essential component for managers currently
reorganizing their front lines and back offices. These observations are captured in the next section
under the description of each archetype. The intent was not to copy the latest best practices already
documented in course material for service improvement or e-government-the key learnings and
applications derive exclusively from the observations of the participants at the first set of roundtable
meetings in 2002, which were further validated and refined at a learning event early in 2003.
13
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
The richness of these observations comes from the fact that not only are they deeply rooted in the
reality of participants' daily work, but they are also universal, and many public servants can identify
with them.
14
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
THE ARCHETYPES
In this section, each archetype is described in terms of: the environment in which the archetype
operates; how the archetype itself was received, explored and developed in the roundtable small
groups; the key learnings and applications of the learnings that resulted from roundtable explorations;
and, the relationship of that archetype to other archetypes.
The order of presentation of the archetypes reflects their functions. The archetypes are clustered around
three groupings: those who directly serve Canadians, those who develop policies, and those who
represent the new breed of managers in the information age.
First, the front-line worker and the caseworker existed before the network age but their jobs have
changed dramatically.
The number of network-age front-line workers is growing because of the federal government's
client-centred service agenda. Front-line workers interact with the public in person, on the telephone or
via e-mail. Although they are not always recognized as knowledge workers, desktop computing
capacity and database integration empower front-line staff, including call-centre operators, to respond
to citizens who expect comprehensive answers rather than bits of information.
Caseworkers have been around for decades-tracking the needs of health patients, youths in care, or
offenders in rehabilitation programs, for example. In the network age, ICTs help reduce the time caseworkers spend on non-client activities and improve the quality of their "face time" with clients. What
distinguishes the caseworker from the other nine archetypes is that the caseworker is more likely to
make decisions on behalf of or about clients. Also, case management technology is allowing program
officers, who once designed rather than delivered programs and services, to follow cases through the
bureaucratic maze. Following cases helps with program design, though in some cases program officers
are acting as caseworkers.
Next, the expert and the information synthesist have become central characters who interact with
either those who directly deliver services or with policy developers.
Experts may be found in a scientific category or as part of a clerical group. Experts love difficult
questions-their passion is creating knowledge. Having spent most of their career behind the scenes,
many experts now find themselves in the limelight as their expertise is highlighted and direct contact is
established on their department's Web site or through the media. A growing number of experts are
trained in very specific subject areas.
Information synthesists are like network-age librarians. They work within business units, creating value
by integrating databases and interpreting results from a variety of powerful analytical tools. They know
where to find information on-line, but more importantly how to interpret this
information. They can transform a database into a priceless source of information. Their ability to
extract business intelligence from on-line activities in order to help sketch out the future is a
critical component of the network age.
15
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
The policy analyst, the communications officer and the consultation officer are key to
connecting citizens and securing the benefits of this connectivity.
Often selected for their analytical skills and accustomed to spending most of their time feeding memos
upwards, policy analysts now find they are involved in Internet-enabled networks of participants from
the very early stages of agenda-setting through decision-making and implementation. Policy officers
are widening their traditional skills and, enabled by on-line technologies, they are engaging in more
direct consultation with stakeholders.
Communications officers help to get the federal government's message out to the media and the public.
Because information travels much faster and is more accessible than ever before, communications
officers in the network age are taking on a different role. Instead of broadcasting, they are
"narrowcasting"-producing more pre-approved, made-to-measure information products in a variety of
formats, including print, compact disc (CD), and video. Faced with multiple target audiences that
prefer content tailored to their needs, communications officers are also working with local opinion
leaders and emulating cyber-activists in using technology to manage issues and engage the grassroots.
The job of the consultation officer is to do just that–consult with Canadians. In an effort to reconnect a
disengaged citizenry, consultation officers are applying key internal learnings on the effective use of
technology to their external relations. Part of the work of consultation officers is to coordinate on-line
consultations to reach a wider audience. They struggle to create an environment that fosters trust and
reciprocity at the same time as they respond to a burgeoning number of cyber-activists and participate
in on-line discussions and forums.
Finally, the most explicit examples of how the information age transforms the public service are found
among managers themselves. The forces of centralization and decentralization create new
inter-jurisdictional patterns and the cluster manager, as well as the regional program manager,
experience these forces profoundly as they sometimes work hand in hand and sometimes clash with the
integrator.
Clusters are groups of citizens with common characteristics-seniors, for example. Cluster managers are
responsible for gathering and blending cluster-related information, allowing citizens easy access to this
information. Cluster managers must manage many relationships and they become masters of joint
accountability: always vertically accountable in the past they are now struggling with diagonal lines of
authority and accountabilities that are not always as clearly defined as they used to be.
Cluster managers are often virtual team members with a heavy reliance on information technology for
task integration-they have to make the rules as they go.
Citizen-centred government is turning regional offices into multi-jurisdictional units. Regional
managers are facing new challenges because there is more relationship building among federal,
territorial and provincial jurisdictions than ever before. Regional program managers are delivering
services at the community level with a multiplicity of players and striving for a climate of
cooperation and gain sharing.
Almost any manager in any government department who has been involved in the Government
On-Line initiative fits the profile of an integrator. An integrator is a manager charged with the task of
16
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
coordinating the integration of information or transactions to meet e-government service delivery
improvement objectives. Integrators restructure processes. Whether they are standardizing clusters of
Web sites or having a more profound impact on the way services are organized, integrators are
improving the look and overall image of the government. Expectations are rising about the role of
many managers as integrators who are responsible for vital infrastructure and brand integrity.
Considered together, these 10 archetypes help capture the new public service reality.
Archetype 1: The Front-line Worker
Front-line workers deliver government services and have the most direct contact with clients. As the
most visible representatives of the government's citizen-centred agenda, the ideal front-line worker is
sensitive, responsive and well informed.
Traditionally, front-line workers dispensed bits of information on demand, but technology is changing
their role. Canada has more Web users per capita than any other country and its citizens are more
knowledgeable than ever. They expect instant, comprehensive, customized answers to their questions
and solutions to their problems.
Front-line workers' new role requires them to use their ability to navigate through databases to meet a
growing trend to help clients in their decision-making. Front-line workers are becoming members of
the help profession: empathy as well as greater knowledge and intuition are key. In an increasing
number of situations, judgment is vital-for example, some callers rely on front-line workers to decide
under which jurisdiction they will incorporate their business.
Some organizations derive a lot of value from the efforts of front-line workers and reward them
accordingly. In others, front-line workers are not yet recognized as knowledge workers, and they do not
have access to basic knowledge tools like the Internet.
Environment
All around the world, large-scale telecommunications initiatives are underway to respond to an inc
reasing demand for citizen-centred services. Delivering services through the lens of the citizen leads
governments to look for solutions that integrate service delivery. Some governments have even created
new agencies to achieve this, such as Centrelink in Australia, which delivers services, programs and
payments on behalf of Australian government departments. 10
The e-government agenda also responds to the demand for call centres and on-line feedback
mechanisms. Among the lessons learned from case studies are that feedback and inquiry mechanisms
are key elements of success in the introduction of on-line services, and they are increasingly included
in government on-line policies and directives. In Sweden, for example, agencies are expected to
10
See www.centrelink.gov.au.
17
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
establish on-line dialogues about services. This requirement is also included in a U.S. Presidential
directive.
A strategic use of both call centres and on-line feedback mechanisms can lead to large-scale
efficiencies. In 1996, 80 percent of inquiries to Industry Canada came through telephone calls. By
1999, the ratio was down to 60 percent, and in 2000 less than one percent of inquiries ended up at the
help desk. Analysis of telephone and e-mail inquiries, and adaptation of the structure and presentation
of the Strategis Web site, enabled clients to use the site more effectively to get the information needed.
Archetypes Used
Many "casting" suggestions were made during the preparatory telephone interviews.
The first character to come up helped identify what call-centre operators are not-Ernestine, the very
unhelpful Bell telephone operator immortalized by American actress Lily Tomlin in the 1960s. Other
suggestions were a traffic cop, a caseworker, and the Wal-Mart greeter.
The Wal-Mart greeter was the most popular choice. Like them, front-line officers are at the entry point
of a giant self-service information store for the Government of Canada. Like the self-service chain
stores also, some government call centres have established not only a first point of contact but also a
last point of contact. This allows them to monitor and increase the speed of response to inquiries. They
become a central link between the expert and the client, a position that corresponds to that of the
caseworker. It also increases the chances that citizens will request front-line workers' advice and help
for transactions. This is particularly the case in the regions.
Key Learnings
Front-line workers function as traffic cops.
The first wave of Government On-Line was intended to make information widely available. This made
government more transparent; however, it also made it more complicated for some citizens to navigate
through the bureaucratic maze. Citizens who come to the front line for help increasingly expect to find
the most direct route to the information they need. They expect to navigate through the various options
with as few contacts as possible. Front-line workers often feel like traffic cops.
Users should be able to navigate on their own.
The best on-line structure is one that users can navigate easily and on their own. Citizens are quick to
move to the help button and call whenever they get lost on a site. However, they are happy to do the
leg work themselves if they have the appropriate structure. This can be achieved by fostering a close
relationship between Web site developers and call-centre agents.
There is an increasing emphasis on gathering the complete file.
Given the increased complexity of information available and the ability of citizens to self-serve,
front-line workers find that they are now helping the client gather what is called "the complete file."
Those working on the front lines have to be aware of the various pieces of information needed by a
18
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
citizen to prepare for the next step in the process, which is often a meeting with an expert. Examples of
organizations where gathering the "complete file" is becoming a common process include the
Immigration Refugee Board (IRB), Citizenship and Immigration Canada (CIC), and the Canada
Customs and Revenue Agency (CCRA).
Gathering the complete file makes the front-line worker's job more like casework.
Gathering the complete file brings front-line workers close to doing the job of a caseworker-taking
charge of all the client's needs. It seems the closer the department is to its clients, the more likely
front-line workers will see themselves as caseworkers. They will be tempted to go beyond providing
information and follow through with transactions. In main call centres like 1-800-O-Canada, this is less
likely to happen.
Intuition is becoming part of the skill set.
The skill set of call-centre agents is evolving. They find that using their intuition sometimes works
best. Like librarians conducting reference interviews, call-centre agents find that the line of questioning
can take them in a completely unexpected direction. Citizens often do not articulate the real question at
first. Front-line officers need to exercise judgment and to understand where the caller is located on the
service curve. Do they need basic information, expert information, or are they ready for a transaction?
Front-line workers have limits and must recognize them.
• Front-line workers can only give out information. When they are in a position to take charge of the
whole needs of the client, they might be tempted to make commitments on behalf of the service
they represent. Front-line workers must learn to control the very same skills they are asked to use
to help.
• As the first point of contact, front-line workers represent the government to the caller. This creates
the basis for a quality relationship, which is an essential element for an engaged citizenry. This
relationship can give front-line workers the impression that they are a consultation mechanism.
They must find the right tone between encouraging comments and clarifying that their service is
not meant to influence policy but rather to provide information or pass on complaints and comments.
Front-line workers dispense facts and arguments in emergencies.
The information accessed by front-line workers is factual, and it is essential that this information be
available and of high quality. However, under certain circumstances, the front line is also given
arguments to support the government position. This is sometimes the case in emergencies involving the
safety of the public.
Application
Emphasize language skills and try to eliminate jargon.
Language skills are increasingly important. In addition to giving answers on the telephone in French
and English, multi-channel integration is forcing call-centre agents to write e-mail replies. These are
expected to be quick, clear and concise. Call centres try to keep the writing to a minimum and avoid
19
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
paraphrasing their sources. Instead, they try to be as specific as possible in the URLs they recommend
for further information. Call centres have an effect on the uniformity-if not the elimination-of
bureaucratic jargon. The terminology used for products and services can vary considerably even
between different sectors of the same department, and may not be the same as the terminology used by
citizens. Centralized call centres are particularly good at tackling jargon because they gather
information from a variety of sources and are forced to make sense of definitions found in different
jurisdictions.
Provide front-line workers with tools to analyze trends.
• Managers need to provide tools to their front-line staff. Like traffic cops, front-line workers need
maps, dispatchers, and tracking systems. This is particularly important to validate the
efficiency of information products. Statistics about usage will be extremely valuable for designing
the next version of a Web site. They indicate what should be on the home page, and how it should
be presented. In some departments, a senior management committee at the assistant deputy minister
level regularly reviews the top 10 products and the origin of the requests. Without the support of
senior management, it might be more difficult to see the whole picture, as not all sectors share the
information they capture.
• The more horizontal an information product-the more the product spans a variety of departmentsthe harder it can be to capture usage statistics. Central agencies play a key role in providing an
infrastructure to share this information.
Integrate front-line operations with communications functions.
Front-line workers can be more efficient if they are integrated closely with the multimedia units and
the communications functions and have access to all relevant information. This integration can increase
efficiency in many ways. The probing guides used by call-centre staff to help them assist clients can
also be adapted to the on-line environment to help clients who like to navigate on their own.
Recognize that front-line staff in the regions may need more decision-making skills.
Being closer to the client, those on the front lines in the regions may need more judgment and
decision-making skills.
Use the front lines in an emergency.
In special situations-emergencies, for example-the front lines can be a very efficient tool for
sending out messages that need to reach the public. Sometimes, it is particularly important that
front-line workers echo carefully the arguments and messages presented by the department's minister.
Relationship to Other Archetypes
The majority of front-line workers are actors in many scenarios of e-government. They are the first
point of contact of a government committed to making on-line presence a central component of
increased transparency and service transformation. Therefore, they are bound to cross paths with most
archetypes but more frequently with the following:
1. With the expert:
Along with the quantity of information available, the level of expertise rises everywhere.
20
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Citizens contacting the front lines are more informed and quicker to request expert knowledge.
To improve service, those on the front lines need to become more like experts. They are,
however, dependent on experts for the initial information they pass on to citizens and, in some
cases, the experts resist transferring their knowledge to the front lines. Large integrated national
call centres tend to accept this easily, as they would much rather have the experts communicate
directly with the public. Sometimes, call centres make the decision about which information
requests they will pass on to experts to handle. The experts are often involved in determining
this benchmark because they provide the information to the front lines. By deciding whether
and to whom calls are referred, front-line workers can potentially control or even block the flow
of information back to the experts.
2. With the caseworker:
In an effort to increase efficiency, some departments are putting in place processes that are
similar to the practices adopted in Wal-Mart and other major self-service retail stores. Like
self-service chains, some government call centres have established a first point of contact and a
last point of contact to help them monitor and increase the speed of response to inquiries.
Front-line workers become a central link between the expert and the client, a position that
corresponds to that of the caseworker. Particularly in the regions, this increases the likelihood
that citizens will request their advice and help for transactions.
3. With the information synthesist:
Front-line workers do a simplified version of information synthesis by interpreting their traffic
statistics.
4. With the communications officer:
Senior communications managers are starting to pay attention to call-centre statistics, which
often show users calling for support on a Web site. Front-line officers can predict which
information products will fail and often surprise the communications services by how specific
they can be. The centralization of call- centre services can be a threat to the department's
brand. For example, the single window for Canadians (i.e. 1-800-O-Canada) gives visibility to
the Government of Canada, but not to individual departments.
Archetype 2: The Caseworker
Caseworkers are not a product of e-government, but ICTs now allow them to be connected to their
data, reducing the time they spend on non-client activities and enabling them to quickly start
interventions on behalf of their clients.
Caseworkers have heavy caseloads, but they are empowered by desktop capacity-performing tasks
previously handled by people in several positions. They hold the citizen's hand through the
decision-making that derives from an ever-growing array of on-line information. Although they might
fear their interactions will be depersonalized, their "face time" with individuals in their care is
reportedly of higher quality.
21
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
A variety of case management technologies (CMTs) are being used to allow access to individual files,
as governments rush to develop Customer Relationship Management (CRM) solutions for their on-line
activities. In fact, other archetypes-the front-line worker, the expert, and the cluster manager, for example-feel they are becoming caseworkers, but they are not sure what this means. The difference between
caseworkers and other archetypes is that caseworkers are more likely to make decisions on behalf of or
about clients. Caseworkers can be as close to the front line as call-centre staff-just a phone call away
from the client group-but their job is to go further and actually help citizens conduct transactions.
Environment
Social services use case management technologies for traditional case management and for risk
assessment. Variables are weighed based on previous outcomes and serve to predict future outcomes.
(The use of this methodology with historical data on child abuse resulted in a predictor rate of 90
percent.11 )
The concept of caseworker is also applied in business processes to enhance productivity, cooperation
and customer focus. There are many examples, ranging from the very directed, inflexible and guided
jobs of telemarketing, to the very creative pursuits of engineers, researchers and software designers.
The trend in government is to provide a repository of data accessible to both employees and citizens,
tailored so that each can find content specific to their needs. They may, for example, need to locate
resources or determine their eligibility to a program. This repository includes processes to analyze data,
target strategies, collaborate and leverage resources, as well as track and monitor progress.
Archetype Used
No archetype was identified in the interviews that led up to the roundtable meetings. The roots of
caseworkers in the care professions, and the quality of thoroughness cited by interviewees, guided the
search for images. The multimedia group chose a mature, no-nonsense, smiling lady with a briefcase.
She seemed to most embody the qualities of caring and thoroughness. (One participant observed that
when he started in the public service, caseworkers in Manpower centres would indeed be very
thorough, keeping a close eye on their clients and making sure they did not miss any job opportunities.)
However, the characteristic of caring was debated-some noted that opposed to being the champion of a
cause, many caseworkers operate in a legalistic environment.
The author and the multimedia group overlooked a small detail: although all participants at the
roundtable were mature, no-nonsense and smiling, not one of them was a lady!
11
Statistic provided in a May 2003 personal communication with Dr. Susan C. Kinney, Director of Research, Center for the Study of Youth Policy,
University of Pennsylvania School of Social Work.
22
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Key Learnings
Teamwork is crucial to case management.
In the network environment, caseworkers expect the information they get about a client to be
comprehensive. Networks give caseworkers access to a wide range of expertise, which forces them to
work in collaboration with other jurisdictions. For example, an officer responsible for a pension
transaction will often have to consider tax issues.
Case management technology standardizes decision-making processes.
In situations where points are attributed-immigration applications, for example-CMTs minimize
mistakes that can lead to judicial reviews of decision-making processes. Since some claims may be
simpler to process, CMTs analyze trends and identify claim categories that can be speeded up.
Case management technology helps deliver more personalized service.
By presenting an integrated picture of the client, CMTs allow services to be more personalized in some
instances. Officers who have strived to distance themselves from the idea that a client is a "file"
welcome this. Now all the information is readily available at their fingertips, increasing the quality of
the time spent face to face.
There are limits to the benefits of standardization.
It might be tempting to standardize and automate every process, and technology vendors are sometimes
quick to entertain this thought. However, patterns in cases can change rapidly, in particular when
clients are abroad. In such cases, while tasks like file creation are best done centrally, the process of
decision-making has to be handled by people in the field, and sometimes the processes are too locally
rooted to be standardized at headquarters.
Clients have become more demanding.
Like citizens who come to meetings with front-line workers well prepared, the clients of caseworkers
are better informed and more demanding. They can self-select in or out of any particular process. (For
example, non-Canadians who understand the selection criteria for immigration may not apply when
they realize they do not fit the minimum educational requirements.) In fact, some clients have become
much more sophisticated in how they present their case/claim, requiring a corresponding increase in
the sophistication of the caseworker. Clients are often quite adept at aligning their stories with the
profiles of applications that yield positive results.
Clients need to prepare a complete file.
Like call-centre clients, claimants and clients of caseworkers are increasingly required to assemble a
complete file of all relevant documentation before interacting with the caseworker.
Application
Separate routine and value-added functions.
Caseworkers notoriously want to start with a blank sheet of paper and not too many rules. Managers
have to make sure that this approach does not become overly expensive. Processes should be analyzed,
then routine and value-added functions should be separated. Assistants can deal with the various
23
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
compliance steps that often involve a series of information checks based on fact analysis. This may
mean that some clerical positions are upgraded because the data entry process will be coupled with
some information management tasks that require analysis and synthesis. However, this could still be
cost saving by conserving the time of senior staff for more complex value judgments.
Track and analyze claim decisions.
Use CMTs to track and analyze claim decisions to identify acceptable ranges for such decisions.
Regional differences may reveal a lot about value judgments, and might sometimes reflect an
unacceptable level of variance. This does not mean that local officers must necessarily lose discretion,
but staff in the regions will be able to share experiences and expertise using comparable measures.
Use case management technologies proactively.
CMTs can be used proactively to advise people up front. This does not mean operating like the private
sector, which uses CMTs for direct marketing, but it can be a way of cutting through the complexity of
services and tailoring the service more suitably for the clients.
Involve staff in the design of the case management application.
Staff should be involved in designing the case management application by analyzing the information
they need to make appropriate decisions. This is sometimes described as a knowledge audit.
Choose a case management model.
What kind of case management model should be used? Break down the processes and then decide. In a
consultation model, experts are there simply to give advice. In a contribution model, they are
empowered to use CMTs to proceed with part of the transaction. In another model, they are part of the
decision-making team.
Have the client key in the data.
Adjustments to the on-line process so that clients key in their own data will decrease costs to the
department and probably increase accuracy. Make sure, though, that policy or business specialists are
available to support this holistic client approach.
Recognize that information sharing is limited.
Due to privacy considerations, there is a limit to how much sharing of clients' data among departments
is possible.
Relationship to Other Archetypes
1. With the front-line worker:
Caseworkers will be saved a considerable amount of time if front-line workers are required to
inform the client on what constitutes a complete file. Gone are the days when caseworkers
engaged in a "pleasant correspondence" with clients, requesting paper after paper until they
were able to start the transaction process. However, front-line agents may be tempted to act as
caseworkers, particularly if they are close to the client. As indicated earlier, they are sometimes
in a position to facilitate a transaction and mediate between experts. When breaking down the
24
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
processes of case management and establishing a model, front-line staff might be considered as
a part of the case management team contributing to the necessary steps to assemble the
complete file. They have a crucial relationship with the caseworker.
2. With the cluster manager:
The trend to be client-centric is propelled by clusters and case management technology. Some
clusters are directly inspired by the holistic approach of in-person case management. By
aggregating just the right information for their clients, clusters bring caseworkers an essential
element of their work and they might want to explore the clusters relevant to their client
services.
3. With the communications officer:
In providing advice proactively, caseworkers do a type of marketing. Caseworkers require
just-in-time information products so they are aware of all services that can be useful to clients
and advise them when appropriate. With their experience, caseworkers can contribute ideas to
the development of these information tools. Communications officers may be concerned that
caseworkers are not strategic enough in their marketing efforts.
Archetype 3: The Expert
Experts may now be present even in clerical groups, where they may influence the movement of
millions of dollars, for example when calls come in requesting interpretation of details of the new
budget. Or, they may be at the highest echelons of their scientific category, but still spend time
carefully explaining the latest regulations directly to stakeholders.
For some experts, it is refreshing to be able to connect directly with the public instead of working
through a public relations intermediary. They love difficult questions, and there are more and more of
those. Other experts choose to avoid this new wave of information dissemination on the phone. They
want to do what they are best at–creating knowledge.
The ranks of first-level service providers are backed by a growing number of experts trained in very
specific subject areas. As the level of specialization increases, automated wizards and expert systems
are considered.
Environment
As in the private sector, the network environment in government creates pressure to respond quickly
and accurately to customers and stakeholders. The public service is developing ways to tap into its
intellectual capital-its most important resource. Many projects are underway to identify, locate and
share knowledge across the organization. Some organizations, such as the Department of National
Defence, have initiated a knowledge audit to determine what knowledge is needed and what knowledge
is available or missing. Others, such as Transport Canada, have drawn knowledge maps to capture,
retain, and disseminate the tacit knowledge of employees with specialized experience.
25
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
In both the public and private sectors, knowledge capture and transfer are often best achieved through
individual contacts and communities of practice. This is because learning is social in nature, based on
trust, credibility and professional competence. Technology-based solutions do not transfer these human
elements well.
Among scientists, there are those who do research because they love their field, and those who wish to
see how widely their work can be disseminated and how relevant it is. In scientific departments, two
new broad categories of employees seem to be emerging: the expert and the guide. The network
environment is expanding the role of the guide in finding expert information.
Archetypes Used
Yoda and Obi-Wan Kenobi–the Wise Men from Star Wars–emerged as the most obvious modern
representatives of this archetype. But expert knowledge is not always reassuring and, willingly or not,
experts sometimes use their knowledge to frighten the client.
Hermes was the second archetype used. This versatile Greek is both the god of communication and the
god of hidden knowledge. In the legend, he schemes to obtain the secret of alchemy. Hermes kept the
mystical metals that turn matter into gold in a hermetically sealed cauldron.
Roundtable participants suggested that Hercules be added to the list of archetypes because he did
twelve things well, capturing the multi-tasking nature of the expert's work in the information age.
Key Learnings
The need for experts can be reduced.
On-line information allows citizens to find many answers by themselves, but often they need an expert
to refine or validate the information they have found. The need to involve experts simply to validate
information can be reduced considerably when the Web site development team monitors clients'
requests, and updates the information accordingly.
Knowledge creates an appetite for more knowledge.
The more information you provide on-line, the more you create an appetite for it. For example,
information on snow tires on Transport Canada's Web site lead to requests for comparisons among
brands. In some organizations, adult educators are brought in to assist in meeting this demand. They
combine technical knowledge with pedagogical skills. They also serve as gatekeepers to the scientific
experts, who may prefer to get only the "good" questions. The French term vulgarisateur, meaning
"populariser", describes this growing function.
Guides are needed to help locate experts.
Although many scientists prefer to drill deeply into their subject rather than spread their knowledge,
others wish to see how widely their work can be distributed and how relevant it is. But when
responding to inquiries, organizations need to know where specific information is located.
26
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Guides-either human or technology-enabled-are required to help locate experts possessing very
specialized information.
Experts work as part of multidisciplinary teams.
A network environment enables experts to function in multidisciplinary teams. For example, the
integration of police information brings together experts on taxes, law and procurement from federal
and provincial jurisdictions. Experts from one department need to be able to translate their expertise for
those of other departments.
Application
Use adult educators in call centres.
Using adult educators in call centres to deliver information to the public can be an efficient alternative
to outreach and in-person public education programs, and can help reduce the number of people in the
field.
Filter questions referred to experts.
A lot of scientists and experts like to talk about what they know, and they learn from the questions they
get. Various models exist to filter questions so experts are not inundated with repetitive queries but get
enough "interesting" questions.
Encourage expertise within the clerical ranks.
In some organizations, clerical staff accumulates a considerable amount of knowledge by being closely
involved in communications processes, where key messages are being crafted and reviewed regularly.
They are responsible for circulating and storing these messages. They know who the ultimate experts
are and where to find them. In other organizations, the training of clerical staff has shifted from
detailed content to techniques for locating the available information. The focus has moved from giving
the right content to knowing how to access it.
Understand the broader context.
With integrated Web sites and call centres, pockets of expertise are becoming national in scope and
experts need to know the regulations and context in many jurisdictions.
Facilitate the exchange of information among disciplines.
Experts and scientists working in multidisciplinary teams need to facilitate the exchange of information
among disciplines. To encourage complete information sharing, communities of interest require
skilfully gathered content. Like the subject experts, two types of content managers are needed: those
with deep knowledge who are able to identify the best content, and facilitators who foster connections
and contacts. Content managers must develop an aptitude for problem solving, which can be crucial in
multidisciplinary groups.
Use plain language.
Experts need to explain their subject matter to the public, while also using terminology that is
understood by experts in other fields. Experts' terminology can and should be made easier for the
public and experts in other fields to understand.
27
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Support the introvert experts.
Some experts are scientists who love their subject matter but tend not to communicate it. The managers
of these "introvert" experts should help them connect with colleagues abroad and in multinational
organizations, and encourage them to use networks to help make research more relevant to users.
Use on-line resources to increase influence.
The creation of centres of expertise with on-line information resources increases an organization's
influence. Combining the depth of expertise in a department with the breadth derived from related
disciplines magnifies trust in the subject matter. This approach can boost the impact of the department's
brand-for example, the trust in a department's information on transportation, financial, or health
questions.
Map knowledge.
Knowledge mapping in an organization can be done in a variety of ways. Some staff track expertise
through directories, which are the equivalent of Yellow Pages. Others track the various stages of
business processes and the knowledge required by each.
Relationship to Other Archetypes
1. With the front-line worker:
Increasingly, call centres are responding efficiently to detailed inquires without burdening the
experts. However, experts are still relied on to provide written answers through e-mail. To
facilitate the delegation of this function to the front-line staff, many departments are developing
guidelines on e-mail inquiries.
2. With the information synthesist:
Information synthesists and experts understand each other, but their different roles often
generate tension. Both bring together trends. The synthesist has a broad but shallower view of
meta-data that experts may not regard as important within their more circumscribed area of
synthesis. Information synthesists work with expert knowledge and act as bridges, often trying
to eliminate expert jargon. Experts are often concerned that information synthesists may
repurpose pieces of information in a way that could put the experts' data out of context.
3. With the cluster manager:
Like the information synthesist, the cluster manager is an aggregator who may request that
expert information be adapted to a different context with different terminology. This can be an
irritant for experts who value protecting the integrity of their knowledge, or an opportunity for
those who want to highlight the relevance of their work.
4. With the policy analyst:
Search tools and expert systems allow policy developers to believe they can be instant experts.
28
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Archetype 4: The Information Synthesist
The information synthesist is like a librarian-but in the network age. Information synthesists are
sometimes called information brokers, information architects or content aggregators. Their proliferation
has been assured by the abundance and accessibility of on-line information. Those who know where
the information lies, in what format it resides, and the quickest route to it are valued as champions who
sort the information and retain pertinent data. Particularly in the government on-line (GOL) context,
information synthesists make sure that scientific databases can be linked and integrated, and that
information can be interpreted.
Since many of these functions are similar to those of market research, departments with economic
activities have led the way in developing information synthesists. In departments such as Industry
Canada, many former administrative assistants took advantage of programs to train in these new
functions and tools. Patterning customer needs and usage of services is becoming prevalent in all
departments. Everyone does not yet understand the value proposition, but as organizations move
toward metrics and satisfaction measurements for services, these skills will become more applicable.
There have always been librarians with these skills in the public service. With synthesists in business
units, the librarian's skill mix of technical knowledge and intuition is now spreading. This allows
government to support increased understanding and informed decision-making at the regional level,
and enables horizontal cooperation and collaboration.
Two examples given by interviewees of organizations fulfilling an information synthesist function were
the Canadian Police Information Centre and the Canadian Public Safety Information Network.
Environment
It is estimated that 9 out of 10 interactions on the Internet involve the exchange of information. The
need for processes surrounding the creation, capture, organization, management and dissemination of
information on intranets, extranets and the Internet is growing. Some surveys show that improved
usability is the most pressing need identified by organizations.
Content management tools are often proposed as solutions. However, no matter how sophisticated they
are and how much automation they provide, a new approach to content development and a new
generation of content managers is required. The growth of content management produces process
management issues: process support runs a close second in the pressing needs of organizations. This is
particularly the case with cross-departmental collaboration and workflow. The current state of diverse
legacy systems makes integration challenging andusually the first step needed is to get agreement on
the technology that will replace existing systems. Managing inter-organizational information first
requires attention to processes of consensus building and cooperative behaviour rather than step-bystep development of new system architecture.
A considerable breakthrough is expected with XML, the new standard for mark-up language.
Unstructured documents can be aggregated and made machine-readable on the fly using XML
templates.
29
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Archetypes Used
In this case, the images suggested provoked instant resistance. Information synthesists are sometimes
described as road warriors, forcing their way through silos of information surrounded by elaborate
defence systems, crossing a no man's land and making a dash to freedom-of information. A spy like the
characters in the movie Mission Impossible was suggested. Some participants in the preliminary
interviews talked about "torturing data" and the odd feeling of "stealing information" that should
otherwise be available and searchable.
However, this image hit a sensitive chord by challenging the ethos of integrity of the public service.
After reaching a consensus that this image should be quickly discarded, the conversation went on. Yet
this archetype was strong, and the image came back at the end of the roundtable.
Key Learnings
Information synthesists give information its context.
Like cluster managers, information synthesists are products of the information age. ICTs allow them to
give context to information that was otherwise hidden or buried.
Information synthesists have the ability to add value.
A search on the Government Electronic Directory shows many terms for occupations that did not exist
10 years ago–content aggregators, content managers, information architects, information brokers. All
are terms used to describe the ability to add value by aggregating and synthesizing content. Information
synthesists differ from librarians because they dig through data and synthesize it, rather than
cataloguing it. Also, they are located directly within a business unit.
Human interface is important.
Having been drawn into the information age by seductive technologies in recent years, information
synthesists can get carried away with technological "toys," but are now recognizing the importance of
human interface. Though trained in data analysis, they are beginning to recognize the importance of
emotional intelligence.
Adding value to information is a service.
With time in these new roles, information synthesists are becoming integrated into the service community and influenced by the service competency profile. Adding value to information is a service that
will be better if it comes from people who like to help and who find value in sustaining others.
There are still many non-technical tasks.
No matter how techno-savvy information synthesists are, they soon find out that there is still a lot of
less glamorous work to be done. They have to create summaries of databases and meta-data. Much
important information and knowledge is still off-line or in a difficult-to-access format.
30
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Information synthesists must be able to project themselves into other contexts.
To decide whether to trust data/information produced by others, information synthesists must assess the
judgment of the creators of the information. This assessment requires an ability to project themselves
into another person's context.
You had to be there.
Contexts and cultures have different implicit assumptions that can affect the way information is
interpreted, but usually these assumptions can only be discerned from direct contact with that situation.
Application
Exercise leadership.
They can build information products, but information synthesists realize that a community will use any
data made available. Unless there is a defined community of people who want the data, there is no
leverage to get information from people who don't want to give it up. Exercising leadership to create
buy-in, often within their own departments, means that relationships are very important to information
synthesists.
Link junior and senior information synthesists.
Until the new processes of the information age become clearer, there will be many discrepancies in the
system and some may turn out to be costly. Like their colleagues who manage caseworkers, the
managers of information synthesists will find senior staff sometimes doing jobs that can be done more
efficiently by junior staff. There are other advantages to linking junior people, adept at searching the
Internet, with senior people who have the experience and tacit knowledge required to position the
information in a useful way. Though senior people might not always be as skilled as some junior staff
in retrieving data on the Internet, they often have an essential information-finding asset-corporate
memory. They know where information is located in the organization, which is often still a major issue.
Use data mining to produce information products.
Successful information products can be developed from data mining. Statistics Canada, Strategis, and
PWGSC, for example, have done this in order to offer on-line statistics and sharing patterns, trends,
and other research data.
Emphasize the use of intuition in the analysis of results.
Although analysis is essential, managers also need information synthesists with intuition. Dealing with
a huge amount of information requires skills that are similar to those used by researchers in an
academic setting to "triangulate" search results.
Relationship to Other Archetypes
1. With the policy analyst:
Governments write policy about what they measure. Policy analysts will rely on information
synthesists to dig out and reveal data that will shape the context of policy.
31
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
2. With the expert:
Information synthesists translate the jargon of one set of experts so that a different set of
experts can use the information in their endeavours. They act as a bridge between expert
terminologies. For example information synthesists can integrate information from external
experts for internal experts, who can then provide this information to front-line staff.
Information synthesists will seek an alliance with cluster managers to strike an agreement with
experts to explain the "code" in laymen's terms. They want to make sure popular terminology is
used instead of jargon and "techno-babble." (A recent example of the use of arcane terminology
by the federal government is the term "bulk water removal" to refer to water exports, the term
more commonly used in the media and by the public. It is highly unlikely that citizens, even
those who closely follow environmental issues, will find any information catalogued under
"water exports". Information synthesists are aware that masses of information cannot be shared
because scientists have difficulty avoiding the use of scientific terms.)
3. With the integrator:
Particularly in the GOL context, they work together linking scientific databases so that
information can be integrated and interpreted.
Archetype 5: The Policy Analyst
The work of policy analysts has always supported decision makers, but policy analysts in the network
age are widening their traditional analytical abilities. They are developing sophisticated coordination
skills to make sense of the many strategies at use simultaneously across multiple forums. They develop
their external relationships by providing information, not opinions, but these interactions still blur the
boundaries with elected officials. Although they recognize the difficulties associated with these
interactions sometimes transforming into conversations with citizens, the qualitative evidence they
gather is increasingly recognized as an important part of their job to support elected officials in
decision-making.
Environment
The jury is still out on the role of technology in society. Some observers argue that the number of civic
associations is in decline and blame television.12 Others offer a different point of view based on the
creation of many citizen-sector organizations over the last 30 years. According to some observers, the
past two decades have seen an explosion of entrepreneurship in the social sector in response to the
disengagement of the welfare state. This is having an impact on both the private and public sectors as
these entrepreneurs build networks, generate good will, and serve as bridges between national bodies
and local communities.
The policy process is no longer a matter of consultation with a limited group. Information technology
allows for deep networking, and eyes turn toward those societies that can cultivate these networks most
12
Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, by Robert D. Putnam (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000).
32
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
intensely. For governments, this means more institutional arrangements to harmonize individual
pursuits with collective welfare.
The same dynamic applies at the international level. The number of international non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) expanded dramatically in the late 1990s. Similarly, there are thousands of
sub-national governments, each with a multiplicity of agencies. Policies are also emerging among
global communities of interest consisting of government agencies dealing with similar issues. All
policies become foreign policies.
The rapid evolution of issues brings to the fore a different approach. Incrementalism is a growing
trend. Instead of the old "Decide-Announce-Defend" model, policy-making becomes an exercise of
trial balloons.
Archetypes Used
The term "policy entrepreneurs" is increasingly used by policy officials to refer to the growing number
of people in civil society who build consensus on policy issues and turn discussion into action. Two
archetypal entrepreneurs were presented to participants. A photograph of Henry Ford, the inventor of
the famous Model T automobile, was used to picture wealth creation. A portrait of Florence
Nightingale, whose determination led to a vast reform of health care in nineteenth-century Great
Britain, reminded participants of how the creation of social capital can be just as valuable for society.
While participants recognized some "policy entrepreneurs" within the ranks of the public service, they
were quick to distance themselves from the term because they felt it conflicted with their ethic of
public service neutrality. They did recognize that many of the stakeholders they deal with are described
by this term.
A nineteenth-century print showing a large rowboat sinking in stormy waters, surrounded by drowning
rowers, reminded participants of the dangers of rowing the policy boat.
Key Learnings
Networks provide opportunities for interaction with stakeholders.
Networks provide more opportunities for policy analysts to engage in conversations with stakeholders.
This creates a shift away from pure analysis and their traditional expert opinion role, which is fine as
long as the conversations focus on facts and information rather than opinions or speculation.
Policy analysts recognize their role in relation to the role of Parliament.
This shift reminds policy analysts of the importance of Parliament when issues requiring value
judgments surface. They reflect the rules-based Westminster style of public administration, which is
limited in the extent of the decision-making granted public servants. This system might slow down
policy development, but for now the entrepreneurial spirit in policy-making resides in the House of
Commons and not in the public service corridors of the Langevin Block.
33
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Managers must not become merely program advocates.
Although it is essential that they use networks to increase their expertise and gain strength from
like-minded communities, managers must also find a balance. The networked environment amplifies
issues and managers who are using the Internet can get caught in this noise. They can turn into
advocates while garnering support for their program.
Some approaches inhibit sound policy development.
Groups that use networks to put together a compelling story and develop institutional legitimacy and
credibility sometimes force a quick policy response. Groups jump at the opportunity to organize and
protest in unison. Policy makers call this the "rent-a-clown" effect. This inhibits a reasoned and
consensus-building approach to policy development.
Networks create expectations for greater transparency.
A networked environment allows for greater transparency and raises expectations that everything will
be transparent. This is particularly the case for local issues. Networking technologies can drive the
level of policies at a very local level, where highly specific issues come up and there is increased need
for privacy and confidentiality.
Longer-term approaches are not encouraged.
Much of the research and analysis seems to be oriented toward the present. The pressure of today's
rapidly moving world, the expansion of sources of information, and the speed of change all discourage
the longer-term view that once was taken.
Available analysis is less likely to be substantive and from a neutral source.
Stakeholders such as NGOs have developed powerful mechanisms to serve their own interests. There is
a large set of facts and interpretations that is very political, and politicized. There is less substantive
analysis from neutral sources than there used to be.
Application
Use the Internet to get insights from local staff.
Use the Internet to get insights from local staff on policy issues. Local employees feel that they are, in
general, very different from headquarters staff and have different needs. Sharing new experiences
among people in different parts of the country will force headquarters to think in local terms, helping
to design policies that will stick when implemented locally. There may be reluctance to speak out
because bosses can read the comments staff post on a discussion board. Local managers need to avoid
trying to shape what local employees are saying.
Leave room for front-line program officers to exercise judgment.
A sort of rigidity comes with technology. After having used it to reach out to the local level to guide
policy development, there might be a tendency to use technology to centralize implementation and
remove all discretion from local offices. Headquarters tend to want to stamp one solution on everybody's problems. Thinking through the objective elements is important so that front-line program officers can exercise their judgment when applying policies.
34
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Reach citizens directly on-line.
Use the on-line environment to reach citizens directly and not just their representatives. Policy analysts
sometimes feel that they are caught between conflicting stakeholders and they wonder where citizens
stand. They are sceptical about the concept of "grasstops"-the leaders of the grassroots-and suspect that
interest groups are not always connected to their base.
Promote citizen engagement through the Internet.
The networked environment can help move a citizen from "I don't care," to "I'm interested," to "I'm
going to do something about it," to "I'm going to organize something." Public servants can use the
Internet to increase the stimulus and trigger a response much the same way activists do. Networking
technologies allow them first to get citizens interested by putting up a Web site, then get them involved
with a regular mailing list, and so on. As they go along, it becomes easier to crank up the level of
response, the result being that citizens may remain engaged for a long time.
Relationship to Other Archetypes
1. With the expert:
Policy staff can be tempted to believe that the age of the expert is over. With the ready
availability of information on the Internet, one can acquire a high level of expertise in a short
period of time. Just-in-time learning is a benefit of networks and an intelligent discourse on any
subject can be put together quickly. This may lead policy analysts to overlook the final 10 to 20
percent of an expert's knowledge, which is made up of the essential elements of experience,
judgment, and gut feel. At the same time, the legitimacy of experts is often questioned because
of the amount of information that is shaped to serve particular interests. Government experts
become particularly valuable for policy shops that find it difficult to get a neutral point of view
from an outside expert.
2. With the consultation officer:
Policy and consultation officers are joined at the hip in the networked environment. Of course,
some policy projects will be criticized by stakeholders, and the structure of the public forum
has to be thought out in light of audiences to reach and goals to attain.
3. With the information synthesist:
Considering the wide range and often conflicting sources of expertise, the information
synthesist will play an important role by identifying credible and reliable sources of
advice/opinion.
4. With the communications officer:
With a closer connection to local staff, communications officers will be needed to help
articulate policy directions using locally applicable reference points. Local officers are reluctant
to immerse themselves in complex and abstract policy papers, and they need tangible material
to guide their judgment when they apply policies.
35
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Fragmentation and amplification of voices increase media relations activity, and stakeholders are quick
to go directly to the mass media on an issue. Policy analysts, therefore, have growing expectations that
media relations officers will be particularly attentive to policy issues.
Archetype 6: The Communications Officer
Communications officers have always had an ear to the ground. The work pace has always been quick,
and they cannot run faster. Now, they can use the power of the network to create an advantage.
The networked environment has prepared communications officers to deal with a broader range of
issues and enhanced their tool set. Using Web monitoring that employs Perl scripts to detect keywords,
they can develop an in-house capability to regularly monitor issues, which works even when stories
break at the other end of the world while they are sleeping. The information collected by the
monitoring activities is essential to anticipate policy issues and develop crisis management plans
specifically targeted to small groups.
They find that re-shaping their information into various formats goes a long way in a multi-channel
environment. Journalists now go to the Internet to develop story ideas. A solid briefing package now
comes not only with a news release but also with fact sheets, a CD and a Web site.
Environment
The revolution in communications supported by the Internet has had a profound impact on the public
relations industry. Reputations can be destroyed very quickly on the basis of mere rumours, and viral
marketing techniques draw communications specialists into the murkier depths of the Internet.
Communications officers have access to a wide range of public opinions through chat rooms, message
boards and personal Web sites. These external sites can multiply, control or damage, and therefore
much higher importance is placed on government communications that may inform their activities.
The CRM software industry has created a widespread belief that the market is evolving toward a
one-on-one relationship, as in the good old days of local businesses where customers had a close
personal relationship with the companies they did business with. Although public relations
professionals agree on the value of real-time relationships, whether this really works in government is
subject to debate. The entire range of stakeholders must be thoroughly addressed–customers,
businesses, NGOs, media. It is a complex task sometimes made more difficult because citizens are
more sensitive to their privacy when it comes to their relationships with government.
Archetypes Used
An evocative picture of a threatening demonstrator at the 2001 G8 Summit in Quebec City triggered a
negative reaction. The picture was proposed as a way to describe the context in which public servants
deal with "network armies." The portrait of Central American revolutionary Che Guevara attracted a
36
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
similar reaction. Everybody agreed that many cyber-activists have his portrait on their wall, but the
picture provoked a discussion around the stereotyping of activists into unruly hoodlums.
Cyber-activists may, in fact, be soccer moms and retired public servants that take advantage of
Canada's connectedness and easy access mechanisms.
Throughout the process, contemporary personalities were suggested as role models. In the case of the
communicator archetype for example, the temptation to use Photoshop skills to equip Mount Olympus
communicator-extraordinaire Hermes with a BlackBerry was discarded. As an alternative, one
participant suggested that Peter Shankman, founder of The Geek Factory13 and described as
"redefining the art of networking," exemplified the character of the communicator of the third
millennium. Another example was Ottawa's Pierre Bourque, who has created a Web site with links to
news media around the world.14 These examples did help define characteristics; however, unless they
are very famous, references to contemporary personalities only go so far.
Key Learnings
New publishing tools are being used to influence public opinion.
Increasingly, new technologies are being used to help form and influence public opinion. The past
decade has engendered a variety of Web publishing tools that allow groups and individuals to spread
their views. Blogs are an example of an alternative to the conventional way of disseminating
information. They are the Web version of a daily journal, more appealing to the eye than e-mail lists.
Creative and expressive individuals who like to spread their ideas use them to rally like-minded people.
These publishing techniques have made some individuals very influential and given them a large
following. There might be only a few hundred regular readers, but thousands in secondary audiences
are influenced by redirected e-mails.
Activists are going mainstream.
Experience has shown that given the right issue and the right amount of anger, people will mobilize
and become active if they know how and where. The on-line environment has given organized groups a
stronger voice. While the louder voices have been associated with citizens who acted and looked on the
radical fringes of society, the silent majority has more recently taken advantage of the increased
connectedness in Canada. Activists are becoming mainstream. These activists may be soccer moms or
retired public servants. They are of different ages and of different sociological backgrounds, and they
use community access sites or ethnic meeting places.
Issue management is more critical.
Issue management is much more critical because the Internet increases people's ability to come
together on issues that affect them. Communications officers feel burned out because they increasingly
need to respond to transitory but "hot" issues. It sometimes feels like technology makes them more
ineffective. This removes them even further from policy and strategic decisions.
13
14
On-line at http://www.geekfactory.com/who.html
On-line at http://www.bourque.com
37
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
The external audience is increasingly fragmented.
Communications officers need to deal with an increasingly fragmented external audience at the same
time as they are internally working in a significantly more horizontal way. An growing variety of major
policy issues are jointly managed by a number of departments, which increases the number of
audiences communications officers have to consider. By pointing out audiences that policy makers
have not been paying attention to before, they might be forcing policy decisions toward the centre.
Information is often unusable.
Information products developed in the past decade have brought a considerable amount of information
to the public, but the usability of these sources is still rudimentary. For example, the Government of
Canada offers huge databases of information that require high-powered analysts to understand them.
Application
Use the power of networks.
Working with the power of networks is a major trend in on-line issue management. Partners and close
stakeholders can be kept aware of departmental views through regular updates using e-mail alerts and
extranets that restrict access to organizations and their partners. Some private sector organizations manage their intranets by showcasing regular updates and key messages on major issues of interest. They
go as far as providing contact databases and tailored messages to influence stakeholder communities.
However, this approach is not applicable in the public service where it might challenge the public servants' neutrality ethic.
Take advantage of the distributed structure of peer groups.
Communications officers should consider the many relationships developed in the network age by
organizations and take advantage of the distributed structure of peer groups.
Use e-mail to help gauge opinion.
Even if not comparable to a formal scientific survey, e-mail can be considered a credible gauge of
opinions. Using appropriate tools to analyze patterns in e-mail and learning from qualitative evidence
can provide a valuable source of insights about a client population.
Use network issue-tracking techniques.
Networking offers many tools to get involved before issues reach the point where they enter the public
and political arenas. Using issue-tracking techniques and banner ads, departments can detect emerging
issues and try to influence their development before they become major public issues.
Take advantage of the credibility of the source.
Because the Government of Canada is an authoritative source in an environment where sources are
often dubious and questioned, the Government's brand as well as the brand of individual departments
can be enhanced and used to advantage in the on-line environment. Don't be shy-clearly identify that
the information on your site is from a government source.
38
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Beware of the many traps of Customer (or Citizen) Relationship Management.
This technology sector has created the impression that with sophisticated tools governments can
employ the "market-of-one" technique just like the private sector, providing personalized public services. There are limits to the efficiency of technology solutions, no matter how sophisticated the software.
Know the stakeholder and use solid tools for content management.
A no-nonsense way to create good service is to use a solid definition of stakeholder groups reached by
applying tools of content management and thorough meta-data to build interactive databases that
enhance user experience. To get the right information into the hands of the right stakeholders, get to
know those stakeholders and the keywords they are likely to use in an Internet search.
Increase the use of pre-approved communications packages.
Communications officers should increase the use of pre-approved, "gatekeeperless" communications
packages to take advantage of the increased appetite for information of a variety of micro-media catering to smaller audiences. Prepare stories, fact sheets and video clips, and give the media instant pictures of important events. Consider using Webcasting. All this will help meet the needs of journalists
who have tight deadlines. Engage program managers to develop tips based on the department's
research. Make sure links to Web information resources are highlighted.
Protect brand identity.
Brand identity must be protected from theft and fraud. The on-line environment is prone to identity
theft, and some creative thieves have managed to fool citizens by disguising their offerings as
Government of Canada services.
Relationship to Other Archetypes
1. With the information synthesist:
Collaboration on many fronts is a must. Using data generated by on-line activities, information
synthesists can help communicators understand the undercurrents of opinion. To help create better
information products, information synthesists may identify unexpected audiences and attractive
ways of packaging the information created by communicators.
Communicators have a very different view of document structure than information synthesists:
putting the spokesperson's name and crafting a title is a communicator's idea of document
management. Information synthesists might feel underutilized in some communications shops if
managers do not understand the process of adding value to information through synthesis, or the
importance of making sure that the proper information is tagged to reach the right audience.
A good example of efficient information management is the "related links" automatically created
for users of on-line news services. Users can instantly examine other aspects of a topic after
reading the on-line news by taking advantage of these links. This kind of information management
provides added value to stakeholders.
2. With the cluster manager:
Communicators might want to take advantage of extranets developed for clusters to inform
39
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
stakeholders and to build relationships. Conflicts are bound to happen if communicators try to push
their departmental "spin."
3. With the expert:
Experts are a gold mine of content for small audiences. Communicators can take advantage of
experts to enhance the profile of the department. Experts who have the skills of adult educators and
can transform jargon into plain language will, of course, be at the top of the list of people
communicators want to connect with.
4. With the consultation officer:
Communications officers may want to deal with their own time crunch by using consultation
officers to send messages to targeted audiences. Often, consultation officers will resist because they
do not see themselves as pushers of departmental views on the people they consult. Rather, they
help internalize the citizens' views.
5. With the policy analyst:
Communications officers would like to see policy written for specific issue groups, not for an
aggregate of the Canadian population.
Archetype 7: The Consultation Officer
Consultation processes have been undertaken in many ways in the past. Existing consultation structures
have been slowly adapted from face-to-face, committee, and interest group based structures-advisory
groups and industry groups, for example-to on-line equivalents. Many government departments have
resisted the shift, but concern about the necessity to reconnect citizens to the democratic process has
finally convinced some program managers to consider the advantages.
On-line consultations come in a variety of forms-from live chats to moderated asynchronous
discussions-and it is still unclear where the line is drawn between this activity and public opinion
research.
On-line facilitation skills include the ability to ask the right questions, to communicate with a tone of
truth instead of standard response language, and to stimulate the discussion by reformulating an idea.
These skills are in high demand.
Environment
Technology presents opportunities for implementing successful on-line consultation. It offers
broad-based, multimedia access to a geographically dispersed citizenry, low-cost collection and
dissemination of information, improved ability to develop and manage complex content, and the tools
to engage the public in active collaboration.
Private sector and voluntary groups have embraced the opportunity and implemented numerous
consultation sites (e-petitioner, survey.com, e-democracy). These groups typically do not carry the
burden of policy development, and focus more on influencing policy or public opinion.
40
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Much work is being done in the areas of on-line communities of interest and on-line collaboration.
Many of the issues being addressed to develop on-line communities (access, personalization,
localization, content management, etc.) are similar to those that must be addressed by on-line
consultation sites. In other words, consultation officers can use technology to apply lessons learned
from internal operations to external relations.
Archetypes Used
The context of the highly civilized Age of Enlightenment "Salon" is a common reference for
Web-enabled communities. However, the image of Julie de Lespinasse, whose salon dominated the
Paris intellectual and political scene in the eighteenth century, had not carried through to our
mini-roundtable's collective unconscious. Her black and white portrait did not have much resonance
even to the French-Canadian participants, author included. Later in the discussion, though, a
description of her unique listening skills struck a chord: "…thanks to her care, the most trivial little
narrative gained, as naturally as possible, the place and notice it deserved. News of all kinds was
gathered there in its first freshness."15 This kind of astute listening-the ability to bring to the fore the
right mix of voices-is a type of inclusiveness public servants strive for in a network environment.
Also considered were the cathedral and the bazaar. In Christian countries, the cathedral is a source of
ecclesiastic power. A popular book in the IT community has juxtaposed this metaphor with another
powerful one, the bazaar-a construction that is, architecturally at least, closer to the ground.16
Key Learnings
Technology helps reconnect a disengaged citizenry.
For some, the idea of public servants conducting consultations challenges the traditional
Westminster/Whitehall division where elected officials debate policy opinions. The potential of
communication technologies to reconnect a disengaged citizenry has helped overcome such original
resistance. In the last decade, the concern for social cohesion has been such that the need to use all the
channels of dialogue provided by the on-line environment has become obvious.
A combination of "face time" and on-line conversation is ideal.
While on-line consultation is a benefit, it is also true that personal contact is important. People tend to
resist new ideas if they are responding to them in isolation, but are more open to them in a group
setting. A combination of "face time" and on-line conversation is ideal, particularly in consultations on
sensitive issues-trade policy, for example.
Personal connections are important on-line.
It is possible to be personal on-line. A good on-line moderator is able to reach out to participants and
draw out their experience, which adds authenticity to an on-line dialogue. This might be a culture
15
16
From Katherine P. Wormley, trans. Letters of Julie de Lespinasse (Boston: Hardy, Pratt and Company, 1903).
[Online] Available at http://www.ford ham.edu/halsall/mod/18salons.html.
Eric S. Raymond, The Cathedral and the Bazaar, Musings on Linux and Open Source by an Accidental Revolutionary (O’Reilly Books, 1999).
41
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
shock for public servants trained to be faceless. The younger generation is more comfortable with this
role. However, it might be best to have an elected official or a third party act as moderator on sensitive
policy issues.
A good moderator involves all participants.
As with in-person consultations, the moderator needs to "shepherd the little guy," the participant whose
voice is quiet and who is tempted to remain in the background.
Moderators sometimes have a different personality on-line.
The on-line personality of a moderator may be quite different from his/her off-line personality. A
moderator may very well be an introvert, not the usual personality type in the consultation/facilitation
field. Some moderators say they are much nicer on-line because they have time to think.
On-line consultation reaches a wider audience.
On-line consultation reaches a wider audience than the "usual suspects" of major NGOs, unions and/or
business people. Citizens can participate on-line at different moments in different time zones.
Government can start building relationships with new groups. Some have only recently become active
on the Internet. They are tempted to join on-line conversations and then experience the feeling that
they cannot only express their concerns but actually do something about them.
On-line consultation fosters relationships by facilitating many-to-many dialogue.
By using the on-line environment, the Government of Canada is not trying to manage millions of
conversations at once or make itself the focal point. The goal is to foster social cohesion and citizen
engagement through many-to-many conversations. Again, the peer structure comes into play. The
on-line environment opens up relationships with many more groups and their leaders can be involved
in a facilitation role. These can be official leaders (chairs of various citizen groups) or people who are
recognized in their peer groups as "connectors." This model takes advantage of the many-to-many
structure of the Internet.
Application
Make on-line consultation more effective.
On-line consultation can be made more effective by carefully structuring the on-line environment.
Relevant documents should be linked to the discussion area. News flashes can be used to alert
interested parties about new developments. In some cases, the Web site can show how ideas generated
by participants come to fruition. Participants will feel empowered if there is a direct feedback loop.
Ask open-ended questions.
The art of asking questions is crucial. The on-line environment adds to the temptation to turn a
consultation into a glorified survey. While on-line surveys have purpose in some contexts, a real
conversation gives precious texture and qualitative evidence. On-line moderators are particularly good
at asking open-ended questions.
Seek input from participants in the design of Web sites as well as on substantive issues.
On-line engagement is not only about policy issues. Participatory design of a Web site with a
42
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
stakeholder group is one example of an efficient way to kick-start a relationship-a goal that may itself
justify creating an on-line space for target audiences. If possible, develop scenarios/mock-ups for
consultation and let participants explore them. Always keep in mind that this is an interactive medium
and there are many tools to enhance the users experience.
Encourage client loyalty.
Client loyalty can be fostered by e-mail alerts, indices with relevant personal information and regular
updates. A good moderator will make sure that no comment goes unnoticed and each is addressed,
keeping in mind that he/she represents the Government of Canada.
Make advance contact to encourage on-line participation.
Client participation should be carefully prepared. You might find that you need to get on the phone first
to get participants on-line. Do not assume people will go on-line just because a discussion area has
been created.
Maintain the contacts database.
The contacts database must be in order. No matter how tedious this task might be, databases are power.
They allow you to segment your group and create relationships within sub-groups.
Be able to quickly communicate policy issues to relevant stakeholders.
A mechanism must be established to bring policy issues to the attention of relevant parties. Quick
syntheses are essential in this new environment where speed is the name of the game. Make sure
consultation officers understand their limits (how far they can go) on policy issues.
Establish a core group of on-line participants.
Personal contacts with key participants before an on-line conversation will greatly enhance the
discussion. Establish a core group, and match each member with virtual teams. This peer structure
makes it more credible for the participants.
Relationship to Other Archetypes
1. With the information synthesist:
Consultation officers are to people what information synthesists are to data: they detect common
themes and trends. The information synthesist might teach the consultation officer a few tricks
about managing e-mail and sorting answers using the subject area. The synthesist will make sure all
fields are used in the contacts database so that audiences can be segmented.
2. With the communications officer:
Communications and consultation officers both engage in relations, but their views on this activity
can be very different. Savvy communications officers are quick to see that this mine of
relationships can be developed into some form of outreach. This will be, from a communications
perspective, a good way of bringing outreach messages to stakeholders. Consultation officers see
themselves as opening doors for stakeholders, increasing the stakeholder's-not government's-voice.
43
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
3. With the policy analyst:
Consultation officers and their networks of grassroots leaders and connectors, enhanced by the
Internet, bring chaos into the careful analysis of policy analysts. These open doors can change the
outcome of policies, as well as how the agenda is set. Consultation officers may feel they should
have more influence on policy development because they understand the stakeholders better.
Consultation officers also want to show results; they want quick analyses and will push policy
analysts for feedback documents.
4. With the expert:
Consultation officers can make a big difference in the way that concerned citizens interact with
experts and vice versa. Experts are on both sides of the government fence. Without a well thought
out Web strategy, concerned stakeholders may have only generalities to comment on and so may
not bother. Experts in government have reported considerable surprise at the high quality of
comments received once appropriate documentation is made available.
Archetype 8: The Cluster Manager
Cluster managers did not exist before the network age. Clusters were the first initiative of the
Government On-Line agenda to focus electronic service delivery on the client. This recent effort used
focus groups of citizens to identify clusters of like interests-seniors, youth and parents, for example.
Cluster managers are responsible for gathering and harmonizing information related to these clusters,
allowing citizens to access the information easily. There are 29 clusters on the Canada Web site,17
mostly presenting aggregations of Web links organized by subject. The site architecture defies the
departmental structure of government, and the virtual organizations revealed have a lot of impact. For
example, cluster managers ask department representatives to forget their departmental point of view in
order to provide some context around those aggregated links.
The principal skill of cluster managers is relationship management. They bring stakeholders into their
decision-making process and must be ready to accept unexpected recommendations. Cluster managers
seek input from their senior management, but cannot give them progress reports until a consensus
emerges among cluster partners. They worry about where they fit and to whom they report. With
inter-jurisdictional delivery of services becoming the norm, their complex job will become more
demanding.
Environment
In the private sector, clusters emerged as a business model in the mid-1980s. Harvard University's
Michael Porter described how geographic concentration of interconnected firms, specialized suppliers,
service providers and associated institutions increases productivity.18
17
18
On-line at http://www.canada.gc.ca
See, for example, Michael Porter, “Clusters and the New Economics of Competition,” Harvard Business Review, Nov.-Dec. 1998
44
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Clusters are engines of innovation because of their flexible structure. Their success is linked to the
networked economy, which leads toward more intense and persistent relations among firms and
between firms and governments. As mentioned in the Introduction, some countries such as the
Netherlands have made cluster development part of their macroeconomic policies. They push cluster
development beyond businesses to sometimes include strategic alliances with universities or research
institutes.
The success of the cluster concept has led to a strategy to achieve the initial goals of the government
on-line strategy by bundling government information services. Whether in business or in government
service delivery, cluster management requires similar tools and similar skills, like extranets, and
building trust and linkages.
Archetypes Used
Legends are often inspired by things seen in the night sky, and embody archetypes in their narrative. In
the constellation of Orion, the Pleiades-named after Homer's legend of the seven sisters who fled to the
sky to escape Orion the Hunter-are cluster role models. Polynesian folklore based on this constellation
has a strong message that relates to e-government clusters. In a Polynesian folk tale, Mata-riki ("Little
Eyes") was once the most brilliant star, but was also the most boastful, and God decided to break her
into seven pieces. Now, when the moon shines on the oceans at night turning the seas into mirrors, the
pieces bend over to look at themselves and realize that they are even more beautiful as a group!19
The same idea is found throughout Asian folklore. In Japan, the word Subaru-meaning to unite-also
identifies the seven stars. Of course, Subaru is also the name of an automobile corporation whose story
is itself an inspiring business legend. (In 1953, five Japanese companies merged to form Fuji Heavy
Industries. The corporation adopted "Subaru" as its concept, and innovated to bring front-wheel drive
vehicles to the mass market.)
Key Learnings
Cluster managers are the tip of the iceberg.
Cluster managers perform a new function and are a direct product of the last decade of client-centricity
made possible by networking and other technologies. Cluster managers are the leading edge of a
growing trend toward horizontal management in the federal government.
Cluster managers work horizontally in a vertical structure.
Cluster managers work horizontally, but remain in a vertical structure since they are attached to
individual departments. This sometimes creates conflicts with their departmental colleagues.
Cluster managers are masters of joint accountability.
Cluster managers, who are tasked with different issues without officially being responsible for the file,
become masters of joint accountability.
19
19 For more information on this legend check, for example, http://ww.udel.edu/PR/UpDate/92/17/20.html or
http://www.coldwater.k12.mi.us/lms/planetarium/myth/pleiades.html
45
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Cluster managers manage many relationships.
Their influence and success resides in their ability to serve communities of clients, and doing so
requires them to work with communities of service providers that are both inside and outside the
Government. Cluster managers must be able to manage many relationships. In concrete terms this
means, for example, that they might spend twice as much time on their e-mail as other public servants.
Traditional structures still have an impact.
Horizontal integration depends very much on the support of the most senior levels in an organization.
Highly successful clusters usually have a champion in senior management.
The close involvement of those at the top of the hierarchy is evidence of the impact of traditional
structures.
Everyone must buy in.
As well as senior managers, partners must be solidly on board. Cluster managers must be able to
interpret their work in terms of "what's in it" for their partners, so that the latter view the cluster's work
as helping them to achieve their departmental goals.
Clusters can be used to help introduce program innovation.
Information products developed by clusters often have a higher uptake. Cluster managers are able to
work through new issues and certain approaches to problems such as how to handle privacy on the
Web with engaged stakeholders. The ability to identify new needs, new products, and test sensitive
applications makes clusters a valuable mechanism for introducing program innovations into an
organization.
Clustered service delivery can make the federal government brand disappear.
Citizens want seamless services, and delivering these services in clusters multiplies relations with
federal, provincial and territorial partners. This means that the Government of Canada brand sometimes
disappears.
Clusters can encourage the design of joint programs.
After cooperation has been established to deliver services in a cluster, different jurisdictions might take
their collaboration a step further and design joint programs. This implies that each organization will
make changes in its service delivery structure.
Application
Measure a cluster's success through stakeholder engagement.
The level of stakeholder engagement is a measure of a cluster's success. Executives responsible for
cluster managers have to understand that goals are decided collectively. While it might take longer for
activities and results to take shape in a cluster, the uptake will often be higher than if similar activities
were carried out in isolation.
46
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Build trust.
The quest for a mutual goal does not exclude disagreements, and building trust is a major element of
cluster managers' success. They must create a climate where truth, or one's point of view, is told in a
respectful way. This requires well-developed facilitation and negotiation skills.
Make the cluster relevant through communities of practice.
A cluster manager has to be aware of existing communities of practice relevant to the subject. These
groups can help make the cluster relevant and visible.
Maintain the visibility of cluster partners.
Jurisdictional boundaries between partners in a cluster are bound to blur. However, it is important for
elected officials that citizens know where their tax dollars are going, so the visibility of an organization
involved in a cluster has to be maintained.
Use extranets to communicate among cluster working groups.
The Government of Canada's intranet-Publiservice-does not allow for collaborative work outside the
boundaries of the federal public service. Extranets are needed to communicate among cluster working
groups because they often involve organizations outside the public service.
Establish common standards.
Common standards are needed to facilitate access and ensure coherence of clustered information.
Specific initiatives to implement meta-data for the clusters and gateways are underway in PWGSC.
The information yielded will be useful in establishing the necessary standards.
Support cluster managers experiencing time-management challenges.
Cluster managers need support to manage the extraordinarily high number of relationships they have.
Some cluster managers are forced to add an hour or two to both ends of their working day.
Determine the feasibility of joint delivery of services.
The seniors' cluster-the bundling of services expressly for seniors-is an example of how clusters
generate the need for new services to be delivered in collaboration with cluster partners. Joint programs
for the transition of veterans from home to institutional care are being explored. To determine the
feasibility of such services, as this pattern repeats for more programs and in many clusters, a business
case assessing the readiness of each organization involved will be needed.
Relationship to Other Archetypes
1. With the front-line worker:
Departmental front-line managers might overlook the importance of including cluster information
in their products. Some clients will be served in an incomplete way. Therefore, cluster managers
will favour front-line services that offer aggregated information, like 1-800-O-Canada.
2. With the caseworker:
In a way, cluster managers are the information front-end of casework because they bring together
information that used to be stored in a number of different places. They will have to take case
47
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
management technologies and the processes developed by caseworkers into consideration as
clusters move into joint service delivery programs.
3. With the expert:
Clusters, particularly those laden with science information, take on the battle to simplify
terminology that started in communications shops and on the front lines. They too pressure experts
to publish information that the experts fear might be incomplete or misinterpreted.
4. With the communications officer:
Communications shops have worked hard to carefully craft departmental messages. When
information goes out through a cluster, individual department messages have to be modified or
even watered down to fit the point of view of all cluster participants. This is particularly difficult in
controversial areas. Communications officers might resist if the departmental message is not
accurately reflected.
To develop content and massage knowledge bases into content for broad audiences, cluster
managers will need resources of the type they will find in communications branches.
Communicators might look on cluster managers' requests as an added burden.
5. With the consultation officer and the policy analyst:
Cluster managers have stakeholders in their working groups and interact with them on-line.
Therefore, they believe they have a policy development and consultation function.
Archetype 9: The Regional Program Manager
Citizen-centred government made possible by the network age is turning regional offices into
multi-jurisdictional units. There is more federal-provincial-territorial relationship building than ever
before. The long-term objective is to create seamless service delivery. Some departments have already
created physical locations where they share space but remain independent. This means regional
managers will be maintaining a complex web of relationships locally, while also relating to the larger
organization of the Government of Canada. They have identity issues: they feel like traitors to the
region if vertical considerations create obstacles for regional projects. Also, they are sometimes worried
that the federal identity will disappear as more federal services are delivered on-line and points of
physical presence disappear.
Environment
All governments experience an identity problem, whether federal, provincial or territorial.
Municipalities are also strong engines of multi-jurisdictional collaboration. Smart Communities have
blossomed in all countries, in recognition of the value that derives from local clusters. They are widely
encouraged by connectivity programs like the Community Access Program.
This creates a climate of "coopetition." Given the multiplicity of players at the local level, the
environment within which these tasks are performed is large and unpredictable. Therefore,
48
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
organizational development theoreticians propose localized units to monitor the environment and plan
quick responses.
For the federal government, however, there are many organizational constraints due to the
constitutional division of powers or federal-provincial agreements. Some departments are tightly
constrained by their legislative and policy frameworks. A good example is Human Resources
Development Canada and its Income Security Program. In contrast, there are more flexible
arrangements at Indian and Northern Affairs Canada.
Archetypes Used
The term "coopetition" comes to mind when thinking of the multi-jurisdictional service delivery
environment. The public's perception is that each jurisdiction's services are more valuable when
grouped together. That is the very essence of "coopetition," a management practice that has had a lot of
success in the network age. Considering that many organizations get together to provide services that
have more value together than alone, the common metaphors of the "coopetition" literature were
offered. Some resonated deeply, some were not recognized.
Commentators compare the tension between competition and cooperation to war and peace. They offer
two archetypes of war and peace to reflect on this tension: Attila the Hun, and St. Francis of Assisi.
However, neither of these extreme characters seemed connected with the many shades of grey that are
familiar in the environment of roundtable participants.
Rows of antique stores in Paris had more resonance. The authors who conceptualized "coopetition" use
this metaphor. One little street, many dozens of antique shops-it seems that one store precludes a
purchase at the next store. But shop owners realize that by being in one location, they deliver greater
convenience and therefore they expand the pie. A trip to antique row becomes a major outing, with a
much larger total purchase. This led a participant to describe a show held in Winnipeg where
government departments got together to showcase their services and explore how they could add value
to one another's services.
Participants offered many metaphors of their own. One that resonated strongly was the analogy with a
plate-spinning acrobat. Participants recalled an episode of The Ed Sullivan Show where a plate spinner
had dozens of plates spinning, each atop a stick, with centrifugal force keeping the plates balanced and
spinning. The audience watched closely and warned the plate spinner when a plate was about to fall.
The roundtable participants thought they were under the same kind of scrutiny, managing multiple
"plates" spinning simultaneously while having to report to many jurisdictions.
Key Learnings
The network environment increases expectations for seamless service.
With features that enable new ways of organizing information coming from many government
jurisdictions, the network environment increases expectations. If client-centred information can be
49
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
aggregated on a Web page, should it not as well be available in physical locations where the public can
walk in and receive the same seamless service? The number of these services multiplies quickly if one
starts to include all levels of government, the private sector, as well as initiatives for special clienteles.
But experience shows that this can be done.
Multiple relationships create confusion about allegiances.
This environment of multiple permutations sometimes creates a confusion of allegiances. Work can
lead to a new set of relationships where boundaries are less clear. A government employee may have to
wear a different hat at a particular moment and forget what role he or she is expected to fulfill. This is
particularly difficult when the job is a back-office position.
Identity crises are normal.
An identity crisis is to be expected when services are blended and boundaries blur. Managing
inter-jurisdictional programs is a balancing act. Joining a horizontal organization does not mean leaving
behind the home base. As a matter of fact, you would not be at the table if you were not representing
your home base. In order to really contribute in this structure, one has to bring his or her unique
identity and expertise. However, the role may be redefined in multi-jurisdictional activities.
Multi-jurisdictional jargon should not be used outside the group.
A citizen focus also implies a careful review of the language used. Plain language is important if
programs are to be blended. One jurisdiction's jargon will not have the same meaning in another
jurisdiction's context. The first casualties of this language review are acronyms. Alas, new acronyms
spawned by the multi-jurisdictional environment are quick to appear. Jargon creates a sense of
belonging to a select group. The new multi-jurisdictional jargon gives team members a sense of unity,
but the key is not to use it outside the group.
Training is ongoing.
Staff will be constantly required to learn new information, new services, new processes, and about new
partners. Employees require training that is built into everyday operations. The organization will need
to make sure that levels of service are maintained even though they spend a lot of time removed from
their jobs. The ability and the desire to learn are also essential factors.
Measuring success is essential.
Because funding for blended services is coming from many jurisdictions, there is increased pressure to
provide measures of success. The information might be difficult to get, however. These services are
often the front-end entry point, and the actual service where customer satisfaction can be measured is
sometimes delivered further up in the chain. Impact studies and client surveys are essential.
Application
Have a vision for service improvement.
Managers need to know their communities' needs well so they can influence the various levels of
jurisdiction. Collaboration will be considerably enhanced if it is meshed with a vision of service
improvement. This vision will enable the building of a multi-jurisdictional organization where the
50
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
various components are truly invisible to citizens. Otherwise, the tendency will be to retain back-office
processes that are not integrated; after the first point of contact, the client will be directed from one
office to the next. The client-centric point of view could be forgotten quickly.
Identify with the service provided.
Regional managers need to drop their federal/territorial/provincial/municipal identities in the
management processes of their client-centric organizations. It is important that staff does not recreate
the boundaries of their jurisdictions within the new service. They have to identify with the service they
provide together.
Maintain visibility.
However, visibility can be ensured in the delivery of services. It is important for elected officials that
taxpayers understand where the taxes they pay to each jurisdiction go. Taxpayers also want to see their
governments cooperating. This will require a balancing act by managers, but it is possible. For
example, some services have made arrangements to automatically post the logo of each partner
jurisdiction on the results pages of their search engines. This showcases the contribution of each level
of government and features their cooperation.
Develop common job descriptions.
Delivery of inter-jurisdictional service will be very difficult when people sitting side by side doing the
same job are compensated differently. The differences can be big and difficult to ignore no matter how
you present them. Consider developing common job descriptions and compensation. The process of
creating common working conditions is tricky: it can take a long time in any organization, let alone
one with the many subtleties of a multi-jurisdictional environment. The time frame is short before staff
and senior management lose patience and interest. It is a long process with a narrow window of
opportunity, and it requires senior management support to succeed. The Canada-Manitoba Business
Service Centre is a good example.20
Involve staff in program planning.
Get the whole staff involved in planning the inter-jurisdictional programs by forming design
subcommittees. These will be very useful, not only to get buy-in from staff but because it is wise to
think about all the material details of the relationship. Be ready to negotiate everything: the technology,
the telephones, the fridges! This does not mean, though, that your initiative will be solely bottom-upthere will be plenty of touchy decisions like the cost-sharing arrangements that have major cost ramifications for the top levels of the hierarchy.
Create a buddy system.
At the onset, create a buddy system between federal and provincial counterparts so they can interpret
the arcane jargon of their turf for one another. It will only take a few months for everyone to grasp, but
this kind of help is necessary at the start.
20
See http://www.cbsc.org/manitoba/index.html
51
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Encourage close relationships among peers.
Keep close relationships with colleagues in other locations and jurisdictions to share common solutions. Sometimes walking a tightrope between many bosses can make you feel lonely, but peers will be
a source of solutions and support.
Relationship to Other Archetypes
1. With the caseworker:
Being close to their clients, regional managers like to create front lines where staff not only give
information but are able to make assessments and take initiative in order to reduce the number of
client handoffs. Regional managers can learn the best workflow management practices from
caseworkers, although there might be disagreement on the best point in the service process to do a
handoff. They might also examine how they can participate in case management processes that are
already established.
2. With the cluster manager:
In a multi-jurisdictional environment, regional managers are a form of client-centric cluster.
However, they might have a bigger influence at the regional level because they are program
managers with a mandate and the ability to negotiate. If clusters evolve into some form of
inter-jurisdictional program delivery mechanism, they will have a lot to learn from their regional
colleagues. The regional managers might also have to redefine their services in order to include
another level of client-centric service delivery.
3. With the information synthesist:
To reduce the number of handoffs, regional managers need to generate new value for clients. They
need information synthesists on-site-librarians and library technicians, for example, who will
provide the crucial information management structure needed. This will add considerable value to
the client's experience. It may reduce, for example, the number of repetitions triggered each time a
client is transferred from one point of service to another.
Archetype 10: The Integrator
In the federal public service, integrators include anyone associated with the Government On-Line
initiative in any department. Whether they work in central agencies or in line departments, integrators
are restructuring processes. E-government initiatives are partly driven by a service improvement
objective, which implies integration of information or transactions internally and externally. These
initiatives require new coordination and exchange processes in so-called back offices and front offices.
The integrator's job is to find new processes to achieve this in the smoothest possible way. By doing so,
they might threaten the raison d'être for some organizational structures. The new exchange of
information involves a complex mixture of cooperation and conflict. This is why they will often define
their role as that of a "catalyst," a "promoter" or a "facilitator."
52
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
One common model for this seamless service delivery is Australia's Centrelink, already mentioned in
the context of the front-line worker. Centrelink is a service that achieves large-scale horizontal service
integration across social and employment ministries.
Environment
Whether government-to-government, government-to-business or government-to-citizens, all processes
are being redefined. Process management is supplementing project management. The difference is that
aside from breaking projects into the smallest tasks, organizations try to achieve a shared meaning
about the role of IT applications between several back offices. Seamless transactions, for example,
involve registration and authentication at the source. A network of organizations sharing the ownership
of data must agree on rules. Standardization is required and it touches professionally or culturally
accepted procedures.
The notion of e-government invokes a distributed model of government that comes with a strong
integration component. In a multi-jurisdictional environment this means integrating points of service
while at the same time reinforcing the Government of Canada brand and identity.
Archetypes Used
The very nature of their job threatens many business activities, so integrators often feel they are feared.
The character played by muscleman Arnold Schwarzenegger in the movie The Terminator was
suggested as one archetype. Integrators may also feel that the many expectations inherent in their jobs
are sometimes overwhelming, and that they are expected to go on a quest whose objectives are next to
impossible to achieve.
Key Learnings
There are many forms of integration.
The networked environment allows many forms of integration that seemed impossible before. This
means functions that worked relatively independently will be forced into new relationships. At the
corporate level, the integrator role will become more important, whereas corporate functions will be
decentralized in the business units. This does not mean, though, that integrators will become stovepipes
or form autonomous units of their own.
A wide interpretation of client-centricity is possible.
Integration broadens the interpretation of what client-centricity means. It goes beyond making a simple
user-friendly Web site to encompass a more profound impact on the way services are organized. This
includes an ongoing dialogue and engagement with clients, stakeholders and partners in order to get the
job done. There are limits to client-centricity, however. Some staff and stakeholders might be tempted
to push the notion. The clients are NOT endangered species, for example, no matter how moving their
destiny might be. Canadian citizens define the boundaries of client-centricity.
53
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
There is a delicate balance between integration and innovation.
Integrators are conscious that they are stepping in behind an important wave of innovation. People with
good ideas and flashes of genius have developed many intranets and Internet sites. However, many
have been left behind unattended when their creators moved to other jobs. Not even the most
sophisticated infrastructure can link them in a meaningful way. The balance between integration and
innovation is delicate.
Integration is reaching beyond on-line environments.
The integration initiatives can reach far beyond the changes warranted by the on-line environment.
Some organizations have created multi-functional teams and mechanisms of shared accountability that
include a majority of their employees. These teams are replacing the functional branches as the major
decision-making mechanisms of the organization.
Integration may threaten the federal government presence in communities.
Integration and greater on-line activity may endanger the Government of Canada presence in local
communities. A mediated electronic world does not always replace the value added by person-to-person contact. The value added by on-line services to the community must be made clear.
An opportunity to use intranets strategically is being missed.
The Government of Canada has not given itself permission to do for its employees what it has done for
the Canadian public. An opportunity to use intranets strategically across the board is being missed. This
is also the case of many departmental intranets. Some departments that experienced major successive
reorganizations in the last decade have intranets that look like baskets where everything has been
thrown in without a strategy.
Application
Have a well-designed intranet.
Organizing the back office more effectively can have a big influence on the quality of service on the
front lines. Consider the impact that a well-designed intranet can have on a professional community.
(CCRA's intranet for the Computer Science category is an example.)
Customize the look and feel.
Tools can be customized to create a local look and feel. The deployment of corporate-wide applications
does not necessarily mean that they will be implemented exactly the same way everywhere. Some
applications can be tailored so that data specific to a region or a particular group can be collected. If
employees sees flexibility in the integration tools, they will be more inclined to consider these tools
positively.
Get the message across.
It is important to model on the intranet behaviours such as client-centricity that you want to encourage
among your staff.
54
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Track critical knowledge sets.
The intranet can be used to track critical knowledge sets. For example, identify the people who work
on specific activities of the strategic plan. Tracking can also take the form of the knowledge maps and
Yellow Pages of expertise described earlier. Such tracking will allow quick and effective staffing of the
increasing number of multidisciplinary teams. Staff expertise will be broadcast through the
organization, other managers will become aware of this expertise, and demand for their time might
increase. Teams will need to think through these kinds of exchanges and formalize them in some form
of inter-team agreements.
Capture competencies.
Another way of tracking critical knowledge sets is to get at individuals as opposed to projects. This is
particularly important in scientific departments to capture the competencies of scientific staff and
enable the connections between those competencies.
Recognize individual contributions.
Individuals might fear that they will be lost in the team culture fostered by integrators. Profile and
visibility are powerful ways to recognize the contribution of employees involved in integration
activities. The level of influence that integration projects carry will motivate them.
Relationship to Other Archetypes
1. With the regional manager:
Regional personnel might be perceived as a layer between integrators and local communities. Some
say that the real integrators are at the local level, those who are on the front lines delivering
services. This is particularly the case in very large departments that offer a wide range of services.
Regional managers might use the increase of interdisciplinary teams to increase their visibility. At
the end of the day, the focus of integration is the people served at the local level.
2. With the information synthesist:
Their relationship is critical. Synthesists will make or break the details of integration of
cross-departmental data and activities. Synthesists are the champions that will break down the silos.
They will devise the applications that will retain local identities.
3. With the clusters:
Cluster managers will push integrators to harmonize policies across departments so that the cluster
managers can present a uniform image to the public.
4. With the communicator:
There is a surprising lack of communication activities to define and promote internal tools like
intranets. Integrators need to use the same approaches that are used with the public: focus testing
and surveys.
55
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
CONCLUSION
On the front lines and in the back offices of the federal government, new heroes are emerging and new
relationships are being forged.
The 10 archetypes presented here describe in human terms the challenges, complexities and constraints
facing this new generation of public servants whose jobs are being transformed in the network age.
It is clear from an examination of these 10 archetypes that knowledge management-whether through
information technologies or community approaches-is at the centre of the network-age public servant's
vision of the future.
Public servants also want and need more technology training in many areas including, for example,
on-line collaboration platforms, intranets, common databases, and Internet-based marketing tools.
Canada has made huge inroads in e-government and is recognized worldwide for using networks to
maintain high standards of client-centred service delivery. Maintaining these high standards will
require enormous efforts at the infrastructure and strategy levels, but the success of such efforts will
depend largely on whether public service employees continue to buy into strategies, and on whether
they have the capacity and latitude to innovate and to bring those e-government strategies to maturity.
The federal government's challenge will be to attract a new generation of employees to the public
service who have grown up with information and communication technologies and who take
cyber-culture for granted. The sustainability of Canada's lead in e-government depends on it.
57
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
APPENDIX I
THE EVOLUTION OF GOVERNMENT ON-LINE
Key Dates and Events
Adapted from Treasury Board Secretariat Report - "Government On-Line and Canadians"
http://www.gol-ged.gc.ca
In December 1995, the Government of Canada primary Internet site was inaugurated by Public Works
and Government Services Canada, in conjunction with the Prime Minister's site. In the spring of 1995,
Public Works and Government Services Canada had received the mandate from the Treasury Board to
develop and manage both the external Web site and the intranet. Called "Publiservice" the intranet was
inaugurated in October 1995.
In the 1997 Speech from the Throne, the Government of Canada committed to making information and
knowledge infrastructure accessible to all Canadians. This initiative, called Connecting Canadians has
the goal of making Canada's citizens the most connected to the Internet in the world. This includes
providing public access to the Internet, promoting the development of Canadian content, and
encouraging the adoption and use of electronic commerce.
The provision of government services electronically to Canadians is one of the most important
components of the Connecting Canadians initiative. This strategy is called Government On-Line
(GOL). According to the GOL Web site, the Government On-Line strategy will make government
services more accessible, create better, more responsive services, build trust and confidence in on-line
delivery, and assure services for all Canadians by maintaining a choice of channels, formats and
languages.
In the 2000 Budget, the initial two-year funding for the new Government On-Line strategy was
outlined. In the 2001 Budget, the government provided $600 million over the next four years to
implement the Government On-Line strategy and set a goal of having all major government services
on-line by 2005.
By December 2000, most federal government departments had Web sites, which included information
on government programs and services to easily inform citizens. Key forms were also put on-line by
that date. Up to this point, interaction on-line had been largely "one way", thus, the next logical step
has been rethinking how to provide transactional, two-way services, supported by the development of
secure networks. Some departments, such as the CCRA, have been very progressive on this front,
enabling citizens to pay their taxes on-line.
In early 2001, the Government of Canada Web site was re-launched to provide a demonstration of the
citizen-centered approach to GOL. The Canadian Government's goal is to allow various departments
and levels of government to work horizontally in order to deliver seamless services. This means that
citizens can access all services in a single place, a one-stop shop.
59
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Throughout the year 2001, important issues surrounding the implementation of on-line services arose,
such as authentication, privacy and security. In order to make on-line transactions more secure, the
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) was developed. PKI allows the parties involved in a transaction to
know the other party or parties and to verify that the information has not been altered during or after
transmission.
In April 2001, Canada was ranked number one in the Accenture survey, which measured the progress
made by various countries in e-government practices.
In September 2001, the President of the Treasury Board of Canada, the Honourable Lucienne
Robillard, announced the creation of the Government On-Line Advisory Panel. The Panel's members
are individuals from all facets of Canadian life; they are responsible for providing advice and guidance
to ensure that Canadians receive improved access to innovative on-line services from the Government
of Canada.
In 2002, one of the key focuses of GOL was for all government Web sites to use common navigational
tools and formats in order to conform to the Common Look and Feel. This initiative has made it even
easier for citizens to access and navigate through government Web sites. It also ensures that all
government sites meet the privacy and official languages requirements.
In April 2002, and again in 2003, Canada ranked number one in the Accenture Survey on
E-Government Leadership.
In the coming years, the Canadian Government will focus its GOL initiative on several areas:
1. Continuing to make government information and services more accessible, organized by client
need;
2. Putting the most frequently used services on-line;
3. Building a secure infrastructure and ensuring transactions are secure and private;
4. Seeking feedback from Canadians.
According to the Office of the Chief Information Officer for the Government of Canada, our country is
right on schedule for meeting its 2005 target for electronic service delivery.
60
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
APPENDIX II
Enabling the Network-Age Government: Technologies and Tools
Overview
The material included here identifies areas of technology that facilitate and enable the work of employees associated with the 10 archetypes.
The section on Technology Enablers summarizes key Information and Communication Technologies
(ICT) building blocks that enable the network-age government.
Under Work Profile, the work profile of each archetype is described in terms of business activities and
enabling technologies.
Finally, a summary of the relationship of enabling technologies to the archetypes is presented.
Technology Enablers
This section presents a list of ICT areas that are the key enablers of the network-age government.
These technologies should be deployed and supported within the context of a business strategy, with
considerations for enabling work activities of the archetypes.
There are two sets of technology areas. The first, the ICT infrastructure, is common to all archetypes
and enables the second area: technologies used by workers that fit the archetypes. This second area
includes appropriate end-user tools with software and hardware devices (e.g. PC, portable, hand-held,
cell phone, BlackBerry) necessary for electronic access to information and electronic interaction with
internal and external stakeholders and citizens.
Since the first set is used by all archetypes, for simplicity, all its elements are grouped under one
technology area called Network-Age ICT Infrastructure.
61
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
1. NETWORK-AGE ICT INFRASTRUCTURE
The e-government ICT infrastructure includes a unified set of technologies that enables the tools
used by all archetypes within the organization. It is deployed and used at various levels: governmentwide, interdepartmental (shared within some but not all departments), as well as department-wide,
across various branches. It includes the following elements:
• Basic Transport: basic Internet infrastructure, high-speed Internet infrastructure, broadband
satellite service, telephone, mobile/wireless communications, wireless LAN;
• Network Services: messaging, conferencing, broadcasting;
• Distributed Computing Services: workstation/midrange/mainframe computing, middleware,
application development environment;
• Application Services: including electronic resource planning, financial, human resources;
• Information Services: information resource and locator services, reference libraries, policies and
procedures;
• Program Delivery Services such as kiosks, one-stop service centres, common secure
e-government infrastructure.
2. SECURITY TECHNOLOGIES
Security technologies include hardware and software that enable implementation of security
requirements at various levels, such as Unclassified, Protected, Classified, Secret and Top Secret.
Security technologies include:
• Smart Cards: examples include shopping cards, smart identity cards or citizen ID cards;
• Biometrics: for example, airports can install "biometric" security, providing workers with passes
requiring retinal, facial or fingerprint scans to improve the security of restricted areas at
Canadian airports.
3. DATA TECHNOLOGIES
Data technologies are widely used for storage and retrieval of the information contained in various
types of data, text, graphics, voice, video, etc. This category includes areas such as databases, data
warehouses, data repositories and data dictionaries. It also includes capabilities such as various types
of search engines, ranging from text-based to semantic and context-based search engines.
4. KNOWLEDGE TECHNOLOGIES
Although not as widely used as databases, knowledge bases are used for storage and retrieval of
complex information such as rules and cases, and operate under an inference engine.
62
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
5. CONTENT MANAGEMENT
Content management has grown from its inception from "Web" content management to a broadened
scope of "enterprise" content management, including management of data and knowledge of any
type, everything from spreadsheets on a file server to source codes in a repository. A content
management system includes the following technology areas:
• Repository of library services, meta-data and tagging administration;
• Content creation and search tools, Web connectors and adaptors, publishing, personalization;
• A workflow engine ensuring that content is reviewed, edited, and approved by the appropriate
sequence of individuals before it is published or posted;
• Content authoring tools with input from enterprise applications (Enterprise Resource Planning,
Citizen Relationship Management).
6. AUTOMATED TRANSLATION
"Localization" refers to the linguistic, cultural and technical adaptation of content information
products, often accessible through the Internet, to a particular audience. This is more popular in the
United States and Europe, and is used by various firms where Web site globalization is a highpriority item in their e-business plan. Content translation is just one element, i.e. linguistic. Other
elements include cultural translation of the content and user interface. In other words, it includes:
Web-user interface translation, user interface transformation, content translation, and content
transformation.
7. CITIZEN RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT
Citizen Relationship Management is a set of collaborative processes and technologies that support
interactions with citizens throughout all channels for varying interfaces, such as wireless, telephone,
personal computer, cable TV, kiosks, and modality-independent interfaces complying with
accessibility and disability requirements. CRM includes technologies that enable business
capabilities such as:
• Remembering the citizens or having an insight into their behaviour and needs;
• Accessing multiple related government services through one site;
• Organizing the site around citizens' needs;
• Helping or advising citizens based upon their needs or circumstances;
• Accessing other value-added non-governmental services;
• Providing collaborative technologies across all channels (e-consultation, multi-channel citizen
interaction support and service desk, accessibility).
63
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
8. MOBILE ACCESS TO E-GOVERNMENT
Mobile access to e-government provides capabilities such as information "warning" and information
"access" services. Examples of information "warning" (or "push") services include bus arrival
notification in Sweden and environment and highway traffic notification in the State of
California.Information "access" (or "pull") services can enable business functions that require
near-real-time response (e.g. using remote access to e-mails) or real-time response (e.g. using instant
messaging, chat, cell phone). Examples include mobile access to government data and resources,
which is one important aspect of e-government. Another wireless application is the use of Wireless
LANs or Wireless VoIP internally within government buildings to have wireless telephone and
Internet access while on the move.
9. E-BUSINESS
World-wide interest in XML continues to increase rapidly in e-business frameworks (e.g. ebXML),
enterprise application integration (e.g. the Web services protocol stack), e-business application
development (most software vendors in the area of data interchange support some version of XML
specification), and particularly in standards organizations that continue to play a major role in the
specification and shepherding of XML. Enabling technologies include:
• Web-services development (WDSL, SOAP, XML);
• Component-based application architecture using widely adopted standards (COM-DNA/MS,
CORBA/OMG, J2EE-EJB/SUN);
• XML environment (e.g. ebXML);
• E-commerce applications such as e-Payment, e-procurement.
10. SPECIAL SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE
Special software ranges from software packages for systems development (e.g. Open Source
Software, computer-aided systems development environment, and so on) to scientific packages (e.g.
on-line analysis and planning, statistical packages such as SPSS, environmental, architecture and
engineering drawing packages, etc.). It also includes open source software (OSS) developed by
communities of programmers who distribute the code without charge and donate their labour to
cooperatively debug, modify and otherwise improve the software. One of the main reasons to adopt
Open Source Software is to balance the market and avoid giving a monopoly to one vendor. Special
hardware ranges from simple electronic flip charts, projectors, to sophisticated supercomputing
hardware used for prediction and simulation of complex systems for applications in environment,
health, and so on.
64
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Work Profile
The following tables summarize, for each archetype, work activities and their enabling technologies.
As stated earlier, since the relationship between the archetypes and the ICT Infrastructure is trivial (i.e.
all archetypes need it), we will only describe relationships with the remaining nine technology areas.
1. THE FRONT-LINE WORKER
Work Activities
• Communications (channel access: Internet, telephone, e-mail, fax);
• Information access/provision;
• Information synthesis;
• Information tracking (case, publication, etc.);
• Transacting (on-line payment for transaction fees, registration, etc.);
• Front-line intelligence (provide input to FAQ, dialogue statistics).
Enabling Technologies
• Security, data, knowledge, translation, CRM, e-business, special SW/HW (e.g. case tracking,
publication tracking, on-line forms, multi-channel help desk).
2. THE EXPERT
Work Activities
• Knowledge creation (articles, news, publications, briefings, etc.);
• Networking (workshops, conferences);
• Knowledge interpretation (analysis, synthesis);
• Communications (to stakeholders, detailed interpretations);
• Working remotely or while on the road.
Enabling Technologies
• Data, knowledge, wireless, e-business, special SW/HW (e.g. on-line analytical processing
software).
65
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
3. THE CASEWORKER
Work Activities
• Case creation/registration (preparation of a file for trial, pension, child support, on-line forms,
etc.);
• Case tracking (authentication, status reporting, end to end, etc.);
• Case processing (decision-making, access to case history, similar cases);
• Remote access to case data (from client location);
• Transacting (e-payment for child support, etc.);
• Maintaining privacy (personnel procedures in multi-jurisdictional/individual stakeholder solutions);
• Client authentication;
• Maintaining integrity (of information in cases).
Enabling Technologies
• Security, data, knowledge, translation, e-business, special SW/HW (e.g. case management and
tracking software, intelligent systems with case-based reasoning capabilities).
4. THE CLUSTER MANAGER
Work Activities
• Site management (domain name registration, quality of service operations and performance using
indicators such as number of hits, capacity, etc.);
• Search engines evaluation, and failed searches tracking and management;
• Tagging, broken links, authoring, editing, creation, etc.;
• Localization of the data (translation: language, user interface, and content);
• Delivering services across multiple jurisdictions;
• Managing relationships;
• Seeking stakeholder recommendations.
Enabling Technologies
• Security, data, content management, translation, CRM, wireless, e-business, special SW/HW (e.g.
authoring packages, groupware).
66
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
5. THE INFORMATION SYNTHESIST
Work Activities
• Aggregating content as information brokers;
• Conducting market research;
• Accessing and using results provided by various research firms, news, magazines, conferences;·
Performing librarian functions for storage and access to business activities;
• Conducting statistical analysis;
• Creating visual representation of complex data;
• Discovering data relationships and presenting them in a simple graphical way.
Enabling Technologies
• Data, knowledge, wireless, special SW/HW (e.g. statistical analysis, information classification
and tracking).
6. THE COMMUNICATIONS OFFICER
Work Activities
• Sharing knowledge;
• Conducting environmental scan;
• Facilitating multi-stakeholder relationships through news groups and virtual group discussions;
• Networking with individuals through personal/virtual meetings and collaboration;
• Reviewing electronic publications;
• Holding public opinion polls;
• Linking with the communications community.
Enabling Technologies
• Security, data, translation, CRM, wireless, special SW/HW (e.g. issue tracking, e-mail alerts,
on-line collaboration, graphics/presentation packages with support for video/audio clip and
special effects).
7. THE CONSULTATION OFFICER
Work Activities
• Creating a chorus of voices from a fragmented situation;
• Asking open-ended questions, stimulating the discussion, etc.;
• Facilitating.
Enabling Technologies
• Data, knowledge, translation, wireless, special SW/HW (e.g. electronic flip charts, projectors,
video conferencing, groupware technologies for timely discussions/synthesis/consensus).
67
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
8. THE POLICY ANALYST
Work Activities
• Searching through electronic as well as paper documents;
• Working with and creating credible documents (e.g. law, bill, etc.) with date/time stamp from
branded sources;
• Participation/consultation with GoC internal as well as external groups;
• Developing central/regional policies.
Enabling Technologies
• Security, data, wireless, e-business, special SW/HW (e.g. chat, video conferencing, on-line
consultation, e-signature, teleworking).
9. THE INTEGRATOR
Work Activities
• Integrating knowledge from various sources;
• Serving as a pool of expertise and learning of the business processes and workflow;
• Establishing common operating principles and systems so that members can stay connected;
• Streamlining workflow, process and information;
• Working with synthesists and cluster managers to implement organization-wide systems;
• Helping address issues of the network environment: privacy, authenticity, brand equity, sustain a
seamless environment, and so on.
Enabling Technologies
• Security, data, content management, wireless, e-business, special SW/HW (e.g. e-mail, Internet,
enterprise-wide architecture management, graphics printing, multi-channel support and tracking,
multimedia presentation, media: news, radio, TV, magazines, marketing ads).
10. THE REGIONAL PROGRAM MANAGER
Work Activities
• Making service integration (GoC branding) happen;
• Active participation in Smart Communities and networking champion;
• Sharing and collaborating with many government organizations at the federal and provincial
levels;
• Creating and sustaining a unified team of people.
Enabling Technologies
• Security, data, content, translation, CRM, wireless, e-business, special SW/HW (e.g. video
conferencing, on-line collaboration, on-line consultation).
68
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Summary
The following table provides a summary of the technology enablers of the 10 archetypes. It shows
technology areas that enable key archetype's work activities. As evident, each of these technology areas
enables at least one archetype. It is therefore important to take full advantage of all of these
technologies.
Technologies
Archetypes
Security
Data
Knowledge
Content
Translation
CRM
Wireless
E-Business
Special
SW/HW
Frontline
Worker
Caseworker
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Expert
Information
Synthesist
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Policy
Analyst
Communications
Officer
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
69
Consultation
Officer
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Cluster
Manager
Regional
Program
Manager
Integrator
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
APPENDIX III
Interview and Roundtable Participants
Participant’s Name,
Title and Organization
Archetype
Interview
Roundtable
Amiot, Robert
Executive Director,
Network and System Services Centre
Health Canada
Integrator
'
Auger, Catherine
Director, Consultation Secretariat
Health Canada
Consultation
Officer
'
Ayotte, Danièle
Director, Trade Policy Consultations and
Liaison Division
Foreign Affairs and International Trade
Consultation
Bailey, Duncan
Senior Policy Advisor,
Program Planning and Performance
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Policy Analyst
'
Beaton, Alan
Senior Policy Advisor,
Management Priorities
Privy Council Office
Front-line
Worker
'
Beauvais, Sylvain
Senior Technical Specialist,
E-Government Partnerships
Public Works and Government Services
Canada
Front-line
Worker
'
Best, Anna
Project Manager,
Seniors Canada Online
Veterans Affairs Canada
Cluster Manager
'
Bohanan, Bianca
Strategist, Consultations and Outreach
Foreign Affairs and International Trade
Communications
Officer
'
Officer
'
Policy Analyst
70
'
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Participant’s Name,
Title and Organization
Archetype
Interview
Roundtable
Bonner, Kathryn
Chief, Marketing Communications
Statistics Canada
Front-line
Worker
'
Bouchard, Raymond
President,
Drachma-Denarius
Policy Analyst
'
Bourque, Pierre
Microcomputer Analyst,
LAN Support Services Section
Statistics Canada
Communications
Officer
Bowen, Patricia
Manager, ICT Governance
Public Works and Government Services
Canada
Integrator
'
Breton, Daniel
Director, Operations
Fisheries and Oceans Canada
Front-line
Worker
'
Expert
'
Briggs, Robin
IT Specialist,
Corporate Architecture Section
Canada Customs and Revenue Agency
Expert
'
Browne, Matthew
Project Manager,
Policy Planning and Research
Immigration and Refugee Board
Caseworker
'
Bureau, Yvon
Director,
Communications Community Office
Communication Canada
Communications
Officer
'
Cahoon, Amanda
Manager, Corporate Communications
Environment Canada
Communications
Officer
'
Cailloux, Michel
Visiting ADM, CCMD International
Canadian Centre for Management
Development
Integrator
'
71
'
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Participant’s Name,
Title and Organization
Archetype
Interview
Roundtable
Clapperton, Anne
Chief, Information Management
Industry Canada
Front-line
Worker
'
Cliffe, Kevin
Director, Oil Division
Natural Resources Canada
Policy Analyst
'
Coe, Amanda
Senior Policy Advisor, Management
Priorities
Privy Council Office
Integrator
'
Cook, Debbie
Senior Advisor,
Strategic Communications Planning
Privy Council Office
Consultation
Officer
Correia, Julie
Manager, IM Contact Centre
Industry Canada
Front-line
Worker
'
Coughlin, Shannon
Manager, Western Economic Diversification
Canada
Canada Manitoba Business Service Centre
Regional
Program Manager
'
Cowan, Peter
Director,
Web Innovation and Technology
Public Works and Government Services
Canada
Information
Synthesist
'
Craig, Bruce
Analyst,
Program Development and Policy
Human Resources Development Canada
Policy Analyst
Cumming, Ian
Director, Strategic Services
Human Resources Development Canada
Regional
Program Manager
'
Davis, Carmen
Director, Service Delivery Community
Development
Treasury Board of Canada, Secretariat
Front-line
Worker
'
Expert
'
'
'
Cluster Manager
72
'
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Participant’s Name,
Title and Organization
Archetype
Interview
Davis, Deborah
Executive Director,
Corporate Communications
Environment Canada
Communications
Officer
'
Dean, John
Research Officer,
National Research Council of Canada
Integrator
'
Dearth, Betty
Librarian,
Winnipeg Public Library
Regional
Program Manager
Deslauriers, Albert
Analyst, Internal Trade and Outreach
Industry Canada
Consultation
Officer
'
Dunlop, Annette
Manager, Learning Strategies and Policies
Transport Canada
Expert
'
Ferozdin, Amelia
Senior Advisor,
Program Development and Policy
Human Resources Development Canada
Policy Analyst
'
Ferran, Leanna
Policy Analyst,
Human Resources Development Canada
Consultation
Officer
'
Fillion, Marc
Senior Technical Specialist,
E-Government Partnerships
Public Works and Government Services
Canada
Communications
Officer
'
Godin, Catherine
Senior Trade Policy Analyst,
Foreign Affairs and International Trade
Expert
Goyette, Els
Consultant, Knowledge Management
Public Works and Government Services
Canada
Expert
73
Roundtable
'
'
'
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Participant’s Name,
Title and Organization
Archetype
Interview
Roundtable
'
Hanna, Roy
Senior Policy Advisor,
Strategic Planning and Evaluation
Human Resources Development Canada
Integrator
Haworth,
Dr Haworth,
Dr Richard
ADM, Mineral and Metal Sector
Natural Resources Canada
Expert
'
Hébert, Jean-Guy
Director, Client and Business Relations
Public Works and Government Services
Canada
Front-line
Worker
'
Hempel, Paul
Managing Editor,
Client Engagement and Dialogue Branch
Environment Canada
Expert
'
Henault, Claude
Hénault,
Senior Policy Analyst,
Internet and Computer Integration
Finance Canada
Expert
'
Horibe, Frances
President,
Franceshoribe.com
Expert
'
Hunter John
Hunter,
John
Senior Project Manager,
Public Works and Government Services
Canada
Caseworker
'
Jackman, Linda
Senior Consultant,
IT/net
Information
Synthesist
'
Jarvis, Bill
Director General, Policy Research
Environment Canada
Policy Analyst
'
Jelich, Helen
Director General, E-Government Partnerships
Public Works and Government Services
Canada
Communications
Officer
'
Caseworker
74
'
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Participant’s Name,
Title and Organization
Archetype
Interview
Roundtable
Jones, Richard
Analyst, Application Management and
Innovation Services
Industry Canada
Caseworker
'
Langshur, Alex
Principal,
Canadian Office, Hillwatch
Communications
Officer
'
Lavitt, Larry
Manager, Compensation Web Division
Public Works and Government Services
Canada
Caseworker
Legault, France
Automotive Safety Engineer,
Standards and Regulations
Transport Canada
Expert
'
Levesque, Peter
Senior Officer, Strategic Communication and
Knowledge Transfer
Social Sciences and Humanities Council of
Canada
Expert
'
Lillico, Brian
Director,
Compensation Modernization Project
Public Works and Government Services
Canada
Caseworker
'
Lozano, Alexandra
Human Resources Development Canada
Cluster Manager
'
Macdonald, Robert
Director, iNet Policy and Canadians Gateway
Human Resources Development Canada
Cluster Manager
'
MacGregor, Don
Senior Project Manager,
Compensation and Modernization Project
Public Works and Government Services
Canada
Caseworker
75
'
'
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Participant’s Name,
Title and Organization
Archetype
Interview
Roundtable
Machan, Tracey
Regional Manager, Projects
Public Works and Government Services
Canada
Regional
Program Manager
'
Matheson, Ian
Director, Strategic Management Directorate
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Integrator
'
May, Jim
Manager, Service Delivery Division
Citizenship and Immigration Canada
Front-line
Worker
'
'
Caseworker
'
McBain, Kevin
Senior Policy Analyst,
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Communications
Officer
Mckay, Colin
Manager (ISP), Advisory Services
Industry Canada
Communications
Officer
Mckinnon,Kim
Mckinnon,
Kim
A/Director, New Media Programs
Canada Customs and Revenue Agency
Front-line
Worker
McOrmond, Vic
Director, E-Government Partnerships
Public Works and Government Services
Canada
Information
Synthesist
'
Mennie, Al
Director,
E-Business Services
Public Works and Government Services
Canada
Communications
Officer
'
'
'
'
Information
Synthesist
'
Front-line
Worker
Merchant, Jamshed
Director General,
Government On-Line Branch
Canadian Heritage
Information
Synthesist
76
'
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Participant’s Name,
Title and Organization
Archetype
Interview
Roundtable
'
Mercier, Paul
Senior Policy Advisor,
Treasury Board of Canada, Secretariat
Information
Synthesist
Morin, Sharon
Head, Strategic Planning,
Canada Enquiry Centre
Communication Canada
Front-line
Worker
'
Nault, Colette
Director General, Client Service
Transformation Directorate
Environment Canada
Integrator
'
Nauman, Al
Director, Government On-Line
Citizenship and Immigration Canada
Front-line
Worker
Nguyen, Van
Manager, Recruitment and Classification
Canada Science and Technology Museum
Corporation
Caseworker
'
Niktash, Morteza
Manager, E-Government Partnerships
Public Works and Government Services
Canada
Information
Synthesist
'
'
'
Communications
Officer
'
Front-line
Worker
Ogden, Marj
Director General, Client Services Directorate
Canada Customs and Revenue Agency
Expert
Palmer, Ryan
Technical Advisor,
Youth Initiatives Program,
Human Resources Development Canada
Consultation
Officer
Roderick G. Quiney
Deputy Assistant Commissioner
Canada Customs and Revenue Agency
Expert
77
'
'
'
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Participant’s Name,
Title and Organization
Archetype
Interview
Roundtable
Ronholm, Kim
Policy Advisor,
Innovation and Regional Initiatives
Natural Resources Canada
Information
Synthesist
'
Rudolf, Margaret
Senior Project Officer,
Service Transformation
Treasury Board of Canada, Secretariat
Information
Synthesist
'
Scott, Leslie-Ann
Director General, Director General’s Office
Canada Customs and Revenue Agency
Expert
'
Séguin, Patricia
Director, eDialogue and Consultations,
E-Services
Canadian Heritage
Consultation
Officer
'
Sehgal, Pankaj
Director, E- Government Partnerships
Public Works and Government Services
Canada
Consultation
Officer
'
Shalka, Robert
Senior Officer, International Investigations
Citizenship and Immigration Canada
Caseworker
'
Sharpe, Mary Anne
Director, Environment, Natural Resources,
Fisheries and Agriculture Canada
Environment Canada
Cluster Manager
'
Sinclair, Niall
Director, Knowledge Management Office
Public Works and Government Services
Canada
Information
Synthesist
Surette, Ron
Director General, Business Intelligence, and
CIO, Corporate Systems and Administration
Atlantic Canada Opportunities Agency
Caseworker
'
Sutton, Joe
Executive Director,
Womenspace
Consultation
Officer
'
78
'
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
Participant’s Name,
Title and Organization
Archetype
Interview
Taylor, Marilyn
Executive Director,
NRCan On-Line Secretariat
Natural Resources Canada
Cluster Manager
'
Thivierge, Marc
Director, Client Services
Public Works and Government Services
Canada
Information
Synthesist
'
Tremblay, Eric
Reference and Information Officer,
Depository Services
Communication Canada
Information
Synthesist
'
Turgeon, François
Senior Policy Analyst,
Information Management
Canadian International Development Agency
Policy Analyst
'
Weisenburger, Ron
Chief Knowledge Officer,
Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural
Development
Expert
'
Williamson, Michael
Director, Maritime Class
Management/Submarines
National Defence
Policy Analyst
'
Wilson, Mark
CBC / Radio Canada
Integrator
'
Wood, Donna
Director General, Public Access Programs
Communication Canada
Front-line
Worker
'
79
Roundtable
Archetypes of the Network Age
The Public Policy Forum
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Accenture. eGovernment Leadership: Engaging the Customer. Government Executive Series, 2003.
Available at http://www.accenture.com/xdoc/en/newsroom/epresskit/egovernment/egov_epress.pdf.
See also http://www.accenture.ca for a summary of the report.
Digital 4 Sight. "Serving E-Citizens. Understanding Government Customers in the Internet Age."
July 2001.
Fountain, Jane E. "The Virtual State: Toward a Theory of Bureaucracy for the Twenty-First Century."
In Kamarck, Elaine Ciulla and Nye, Joseph S. eds. democracy.com? Governance in a Networked
World. Hollis, NH: Hollis Publishing Company, 1999.
Jung, C.J. "Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious." Collected Works of C.G. Jung. Volume 9,
Part 1. Edited and translated by Gerhard Adler and R.F.C. Hull. Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1968.
Marshak, R.J. "Managing the Metaphors of Change." Organizational Dynamics. Summer 1993.
Vol. 22, No.1, pp. 44-56.
Porter, Michael. "Clusters and the New Economics of Competition," Harvard Business Review,
Nov.-Dec.1998, pp. 1-12.
Putnam, Robert. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York:
Simon & Schuster, 2000.
Raymond, Eric S. The Cathedral and the Bazaar, Musings on Linux and Open Source by an Accidental
Revolutionary. Cambridge, MA: O'Reilly Books, 1999.
Senge, Peter. The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization.
New York: Currency Doubleday, 1990.
Snowden, D.J. "Archetypes as an Instrument of Narrative Patterning." Arc Knowledge Management
Magazine, Vol. 5 Issue 4 (November 2001).
Stefik, Mark, ed. Internet Dreams: Archetypes, Myths and Metaphors. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996.
White, Nancy. "It Ain't Easy Being Green: Posting Archetypes in Online Conversations," Washington
DC: Full Circles Association, 2000.
80