Hero Worship in America
Author(s): Orrin E. Klapp
Reviewed work(s):
Source: American Sociological Review, Vol. 14, No. 1 (Feb., 1949), pp. 53-62
Published by: American Sociological Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2086446 .
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HERO WORSHIP IN AMERICA
53
to convertthemselvesvoluntarilyon their societiesin Africaand thePacificintoworld
own initiative.Americanization
does take citizens.Russia has a patternforsuchtransShe has
place, as it alwayshas, throughthe process formation
to suit herown interests.
of undergoinga series of commonexperi- appliedit on a nationalscale,and is hardat
ences,whoseend resultis the development workmakingpeoplesof othernationsadjust
of personalities
which,even in the land of to it. To Americanobserversit seems extheirorigin,would never be mistakenfor cessivelycostlyin humanlives and in huanythingbut American.The recentdiscus- man capacities.It has, however,provedto
especiallywhenit is
effective,
sion of culturalpluralismhas served the be extremely
by a
veryusefulpurposeof increasingAmerican applied with ruthlessdetermination
tolerancefor,or better,appreciationof dif- police state. The United States has demodificaferences.But its advocates sometimesig- velopedtechniquesforpersonality
nore the fact that a societymust rely for tion which have worked with reasonable
its securityupon a foundationof common satisfactionon our own soil. It mightbe
our historicalexperience
understandings.
well to re-examine
One of the basic problemsof a worldat in the lightof our positionof dominancein
peace is the transformation
of European worldaffairs.
and Asiaticpeasantsand membersof simple
HERO WORSHIP
IN AMERICA*
ORRIN E. KLAPP
San Diego State College
IN
someof thegenAMERICA
the "greatman" appears us to attemptto formulate
of hero worshipas a
frequently
to be an athlete,an enter- eral characteristics
tainer,or a personof relativelytrivial social processin America.
While hero worshipin America ranges
accomplishment,
whosepre-eminence
in our
and other
scale of values causes unfavorablecomment fromtheadulationof entertainers
concerning
the "materialism"
or 'vulgarity" celebritiesto such diverse things as the
of the Americanstyleof life.We have had celebrationof legendaryheroes,the decorain past years a numberof such popular tion of militaryheroes, and the cult of
heroes, contrastingwith the stainless in- saints, we believe that it representsa
tegrityof our officialnational heroes and generic process which expressesitself in
martyrs.In addition to this problem of many aspects of life as the tendencyto
values,the emergence
of popularheroeshas selectcertainindividualsas collectiveideals,
frequently
constituted
a disturbing
political to accord themspecial status,and to surand social force.Mass hero worshipleads roundthemwithbehaviorcharacterizedas
naturallyto excesses,to blind devotionto "hero worship."The hero worshipperin
leaders.Whenit does not have theseconse- Americahas become characterizedas the
quences,it leads oftento the irrationality "fan." Yet thereis no reasonto believethat
and triviality
of fadsand cults.In any case, similarbehavioris not to be foundin all
a social forceis loosedwhichacts in a dis- societies.2
turbingway upon the status quo. The un2 It has been suggestedthat the Germans are
predictabilityof popular heroes and the pre-eminentlya race of hero-worshippersand that
apparentmystery'of whatmakesthemlead this serves to explain the excesses associated with
*Manuscript received September 8, 1948.
This mysteryhas been stated by Gerald Johnson in AmericanHeroes and Hero Worship (New
York, Harper & Bros., I943).
Hitler. See H. J. C. Grierson,Carlyle and Hitler
(Cambridge, At the Univ. Press, 1933). The best
survey of American hero worship is provided by
Dixon Wecter, The Hero in America (New York,
Chas. Scribner's Sons, I94I).
See the following
54
AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW
It is the description
of heroworshipwith
whichthe presentpaperis concerned,
based
largelyupon data derivedfroma studyof
Americanhero worship.3Our problemis
twofold: to describe hero worship as it
occursin Americaand secondlyto attempt
to visualize the genericcharacterof hero
worshipas a social process.
At the point of originof hero worship,
the emergenceof a hero may be notedby
certainsigns.One of theseis suddenor unusual fame. Anotheris a markedshiftin
status.A thirdis the beginningof behavior
characteristicof hero worship.4In the
career of a public figure,for instance,a
point may be reachedat whichthe public
acquires a special sentimentality
toward
him.It may be notedthathe has gainedin
"stature,"thathe has becomeapotheosized.5
The special sentimentality
of the public
toward a popular hero includesa certain
endearment,
a tremendous
loyalty,a reluctance to admit critical reflection,and a
faith and venerationwhich verge upon
superstition.
Once a public figureacquires
the status of a popular hero,he is to be
speciallyreckonedwith as a social force.6
If an entertainer,
he becomes"box office."7
If a political leader, he acquires generic
works for diverse aspects of hero worship: Stefan appeal: he draws crowds, fills stadiums,
Czarnowski,Le culte des heros et les conditions
makes money,gets votes, and gathershis
sociales (Paris, Alcan, ig9);
L. R. Farnell, Greek
followingfromall walks of life. His name
Hero Cults (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1921) ; H.
Delehaye, Sanctus: essai sur le culte des saints dans and image act as an inspiration
to organize
Pantiquite(Bruxelles,Societedes Bollandistes,I927);
large masses of people.Later in his career,
C. D. Gower, "The SupernaturalPatron in Sicilian
particularlyafterdeath, he may be comLife." (Chicago, Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Chicago,
memorated
or canonised,his tombbecomes
1928);
F. R. S. Raglan, The Hero, a Study in
a place of pilgrimage,his fame becomes
Tradition,Myth, and Drama (London, Methuen &
Co., Ltd., I936); and Robert Redfield,Tepoztlan, legendary,
and a full-fledged
hero cult may
a Mexican Village (Chicago, Univ. of Chicago Press, growup as an institution.
1930).
We findhero worshipto have a genetic
'Orrin E. Klapp, "The Hero as a Social Type,"
(Chicago, Unpubl. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Chicago, sequence,goingthrougha sortof cyclebeginningwith the emergenceof a popular
I948).
4We have used the followingcriteriato define hero. The main phases of this processwe
a popular hero: (i) a person of fame,as indicated shall
designateas follows:(i) spontaneous
by news-space devoted to him, rumor and legend
or
unorganized
popularhomage,(2) formal
concerninghim, or the fact that everybodyknows
and honor,(3) the buildingup
him; (2) a person who is commonlycalled a hero recognition
(or some equivalentor marginaltermsuch as idol, of an idealizedimageor legendof the hero,
champion,favoriteson, patron saint, martyr); and
of the hero, and (5)
(4) commemoration
(3) a person who is the object of hero worship.
establishedcult. While all heroes do not
The criteriafor hero worship are as follows: (a)
the hero is admired,eulogized,acclaimed, or other- completethis cycle,thereis a tendencyfor
wise honored by his society; (b) he is formally themto becomelegendaryand to pass into
recognizedor canonised; (c) he is commemorated; the traditionof the groupas cult symbols.
or (d) he has a followingof devotees, "fans," or
We shall considerin followingsections
hero-worshippers.
"Fans" are distinguished
fromthe
of a typicalpopularhero,the
general public by the intensityand self-conscious- the emergence
ness of their enthusiasm,emulation,and devotion.
Persons especially devoted to a hero frequently
constitutea club or "cult" in his name, honoringor
emulatinghim in various ways. Accordingto these
criteria,Charles Lindbergh,Babe Ruth, and Jack
Dempsey would be outstandingamong personswho
became popular heroesin Americaduringthe nineteen-twenties.Other persons of this period having
characteristicsof popular heroes include: General
J. J. Pershing,SergeantYork, Will Rogers,Rudolph
Valentino,Sacco and Vanzetti,Huey Long, and Al
Capone.
'A study of this process has been provided by
Lloyd Lewis in Myths After Lincoln (I929).
See
also R. P. Basler, The Lincoln Legend (Boston,
Houghton,Mifflin,I935).
6W. F. Ogburn, "The Great Man vs. Social
Forces," Social Forces (I926),
See also
5: 229-3I.
the concept of charismaticleadershipas developed
by Max Weber.
'Babe Ruth noted that when he stood beside
prominentstatesmen,engineers,and other servants
of humanity,it was he who got the cheers.
HERO WORSHIP IN AMERICA
55
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR OF HERO WORSHIP
social behavior of hero worship, the
status
and
the
hero,
the
of
image
idealized
Americaprovidesus with
Contemporary
of the hero.
a multitudeof examplesof hero worship
behavior,rangingfromspontaneouspopuOF A TYPICAL POPULAR HERO
EMERGENCE
lar homage to formalhonor,commemoraThe emergenceof Lindberghduringthe tion,and cult. Much heroworshipbehavior
providesone of the most is unorganized,
nineteen-twenties
naive,and spontaneous.It is
completecase studies of a popular hero extremelycurious. The people themselves
available. This case has a numberof fea- do not knowwhytheydo it. The unorgantures which our study has shown to be ized behaviorof heroworshipincludescertypicalof manypopular heroes.First,the tain distinctiveformswhichwe shall here
hero is oftena personof relativelyobscure describe:popularhomage,familiarity,
possocial status prior to his elevationto the sessiveness, curiosity,identification,and
rank of a hero. Second, his fame was imitation.
achieved by a spectacular demonstration Perhaps the most understandableform
whichimpressedthe publicand caused him is the popularhomagewhichgreetsheroes.
to be recognizedas a hero.Third,a spon- Spontaneousacts, such as applause,cheers,
taneous popular responseof hero worship raisingupon shoulders,throwingof kisses,
occurredbefore officialrecognitionof his and the like,expressthe intenseadmiration
revealingmany of the mech- of the people.The following
achievement,
exampleof the
anismsof heroworship.Fourth,almostim- homage which greeted Lindberghat his
began landingis a good one:9
mediatelya mythicalinterpretation
to growup, in whichvariousfeatureswere
The entirefield. . . was coveredwiththouattributedto him in popular imagination sandsofpeopleall running
myship....
towards
througheulogy,art,story,song,and verse.8 I startedto climbout of the cockpit,but as
The case of Lindbergh illustrateswhat soonas onefootappearedwas dragged
therest
on mypart.For
assistance
mightbe foundto be trueof manypopular of thewaywithout
heroes, such as Jack Dempsey or Babe nearlyhalfan hourI was unableto touchthe
carduringwhichtimeI was ardently
Ruth: how they are selected by colorful ground,
small
very
be
a
to
seemed
what
in
around
ried
feats which draw attentionto them and
it is possibleto be in.
excite admiration,how hero worshipele- areaandin everyposition
butno one
had thebestofintentions
Everyone
vates them in status, and how they are seemedto knowjustwhattheywere.
which
subject to a popular interpretation
legendof the hero. Along with physical gesturesof homage
constitutesthe forming
We wish now to considerthe natureof the goes spontaneous eulogy throughsongs,
poems,anecdotes,populardrama,and other
popularreactionwhichdefinesthe hero.
worksof art.'0 M\asshomagealso includes
8At the time of his flightin I927, Lindberghwas
fan mail containingexpressionsof admira-
an "unknown." On the day prior to his flight,he
ate unrecognizedin a restaurant.Almost overnight,
by his exploit of flyingthe ocean alone in a small
plane,he became the mosteulogizedheroin America,
outrankingin importanceby far all other persons.
This feat so struckthe popular imaginationthat it
provoked a flood of hystericaleulogy and mass
adulation which lasted for several years. Lindbergh
was literally jerked upward in status and in his
verticalascent became almost a demigod.From the
momentof his landing in Paris a popular reaction
began to grow which reachedits heightbefore,and
must be consideredapart from,his formalrecognition as a national hero by Congress. Ten million
medals were struckand a postage stamp was issued
in his honor.
9 Charles Lindbergh,We (New York, Grosset&
Dunlap, I927), pp. 224-7. Note also the homage
which greetedAl Capone: "The curious fact about
Scarface Al is that Americans. . . used to go out
of their way to shake hands with him, and when
he and his eighteenbodyguardsappeared in public
at the races or a footballgame, therewas not only
a thrilledmurmurin the stands, there were sometimes cheers. What were they cheering about?"
"Capone Era," Life,FebruaryiO, I947, V. 22, p. 24.
10 Several thousand poems were dedicated to
Lindbergh;also dances,sculpture,paintings,cantatas,
and popular songs. A heroic size statue of Babe
Ruth swattinga ball was exhibitedat Rockefeller
Center.
56
AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW
tion and appreciation.Numerousgiftsand The public is, moreover,extremelyproud
tributes are spontaneouslygiven to the and loyal withregardto its heroes,rallying
hero."
to theirdefensewhencriticizedor attacked.
Somewhatembarrassing
to many heroes Finally,unusual demandsare made on the
is the familiarity
and possessivenesswhich hero by personshavingno relationshipto
the public displaystowardthem.It feelsit him.'6
How are we to interpretthis behavior?
"owns" the hero and endeavorsto appropriatetheheroin everytypeof relationship. While homagerepresents
to raise
the effort
We shall enumeratesome of the ways in the hero in status by honoringhim, faindicatea sense
whichthepublicinvadesthehero'sprivacy. miliarityand possessiveness
withthe hero,a collective
Personstriedto reach Valentino'sdressing of identification
as
room by everypossible ruse. The hero is effort
to come intoas close a relationship
always being manhandled, pawed, and possiblewithhim,to apprehendhim into a
caressed,evidencinga desire to touch the familiarcategory.This combinationof dishero and otherwiseto becomefamiliarwith tance withclosenessrepresentsa paradoxihim.'2Peopleboastedofhavinggotten"that cal elementin hero worship:verticaldisclose" to Lindbergh.A man offeredone tance is maintainedthroughhomage and
thousanddollars simplyfor the chance to admiration,and at the same time social
shake his hand. People try to crowd into closeness is expressedthroughfamiliarity
photographswith the hero. Attemptsat and possessiveness.There is an effortto
of mar- become familiarwith the hero and at the
close relationship
also includeoffers
riage, business proposals, and claims of sametimeto puthimupona pedestal.'7
claimedrelation- The distancein hero worshipis further
kinship.So manystrangers
ship withJackDempseythathe was called seen in the curiositywithwhichthe public
the "cousin of all the Dempseys."Not the regardsits heroes.Despite its personalinis its sense terestin the hero,it knows littleof him.
least of thepublicpossessiveness
The The public seems hungryfor information
of appropriation
in souvenir-hunting.'3
sense of familiaritywith the hero is ex- concerningthe life of the hero; his career
in news,magazines,and
pressedin popularaffection:the public re- is followedintently
fersto him by nick-namesand otherterms biography;crowdsfollowhim whereverhe
of endearment. Men shake his hand; goes.'8JackDempseyexpresseshis attitude
towardfans who forcedtheirway into his
womenembracehim:15
When he (Lindbergh)enteredthe Times dressingroom as follows:19
Buildingone girlwas quiteunableto restrain Theywantto lookat youreyesandyourears
leadingto to see howbadlyyou mayhavebeeninjured.
herself.
Sheleapedfromthestairway
thesecondfloorandflungherarmsaroundthe Theywantto pickup a wordhereor a gesture
flier'sneck.The policedislodgedher. Colonel therewhich,
lateron,theycanrelay,magnified,
blushedand shookhis headas if to to theirown littlepublic.I have alwaysreLindbergh
say,"No, no; youmustn'tdo that."
even
gardedthesecuriousfansin a tolerant,
friendly
way.
'A museumin St. Louis containsthe thousands
of giftsand trophiesgiven to Lindbergh.
" "My public" is no joke to a popular hero.
"Note the well-known joke about small boys
who boast: "Shake the hand that shook the hand Dempsey and Babe Ruth were constantlymaking
donations to strangers.
of Babe Ruth."
1 The distancein hero worshipis also expressed
13 Lindbergh's plane was almost destroyed by
He rarely got a shirt back from in the common phrases,"distance builds the great
souvenir-hunters.
the laundry; and dared not lay down a hat, coat, man," and "no man is a hero to his valet."
18
respectable-lookingwoman of middle age
or even a piece of paper. For some reason this is
considered as a right of hero-worshippersrather came up to Lindbergh,at dinner in a New York
hotel, and tried to look into his mouth to see
than as theft.
whetherhe was eating "greenbeans or greenpeas."
14It calls him "our boy," "favoriteson," and so
" C. F. Coe, "In This Corner," Saturday Eveforth.
ning Post, August8, I93I, V. 204, p. 38.
15 New York Times,June i6, I927.
HERO WORSHIP IN AMERICA
57
Since curiosityis premisedupon lack of tendencyto becomepowerfulleaders.It is
information,
we may say that the distance impossible,forinstance,to explainthe sucwithwhichthe publicis separatedfromits cess of a leadersuch as Huey Long entirely
hero and its generalignoranceof him con- by his leadershiptalents and techniques,
tributeto the characterof hero worshipas withoutrecourseto the fact that he was
a relationship.
The hero is subject to con- symbolicallya hero to his followers.22
stanttalk and gossip as the public triesto
The more organizedformsof hero worinterpret
him. This leads to the formation ship in Americaincludeformalhonor,comof legends. A furtherinferencefromthe memoration,
and cult.We see formalhonor
curiositytowardheroesis thatthe intensity of heroes in the followingfamiliarprocof the interestatteststo the psychological esses: ceremonies
specialdisof recognition,
importanceof the hero as a symbolin the tinctionsand privilegesaccordedto heroes,
personalities
of hero-worshippers.
formaltributesand celebrations,and honTwo more aspects of mass behaviordis- oraryadoption.All of theseare methodsof
tinctiveof hero worshipwill be mentioned. accordingstatusto heroes.23Recognitionof
These are identification
and imitation.The heroesin Americais seen in the decoration
behavior previously discussed under fa- of militaryheroes,24the selectionof athmiliarity and possessivenessindicates a letic champions,25
and the canonizationof
popular sense of identification
and privileges
withheroes. saints.26Special distinctions
Imitationis also expressiveof this identifi- conferon the hero a unique status. The
cation. Imitationof heroesis seen in two traffic
rulesof New York werereversedfor
particularforms:fads and the behaviorof Lindbergh'scar.27He was honoredby infans. Valentino,forinstance,was responsi- numerable formal tributes and celebrable for a fad of side-burnsand vaselined
hair.His love-making
techniquewas copied. the industrious behavior of Poor Richards and
A similarobservationmightbe made with Horatio Alger heroes,etc., in appropriatesituations.
22 The martyrstatus of Huey Long became eviregardto Sinatrabow-tiesand vocal mandent afterhis death.
nerisms.Boys emulateJack Dempsey and
22Honor raises status, creatingand maintaining
Babe Ruth. This may amount to literal hierarchicaldistinctions.See Hans Speier, "Honor
impersonation,
as in the case of hero-wor- and Social Structure,"Social Research (I935), 2: 74shipperswho even take the name and char- 97.
24 See A. T. Wilson, Gallantry,its Public Recogacter of theirheroes.20It is oftenpossible nition
in Peace and War (London, Oxford Univ.
to recognizea fan by his resemblanceto Press, I939); T. S. Arbuthnot,Heroes of Peace
some popularhero.Whetherin the general (Hero Fund Commission,I935); P. A. Wilkins,Hisdiffusion
of fashionsor in theintenseemula- tory of the Victoria Cross (London, A. Constable
tion of fans, we findimitationto be one & Co., I904).
25 Competitionsor tournamentsare typical inof the characteristic
types of behaviorof stitutionsfor the selectionof champions.The hero
hero worship. Identificationwith heroes is given a belt, cup, or other trophy,significantof
helps to explain theirextraordinary
effec- his status, which is often transferableto another
tiveness in two fields: education21 and hero when the status is transferred.
As, forinstance,Mother Cabrini. Canonization
leadership.In thelattercase, becauseof the is perhaps
the most completelydeveloped instituadmirationof heroesand the strongsense tion for the selectionand recognitionof heroes. It
of identification
with them,heroeshave a is a complexjudicial process,involvinginvestigation
26
of the life of the hero,examinationof witnessesand
20A devotee of Robert Browning,for instance, evidenceby a seriesof courts,and statutorydelays,
has assumed the characterof the poet, spent his takingnormallyover fiftyyears beforeglorification
life studyinghis career, become an authority on of the saint.
Browning, collected a museum of his relics, and
27A special air mail stamp was issued, the first
wearshis ring.Time,May I7, I947.
time a stamp was issued for a man still living.
21 Identification
with heroesmeans that the pub- Similarly, Pershing in France was accorded the
lic will be equipped with a number of approved unique honor of touchingand kissingthe hilt of the
roles,assumingthe militantattitudesof war heroes sword and cross of the Legion of Honor. "This was
in time of war, the sacrificialattitudesof martyrs, the most signal honor France ever bestowed on
58
AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW
and memorialsto a hero
tions.28 Anothertype of formalhonor ex- The monuments
tendedto heroesis seen in honoraryadop- are usually larger and more magnificent
Large edition.29Funerals are a particularoccasion thanthoseto ordinarypersons.32
for tributesand panegyricsto heroes.The fices,funds,or institutions
may be dedimagnitudeof funeralhonors reflectsthe cated to a hero.33A plaque was unveiledat
hero's social value and status.30
the spot
the Gare Maritimecommemorating
Commemoration
includes,beyond honor whereLindberghfirstflewover France on
of heroes,the effort
to perpetuatethemem- his way to Le Bourgetfield.The relicsand
ory of heroes in tradition.While honor historic sites connected with the hero's
createsstatus,commemoration
expressesthe career become centers for legend.34The
peculiar value of the hero as a symbol. legendmay be said to be perhapsthe most
Monuments,likenesses,relics,legends,and durableand importantpart of the fameof
periodic celebrationsmay be taken as a hero.Finally,namesakeshelp to preserve
mnemonicdevicesto preservethe collective the memoryof the hero.35
imageof a hero.The spontaneousrepresen- Hero cult growsout of theseactivitiesof
tationof heroesin art atteststo an uncon- hero worship.There is no definiteline
scious effort
to preservethemin memory.31 which demarcatesthe mass behavior of
hero worshipfromcult,exceptin so far as
any man. Before this occasion, not even a FrenchHero cult
it becomesperiodicor regular.36
man was permittedto hold the historicrelicsin his
when
there
is regular
may
be
said
to
exist
hands. Kings and Princes have been taken to the
crypt . . . but they only viewed the sword and
devotionto or celebrationof a hero by a
cross throughthe plate glass of the case in which group.Hero worshipbehaviortendsto bethey rest. The relics had not been touched since
come regularizedas an institutionusually
the time of Louis Philippe." "General Pershingin
on someanniversary
of thehero.The death
France," CurrentHistory,July II7, v. 6, p. 8.
of theherois oftentakenas theoccasionto
28 "The receptions...
long ago have begun to be
meaninglesslyalike. First, the rush of people over
the field . . . then the steppingout and shakingof
hands, followed by the . . . flightto safetyon the
folded top of an officialautomobile; and at last the
dinner where all the talk is of the air he has just
come roaring through,and of the furtherair he
will go roaringthrough.""Loneliest Man," Nation,
February29, 1928, v. 126, p. 230.
' It is common for groups to claim heroes as
membersor patrons.AfterLindbergh'sflight,various
groupsbegan to claim him. His "Irish" and "Norse"
ancestrieswere discovered.His home town, Little
Falls, Minnesota, proposed renaming itself after
him. He was made an Honorary Boy Scout. Similarly, Babe Ruth while on a tour of the West was
initiated into an Indian tribe and christened
"Chief Big Bat." The adoption of saints as patrons
by local groups is a familiarformof this tendency.
The honoraryadoption of heroesmay be considered
as a transmissionof honor both ways, since the
group acquires prestigethroughits relation to the
hero just as it feels that it is honoringhim by
membership.
3 The size of gangsters'funeralsin Americaduring the nineteen-twenties
has been noted. See John
Landesco, Organized Crime in Chicago, Part III,
El. Crime Survey (Chicago, Illinois, Assn. for
Criminal Justice,I929).
" The essence of commemorationis expressedin
the phrase, "Lest we forget."
82 Excepting, of course, the self-monuments
of
and the pyramids.
philanthropists
88 A memorialfund,hotel, museum,library,and
statute in the Capitol were dedicated to Will
Rogers at his death. Note the Ruth Foundation.
The Valentino Roof Garden of the Italian Hospital
in London was contributedin memoryof Rudolph
Valentino.
84 As, for instance,the chairs in which George
Washingtonsat or the bats used by Babe Ruth
in his historic swats. Any part of his body, his
clothes, or object which has been associated with
the hero will serve to recall episodesconnectedwith
his career. The places he has lived become shrines.
One gets a vivid sense of the reality of the hero
by thus coming into contact with his relics. Note
the preservationof the blood-stained clothes of
Gandhi.
85 As, for instance,the christening
of babies after
saints. Scores of babies were christenedafterLindbergh,as well as a St. Louis building,a Pullman
car, a flyingfield,a streetin Quimperle,Brittany,
a dance, a sandwich,and a cocktail.
" Thus, one of the criteriafor the cult of saints
has been popular devotion or pilgrimagesat his
tomb for some years. Canonization officiallyconfirmsregular cult by placing the saint upon the
calendar of periodic celebrations.
HERO WORSHIP IN AMERICA
institutea cult in his memory.For a hero
We distinguishtwo main formsof hero
cult to existthefameof theheromustbe a cult in America: (i) a generalactivityin
sufficient
realityto the people to inspire honorof a heroparticipatedin by theentire
continuousactivityover a periodof time.37 community
or society;41 and (2) a special
Thus we cometo a difficulty
in the study group devotedto the hero, such as a fan
of Americanpopularheroes.Many of them club,honoraryfraternity,
or the like.42
are not of sufficient
antiquityto determine If we mightdescribethe principalfeafully the outlines of their potentialcult. turesof a fullydevelopedhero cult, these
"Babe Ruth Day," for instance,was cele- wouldincludethe following:(i) an institubrated in baseball parks all over America tionor groupexistsforthepurposeof honeven before his death.38Other popular oringand commemorating
a hero; (2) the
heroesin Americahave shrinesto whichpil- image,relics,and monumentsof the hero
grimagesare made, includingWill Rogers, are preservedas cult objects; (3) the tomb
BuffaloBill, Wild Bill Hickock,and Jesse or shrinesof the heroconstitutecentersfor
James.An interesting
and honorific
or commemorative
exampleof hero cult pilgrimages
is providedby the late RudolphValentino. observances; (4) the observancesinclude
or re-enactment
Valentino Clubs sprang up all over the recounting
of the careerof
world,composedlargelyof women.Periodic the hero throughstory,drama,impersonaobservancesof thesegroupsincludedmemo- tion, pageant, dance, panegyric,ritual,or
rial services, dedication of monuments, othersymbolicmedium,thepurposeof these
plays, poems,songs,and revivalsof Valen- being to make the hero "live again" in the
tino films.Pilgrimagesto his tomb were memoryof the group; and (5) thereare
made by men as well as women.Shrines devotionto and emulationof the hero by
were maintainedcontaininghis relics and membersof the group.
images.39The martyrsSacco and Vanzetti
THE IDEALIZED IMAGE OF THE HERO
werethe objectsof a nascenthero cult followingtheirdeaths.Heroic funeralhonors
From the excessiveadulationand eulogy
were accordedthem,theirashes and death characteristic
of hero worship,it seems inmasks werepreserved,and the anniversary evitable that an exaggeratedpopular conof theirdeath was celebratedby groupsin ceptionof the hero should grow up. This
variousparts of the worldforat least ten has been designatedby variousstudentsof
years. Periodic celebrationsare also dedicated in America to entirelylegendary red-checkeredshirts,and impersonatethe hero in
heroes.40
parades, carryinghuge saws, axes, playing cards,
and jugs of whiskey. There is, of course, also a
commercialelementin this. Compare the annual re"7 Thus, the age of saint cults is measured in
enactmentof the death of Wild Bill at Deadwood,
hundreds of years. Compare also our Washington South Dakota, and "JesseJamesDay" at Northfield,
and Lincoln cults.
Minnesota.
" Regular holidays,feasts,games,memorialserv"8On April 27, I947. In a special ceremonyat
Yankee Stadium,also, his old uniform"Number 3," ices, pageants, dramas, rituals, and the like, on
was dedicated as a relic to a museum,"never again some anniversaryof the hero, as in the case of
to identifya Yankee." Time, June 2I, I948.
our national heroes Washingtonand Lincoln.
3 One of his old shirtswas preservedin a gold"The sodalities of saints are a good example.
embroideredcasket. The motto of the Valentino Also the boys' clubs devoted to Babe Ruth. An
Memorial Guild of London is "Toujours Fidele." See
example of the fan club is providedby the Segovia
"Women Who EnshrineValentino,"LiteraryDigest, Society of Washington,D.C. This group is comFebruary 7, 1931, io8: i9; and R. C. Peterson, posed of musical enthusiastsdevoted to the reValentinothe Unforgotten(L. A. Wetzel Co., 1937).
nowned guitarist,Andres Segovia. Admirersof the
4' Annual community festivities in northern virtuosogatherto listen to his phonographrecordMinnesota are dedicatedto Paul Bunyan. An enor- ings and emulate his technique.A "Segovia Room"
mous statue of him has been erected at Bemidji. is maintainedas a shrine,containinghis pictureand
In some towns the young men grow beards, wear a chair in which he once sat.
6o
AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW
Our of the otherheroes we have studied; for
hero worship as legend-building.43
presentconcernis to showthat in the case instance: how Pershinglicked the bullies,
of many Americanpopular heroes,despite his rise as a self-mademan; the orphanage
an of Babe Ruth, his battingfeats,his visits
an age of publicityand information,
exaggeratedconceptionof the personalities, to sick boys; thepowerof Dempsey'sfists,
powers,or prowessof theseheroes,thatis to his "iron jaw," the time when he hit a
fighter
so hard on thejaw thathe brokehis
say a legend,was prevalent.
feats of Sergeant
One of the featuresof theLindberghcase leg; the sharp-shooting
which is of particularimportanceis the York in his home hills in Tennessee; the
oflegend.Curi- Santa-Claus-likebenefactionsof Al Caalmostimmediateformation
and powerto evade
ously,despitethe regardof the public for pone,his invulnerability
indicationof the idealhim,Lindberghremainedpersonallyan "un- any law.46A further
had diffi- ized conceptionof the hero is seen in the
known,"aloof,and the reporters
to the "true" personality failureof heroesoccasionallyto live up to
cultypenetrating
of this hero so admiredby the people.44 the expectations of the public.47 The
built tenacityof legends,however,is well known.
was, therefore,
The popularconception
as
and interpretations
These exaggerations
of his feat,
upon superficialinterpretation
by
art,
stories
and
supplied
recounted
in
his looks, and his gestures.All features
whichmightbe givena heroicinterpretationliterature,and eulogy,make up the myth
were seized upon by the public. His slim- of the hero.A pictureis built up of an inbenevolent,superhuness and youth were really a sign of su- vincible,invulnerable,
perior talent; his reticencewas modesty. man personage:the ideal folkhero.48IlluWithouthavinghad to do muchon his own sion and myth,we conclude,are inherent
part,a conceptionof him grewrapidlyas a to hero worshipand beliefin such helps to
boy, the perfecthero.Almostas explainit.
fair-haired
soon as he had landed, legendsbegan to
STATUS OF THE HERO
accumulateabouthis boyhood,his ancestry,
is thusseento be a personageof
The
hero
whathe said whenhe got out of his plane,
intenselyadmired and
idealized
virtues,
An
forth.
and
so
mail,
air
the
how he flew
incidentwas circulatedin which he had honoredby the people. The processesof
and cult devotion
supposedlyrescued a little girl fromthe honor,commemoration,
whirling
propellerblades of a plane.45Simi- show most clearlythe status of the hero,
to accord
lar anecdotesmightbe itemizedabout any homagebeingthe collectiveeffort
the effortto
status and commemoration
'Basler, op. cit.; Lewis, op. cit.; H. Delehaye, preservethe imageof the heroin tradition,
Legends of the Saints, (London, Longmans, Green The cult of the herois essentially
the insti& Co., 1907); E. G. Waas, The Legendary Character of Kaiser Maximilian (New York, Columbia
Univ. Press, I94I); S. G. Fisher, Legendary and
Myth-MakingProcesses in Histories of the AmeriA. L.
can Revolution (Phila., S. G. Fisher, I9I2);
Guerard,Reflectionson theNapoleonicLegend (New
R. J. Walsh and
York, C. Scribner'sSons, I924);
M. S. Salsbury, The Making of Buffalo Bill (InHamilton
dianapolis, Bobbs-Merrill Co., I928);
Basso, "The Huey Long Legend," Life, December
" See Fred Pasley, Al Capone (Garden City,
Publ. Co., I930).
4 The famous "feud" of Lindbergh with reportershelped to dispel some of the illusionsabout
him. He was found to be unfriendly,even discourteous.Accordingto one reporthe splashedmud
on the public when landing his plane. The Lindbergh legend took a furtherdecline at the time of
his apparent sympathy for Germany in I940.
Another failure of a hero to live up to expecta9, I946, vol. 2I, pp. io6ff.
tions is seen in the incredulityof followersof Jack
44It seems characteristicof popular heroes that
they are unknown by their followers.The hero is Dempsey at his defeat by Tunney. A myth had
grown up of his invincibility.
paradoxicallyboth well-knownand unknown.
4 Anotherstorytold how his plane at one land"We have tried in another article to indicate
ing field"easily outdistanced"an escort of military the nature of this folk ideal. OrrinE. Klapp, "The
planes, althoughthe latter had much higherspeeds Folk Hero," Journal of AmericanFolklore, January, 1949.
than his plane.
HERO WORSHIP IN AMERICA
6i
tutionof devotionto thishonoredimage.It of leadership,is enormouslyenhancedby
seems clear fromhis legendarystatus that virtue of heroic symbolism,for the herothe hero is properlyconceivedas a symbol worshipperis the perfectfollower.On the
ratherthanas a real person.He tendsto be otherhand, leaders who lack the status of
preservedin traditionand to function
in the popular heroesshow the essentialdistinctgroupas an idealizedimage,almostas an ness of the roles. Leaders who are not heikon. All thingspoint to the conclusion roes52are notablylackingin popularappeal
that the hero is one of the mostimportant and are vulnerableto rivalswho happento
symbolsand occupies one of the highest combinetheseroles.
statusesin social life.
We mightcharacterizethe status of the
Althoughthe hero is set apart fromor- hero, then,by the followingfeatures:(i)
dinarymen by deference,
precedence,deco- distancefromgroup members,both vertirations,and the like, and is regardedas cal and horizontal,
in thathe has no necessuperhuman,49
we must note that though sarypersonalrelationship
withhis followers
standingout fromother men the hero is and hero worshiptends to set him apart;
not essentiallya leader.50While the hero ( 2) nevertheless,strong identification
of
may be a leader,he is essentiallya symbol, membersof the groupwith the hero; (3)
solitaryand set apart.The existenceofhero symbolicstatus,as the herotendsto be an
cults shouldnot obscurethis fact.5'Where image or legendratherthan a real person,
the hero is disposedto leadership,however, and is typicallynot a livingmemberof the
as in the case of Huey Long, Franklin group; and (4) sacred or ritualstatus,as
Delano Roosevelt,or Hitler,we findthat the devotionof cult places the hero within
popular appeal, that is to say the force the realm of social values commonly
ascribedto religion.
49Amongthe evidencesof the exalted character
Because heroesare preservedand occupy
of heroes we may note their rank in mythology
as demigods, taking precedence over kings (the such high status,it may be presumedthat
Greeks,thus, in the Iliad, honored Ajax by giving theirfunctions
are extremely
We
important.
him firstplace at a feast,even beforethe king); and may supposethat the herorepresents
social
also the semi-divinestatus of saints in Christian
rolesor traitsof unusualvalue to thegroup:
hagiography.
"Among the popular heroes we have studied, acts commonlyconsideredheroic include
it may be noted that many were not leaders in extraordinary
achievement,
defenseand dethe usual sense. While Huey Long, Pershing,and liverancein time of need, contributions
to
Capone were leaders of groups, Ruth, Dempsey,
culture,
self-sacrifice
and
martyrdom,
and
Lindbergh,Rogers, Sgt. York, and Sacco and Vanzettiwere individualizedheroes.That is to say, they other roles importantfor group survival
lacked a numberof characteristics
of popularleaders, and welfare.Not the least of the functions
among these being the following: (i) they played of heroes,it maybe supposed,is theinspirano active role in appealing to the public through
tiontheyofferforrise in status.53
The hero
oratory,proselytism,
etc., in the mannerof popular
thus
functions
as
of
a
symbol
enormous
leaders; (2) they lacked cults of personal disciples
importance
in personality
development,
edusimilar to those of charismatic leaders such as
Father Divine or Mary Baker Eddy; (3) theyoccu- cation, and social control.54
Moreover,in
pied no formal positions of leadershipin groups; addition to presentingdesirable
roles for
and (4) their roles were solitary achievements,
group members,they no doubt organize
individualizedperformances,
ratherthan grouproles.
For contrast with popular or charismaticleadership,see JoachimWach, Sociology of Religion (Chicago, Univ. of Chicago Press, I944), pp. I33-8,
334f, 370; and Hadley Cantril,Psychologyof Social
Movements (New York, J. Wiley & Sons, 194I),
pp. I23-43, i86.
" It may be noted that the hero is
characteristically absent as a person from hero cult. Instead
of exercisingpersonal leadershipor ascendancy,he
is representedratherthan present.
52 Note, for instance,many AmericanPresidents.
63 Heroismis an extremeexample of what Linton
would call status by achievement.To the extent
that a society emphasizes competitionand statusclimbing,heroeswould have a most importantfunction as models for group members.
"See D. W. Riddle, The Martyrs,a Study in
Social Control (Chicago, University of Chicago
Press, I932).
AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW
62
groupsby providingcommonsymbolsfor consequentlythe fields in which heroes
eitheras leaders or as per- emerge.
identification,
An observation
concerning
Americanhero
sonageswithwhomthegroupfeelsa special
worshipwhichseemspertinentis that in a
prideand unity.
secularera, whenfaithseemsto be declinCONCLUSION
ing,the beliefin heroescontinuesto thrive.
We have endeavoredto describe hero The legend-making
processand creationof
worshipand findin it a collectiveprocess folkheroes,in spiteof moderncommunicacer- tions, continuesas a social and political
forselecting,honoring,and preserving
tain personsas group symbols.Hero wor- force.Althoughheroworshipis a democratship in Americaexpressesour characteristic ic processin the sense thatit selectsheroes
values. It revealsnot onlythe traitswe ad- fromall ranks of the social structure,it
mire most but also our fieldsof interest. generatesexcessiveveneration.It enthrones
While one age may emphasizestrenuous heroes in an irrationalstatus which critipiety,55
anotheremphasizeswar or athletics. cismis oftenpowerlessto qualify.
Through the heroismof all societies,no
We have not examineda numberof asdoubt,run certaincommonthreads: great pectsof Americanheroworship,notablythe
achievement,heroismin war, martyrdom, relationof popular heroes to social moveand thelike.The heroworshipof American mentsand crises.Nor have we analyzedthe
societyrevealsthe run of our interestsand impact of heroes on individualhero-worshippers.But enoughhas been said to sug"See J. M. Mecklin, Passing of the Saint, a
Study of a Cultural Type, (Chicago, University gest the importanceof hero worshipfor
further
study.
of Chicago Press, I'94I).
THE EASTER FESTIVAL-A
Study in Cultural Change*
H. BARNETTt
Universityof Connecticut
JAMES
T
INTRODUCTORY
IHIS
Also, comparableto Christmas,the Easter
paperdiscusses
oneoftheimpor- festivalcoversa periodof severaldays,and
tant Americanholidays and follows
an articleon Christmas'publishedin
I946. It is believed that some tentative
generalizations
whichemergefromthe discussionoftheEasterfestivalwillbe relevant
also to otherholidays.The objectiveof this
studyis to describethe culturalcharacter
and social functionsof the Easter festival
as thisholidayhas developedin the United
States,particularlyfromi870 to the present.Like othercelebrations,
such as Christmas, Easter is both a holy day for the
Christianchurchand a secular,folkholiday.
* Manuscript received October 20, I1948.
t The writeris indebtedto Dr. Charles Osgood
of the Psychology Department of the University
of Connecticutfor incisive and valuable criticism
of an earlier draft of this article.
'James H. Barnett, "Christmas in American
Culture,"Psychiatry,Vol. 9? No. i, February,1946.
in somerespects,severalweeks.AfterEaster
Sunday there ensues in certain Christian
denominations
the Easter-tideperiodof rejoicingwhichterminates
on Pentecost,fifty
days afterthis date. However,the secular
aspect of Easter is usually limitedto the
severaldays priorto Easter Sunday,though
in such instancesas schoolvacationsit extends several days beyond Easter Sunday.
Holiday periods are characterizedby
utilizationof a complexpatternof special
social attitudes, behavior, and cultural
equipmentby largenumbersof people at a
particulartime. These unique beliefs and
practicesare latentwithinthe generalcultureof a societyand are "activated"onlyat
appropriatetimes. The use of particular
holiday attitudes and equipmentat any
other time than the conventionalone is
ordinarilyfeltto be inappropriate.