IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. E-24, NO. 3, AUGUST 1981
242
design of multiphase processing units and in the development of continuous process technologies from batch data. His research activities indude fundamental and applied studies of gas-liquid systems and studies
of the economic structure of the chemical processing industry with emphasis on applying microeconomics to process design.
Dr. Russell is a member of the American Chemical Society, the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, and the American Society for
Engineering Education. He is a Registered Professional Engineer in the
State of Delaware.
Vikram L. Dalal (S'66-M'68) was born in Bombay, India, in 1944. He
received the B.S. degree in electrical engineering from the University of
Bombay, Bombay, India, in 1964, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical
engineering and the M.P.A. degree in applied
economics from Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, in 1969 and 1974, respectively.
He has extensive experience in semiconductor
_
physics and technology, solar energy conversion,
and energy economics. He worked with RCA
Laboratories, Princeton, NJ, from 1969 to
1974, at Princeton University in 1975, and at
the University of Delaware, Wilmington, since
1976. In 1975 he served as a Consultant for
the Ford Foundation to do a study on energy
strategies for India. At present, he is Manager of the Device Design and
Analysis Group at the Institute of Energy Conversion of the University
of Delaware and also leads the project on amorphous silicon solar cells.
He is the author of 25 technical publications and five economic- and
environment-related publications.
n
Renewable Energy Sources and Rural Development
in Developing Countries
R. RAMAKUMAR,
SENIOR MEMBER, IEEE, AND
Abstract-Economic and geopolitical constraints on global nonrenewable energy supplies will force many nations, especially the developing
countries, to accelerate their use oflocal renewable energy sources. This
paper discusses some of the technical, economic, and socioeconomic
aspects of the application of renewable (solar) energy sources for rural
development in resource-poor population-rich developing countries.
The possible role of educational institutions in the U.S. and in the developing countries in assisting in the successful introduction of solar
technologies in rwal areas is outlined. A selected bibliography is included for the benefit of readers interested in additional information
on this important topic.
WILLIAM L. HUGHES,
FELLOW, IEEE
For the nearly one billion people living in scattered rural
areas of developing countries in the continents of Asia, Africa,
and South America, the consequences of the massive changes
in the global energy scene have been devastating. They find
themselves trapped in a cruel race between demography and
development.
Resolution of these global problems will be a very slow and
painful process. Initial efforts must be concentrated in rural
areas to improve the basic living environment and agricultural
productivity, which, eventually will mitigate the exodus to
urban slums-the most regreSsive of all the happenings in the
INTRODUCTION
developing countries of the world. This initial effort will
THE decade of the 1970's will go down in history as the
require a phenomenal increase in the (judicious) use of energy
that brought into focus the limited and geopolitical
in the rural areas.
nature of the nonrenewable energy resources of the world and
Most of the developing countries are poor in conventional
the need to start the process of transferring the dependence, at fossil fuel resources and have to import them at the expense
least partly, onto renewable energy sources. Civilization has
of their meager foreign exchange reserves. As such, solutions
gone through a transfer of energy sources once already-from
requiring increased consumption of fossil fuels can only make
renewable energy sources to fossil fuels-as a consequence of
the situation worse. Introduction of nuclear technology on a
the industrial revolution. This transfer was associated with
large scale around the world has many ramifications and raises
the lowering of energy costs. However, the transfer that is in
many unanswered questions. This paper is concerned with
the making is going to increase energy costs considerably. The the third alternative-namely, the harnessing of renewable
ramifications of this latest change in economic and socioeco(solar) energy sources with the help ofsmall-scale decentralized
nomic terms will be significant, global, and highly uneven.
energy systems in rural areas.
During the last 5 years, there has been a dramatic increase in
interest
in the utilization of renewable energy sources in the
Manuscript received November 7, 1980; revised December 29, 1980.
non-OPEC developing countries of the world. However, the
This work was supported by the School of Electrical Engineering,
Oklahoma State University.
absence (with some notable exceptions) of large and effective
R. Ramakumar is with the Department of Electrical Engineering,
infrastructures dedicated to generating technological changes
Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078.
has posed a temporary barrier to the introduction of energy
W. L. Hughes is with the Engineering Energy Laboratory, Oklahoma
State University, Stillwater, OK 74078.
in rural areas. It is felt that educational institutions in the
Tone
0018-9359/81/0800-0242$00.75 0 1981 IEEE
RAMAKUMAR AND HUGHES: ENERGY SOURCES AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
developing countries, cooperating with their counterparts in
the United States, can provide a nucleus for such an infrastructure to develop.
This paper presents an overview of the solar technologies of
interest for use in developing countries and discusses rural
energy needs and renewable technology options available to
meet the requirements. Integrated system concepts and their
advantages are discussed along with the economic and socioeconomic implications of introducing renewable energy systems in rural areas. The possibility of collaborative efforts
between educational institutions in the U.S. and in the developing countries to actively involve themselves in the
successful introduction of solar technologies in the rural
areas for the benefit of humanity is outlined.
243
b) Wind-electric conversion systems for generation of
electricity
4) Falling water
a) Microhydro systems (1 kW to 1 MW) for generation
of electricity
b) Water wheels for mechanical shaft power
c) Hydraulic ram for pumping water
d) Isothermal hydraulic air compression and the subsequent use of the compressed air for a variety of
applications
5) Biomass
a) Anaerobic fermentation of human, animal, and agricultural wastes to obtain biogas for use in several ways
b) Fermentation of biomass to produce alcohols
c) Pyrolysis or aqueous pyrolysis of biomass to produce
liquid and/or gaseous fuels
d) Direct use of biomass such as wood for production of
thermal and other forms of energy
e) Unique approaches to biomass utilization such as aquaculture waste water treatment and energy farms.
OVERVIEW OF TECHNOLOGIES
A wide spectrum of technologies is available for harnessing
renewable energy sources. In addition to human muscle power
and geothermal energy, the renewable resources available for
utilization are solar radiation, solar heat, wind energy, falling
water, and biomass (including human, animal, and agricultural
RURAL ENERGY NEEDS AND TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS
wastes). It appears that each resource is best suited for certain
The energy needs of small rural communities fall into three
applications and the technological challenge lies in matching
categories:
the resources to the needs in a most appropriate manner.
1) energy to improve the basic living environment;
An entire family of contraptions have been developed for
utilizing human muscle power for transportation (bicycles,
2) energy to improve agricultural productivity; and
3) energy to establish and sustain small-scale industries.
tricycles, railbikes), agricultural activities (water pumping,
and
domestic
harrowing),
threshing,
While both renewable and nonrenewable energy sources can
plowing, shelling, milling,
wood
wheel
grinders,
activities (energy cycles attached to
be used to satisfy these needs, the focus in this paper is on reuse
some
carver, drills, battery charger, etc.). All these devices
newable energy sources. In Table I, a comprehensive listing
kind of a pedal arrangement and moderate pedaling rates
of the various needs and the renewable energy technology
(60-80 r/min) yield about 60-70 W of power. Geothermal
options are given under the three categories listed above.
energy is highly localized, though widely distributed over the
Another way to look at rural energy needs is to group them
world. Because this resource is extremely site specific and be- into a) productive applications and b) nonproductive applications. Any energy use that does not directly contribute to
cause of the risks involved in its development at the rural
level, it will not be discussed further. The primary focus of
increasing agricultural or industrial productivity is considered
this paper will be on the utilization of different manifestations under b). Thus, categories 2) and 3) fall under a). Prioritizing
these needs is a very delicate task and is highly sensitive to the
of solar energy in the rural setting. Some of the technologies
country and the region involved. The authors believe that, in
available for harnessing this resource are listed below.
general, top priority should be given to 1) if the human misery,
1) Solar radiation
drudgery, and ensuing sense of hopelessness that exist in rea) Photovoltaic-powered water pumping systems for
mote rural areas are to be reversed soon.
domestic use and for microirrigation systems
Estimates of the amount of energy required for various applib) Direct generation of electricity using photovoltaic
cations vary widely. At the very least, about 1 kWh of useful
arrays for storage and later use
energy per person per day will be sufficient to satisfy the basic
2) Solar heat
energy needs to improve the living environment. Some estia) Flat-plate collectors for supplying hot water for hos- mates have put the total (thermal equivalent) figure as high as
pitals, schools, etc.
6-7 kWht per person per day, depending on the assumptions
b) Linear and point-focusing collectors with suitable
made regarding the efficiency of use. The other energy needs
energy conversion devices to generate electrical, meare so extremely site specific and activity specific that they
chanical, and/or thermal energy
will not be discussed any further. Many excellent estimates of
c) Solar stills for potable water
the energy needs for specific applications such as irrigation are
d) Solar crop driers and other agricultural applications
available.
e) Solar ponds for energy storage and reconversion
f) Space heating and cooling systems
INTEGRATED SYSTEM CONCEPTS
g) Sun/earth tempered buildings
Two approaches have been suggested for the utilization of
3) Wind energy
a) Wind-driven water pumps withmechanical or electrical several manifestations of solar energy in tandem. In the first
approach, all the resources are converted into one form (usually
transmission
Pre-harvest
Activities
Community
Envi ronment
Domestic
Environment
Category
or
gravity & chemicals
Solar refrigeration unit
Electricity from the VEC
Electricity
Electricity from the VEC; supplied from the
storage batteries
Electricity from the VEC
Biogas lamps
Electricity from the VEC
Solar refrigeration unit
Electricity from the VEC
Biogas lamps
Irrigation water
supply
pumping station
Electric
commercially available
Convenient; need electric supply
Hydraulic ram
motor-pump sets
Need low head flowing water;
Integrated photovoltaic-motor-pump sets
Biogas fueled engine-pump sets
sizes
Though available at present, they
are very expensive and may not be
suitable for rural use at present
Located in the energy center and
managed by an attendent
Can be located in or near the VEC;
expensive at present
Viable at present
Located near the water storage and
Convenient
Not very convenient
Located in a suitable hall in the
VEC
Located in a suitable room in the
VEC; reliability important
Expensive; very low priority in
poor households
Does not appear viable for
single family households
Economic; need good wind regime
Convenient; windmill can be located
away from the water source
Low maintenance; expensive
Can be developed easily in suitable
Wind-driven mechanical water pumps
Integrated wind-driven PMG-Motor-Pumps
Energy to improve agricultural productivity
Hot water for
Solar flat-plate hot water heaters
schools and
dispensaries
Space heating and/ Solar space heating and cooling systems
or cooling for
community bldgs.
Connunity cold
storage
Educational
devices
Emergency and
communications
equipment
Water sanitation
Street lighting
Cold storage of
Perishables
Convenient; high energy efficiency
possible with fluorescent lamps
May not be very convenient
Electricity from the VEC
Electric motor-pump sets
Hydraulic ram
Biogas fueled engine-pump sets
Integrated photovoltaic-motor-pump sets
Lighting
Neither suitable nor available in
sufficient quantities
Most appropriate
Difficult to adapt to local culture
Environmentally recessi ve
Needed for human intake & other uses
Wasteful of energy
Remarks
Economic; need good wind regime
Convenient; water source and
windmill need not be at the same
location
Low maintenance; convenient;
expensive at present
Not readily available; can be
devel oped
Need low head to start with; commercially available at present
Convenient; need electric supply
Supply of biogas
Solar cookers
Firewood/Dung/Agricultural Residue
Vegetable oil
Electricity from the Village Energy Center
(VEC); Biogas-IC Engine-Generator
Animal fat
Options
Domestic & potable Wind-driven mechanical water pumps
water supply
Integrated wind-driven permanent magnet
generator (PMG)-Motor-Pump combination
Cooking
Needs/Tasks
Energy to improve the basic living environment
Mechanical
Energy
Thermal
Energy
Post-harvest
Activi ties
Harvesting
Category
Low grade
(less than 150°C)
Medium grade
(150°C to 300°C)
High grade
kabove 300°C)
Rotating shaft
General
Need development and fabrication
conceentrating
Viablle, depending on the use
Cumbeersome; considerable maintenancee required; need good wind
regimate
Low mmaintenance; need good wind
Windmill-mechanical friction device with
suitable thermal energy storage
Electric motor
Biogas fueled engine
Photovoltaic-electric motor combination
Solar-thermal plant
Windmill
Waterwheel
Burning biomass/agricultural residue
Burning biogas
available; expense involved in the
storage of electrical energy (if
needed)
storage
Biogas availability above and
beyond the domestic needs
Need to generate electrical energy
by one or more of the many means
Intermittant; need good wind regime
Need storage reservoir or continuflow; very site specific
Need concentrators to improve the
overall efficiency to decent values.
Closed cycles may be expensive
Expensive; problem of cloud cover
and need for electric energy
ous water
Wasteful; better uses exist
Environmentally recessive
Wind-Electric Conversion System (WECS) dumping energy into an electric resistance heater regimie
with suitable thermal energy storage
Viablle, depending on the use
Point focusing dish collectors
Viablle at present
solar thermal pIantit
May not stand long supply
interruptions
Can use the heat rejected by a
--I -4 ho-z
.l1
r-l
4-V -i 4 -se^
Viable at present
Need further development
Need further development
Need further development
Line-focusing parabolic collectors
Flat-plate collectors
Remarks
Viable at present
System must be large to be economic;
need prototype development; good
wind regime needed
Energy to establish and sustain small-scale industries
Solar refrigeration unit
Small vehicles running on liquid and gaseous
fuels obtained from biomass
Small gadgets running on electricity from the
VEC or on liquid and gaseous fuels obtained
from biomrass
Solar grain driers or driers cum storage
units
Electricity from the VEC
Motive power for
transport
Processing the
harvest
Grain drying and
storage
Cold storage of
peri shabl es
Small harvesting machinery running on liquid
and gaseous fuels obtained from biomass
Small tractors and gadgets run by liquid and
gaseous fuels obtained from biomass
Sludge material obtained from biogas plants
Using wind energy, air and water to synthesize nitrogenous fertilizers
Options
Mechanical power
Fertilizer
Land preparation
Needs/Tasks
Energy to improve agricultural productivity (contd)
TABLE I
RURAL ENERGY NEEDS AND RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS
t3
UtT
o
04
0
z
0
C~
z
EnI
z0
C',
n
z
CQ,
En
tTl
bTi
RAMAKUMAR AND HUGHES: ENERGY SOURCES AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
SOLAR
C E LL
I
jr
IRRIGATION
WATER
245
I
MC
1 RO
-
|STATION
,
-1'.-'...'.'.'
A
WATER
H
WINO
,..............................
..:.:.:..........
Fig. 1. Schematic of a rural energy ce: nter to harness renewable energy sources.
electrical) for storage (usually in batteries) and distribution to
consumers. The second approach advocates the integration
of benefits at the user's end. For example, while a windmill
may be pumping water for storage in an overhead reservoir,
solar cells may be charging the batteries used to power educational and communications equipment, and a biogas unit
could be supplying energy for cooking. The objective is to
supply the basic needs of the rural poor in the most economic
and appropriate manner. In other words, the available resources and the energy conversion devices should be matched
to the basic needs to achieve an improvement in the living
environment in rural areas.
Fig. 1 illustrates one possible combination of devices and their
interconnection suitable for an integrated rural energy center.
Wind-driven water pumps and solar cell-driven water pumping
stations pump water for storage in an overhead tank. A small
hydroelectric (microhydro) unit can be used as needed to convert the potential energy of the stored water into electrical
form and the water recirculated as in the case of pumped hydro
stations. When necessary, irrigation water can be supplied
directly as shown in Fig. 1. Domestic and potable water supply
for the village is drawn from the overhead water storage as
illustrated. A community biogas facility with sufficient gas
storage constitutes an important component of the energy
center. Biogas can be directly supplied from this facility for
cooking and other needs of the villagers. The biogas can also
be used in an internal combustion engine driving an electrical
generator for providing electricity. This electrical supply is
assisted by the microhydro unit and wind-electric conversion
systems as shown. Storage of electrical energy in batteries is
provided only to operate the emergency and communications
and educational equipment. The bulk of the energy storage,
however, is in the form of biogas storage and as potential energy
of water stored in the overhead tank. In the future, additional
devices can be incorporated as the occasion warrants (shown in
dotted lines in Fig. 1).
Remote clusters of three to four villages are common in developing countries. Often, such clusters are not electrified because of the low load factors presented by such loads and also
because of the expense involved in constructing long distribution lines from existing utility grids. Such clusters can be
energized by establishing an energy center of the type described
in the previous paragraph in one of the villages and by installing a distribution line connecting all the villages as shown in
Fig. 2. Depending on the local conditions, availability, and
terrain, windmill farms, microhydro units aided by solar and/
or wind energy, photovoltaic devices, and other possible energy
conversion units (for example, devices suitable for utilizing
locally available agricultural waste and other biomass) can be
added in time as illustrated.
ECONOMIC ASPECTS
Application of conventional cost-benefit analyses to the
utilization of renewable energy sources in the rural areas of
246
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. E-24, NO. 3, AUGUST 1981
SYNTHETIC
FUELS
FROM
\ BIOMASS /
lI
However, in evaluating the various options for supplying
for remote and rural applications in developing countries, the cost of energy obtained from renewable energy
sources is often compared with the cost of generation using
small diesel-electric units (also known in the literature as autogeneration). The cost of energy obtained from diesel units can
be expressed as
energy
[
r(1 +r)n
[(+r)n
]
1
p
(2)
187.6k
where D is the diesel consumption in liters per kilowatt hour
and F is the diesel cost in U.S. cents per liter.
In Fig. 5, (2) is plotted against the diesel cost for various
values of capital cost and for an assumed set of economic
parameters (given in the box in Fig. 5).
As discussed earlier, practical systems for harnessing renewable energy sources will employ several devices to convert the
multiple inputs into useful forms. For such systems, the
average generation cost is given by
WINDMILL
FARM
Fig. 2. Scheme to energize a small cluster of villages.
r(1 + r)n
i
+ mi
PiRi
Cav =
(3)
developing countries will lead one to the obvious conclusion
(87.6) E (Riki)
i
that any such energy program for rural development is not
"'profitable." Unfortunately, this method of computing
where
"profits" does not consider the cost of not making an effort
Cav = average generation cost in U.S. cents per kilowatt hour.
to improve the lot of the rural poor. Continued neglect and
i = summation index to include all devices.
the consequent widening of the living standards will eventually
ki = load factor for the ith device.
manifest itself in a most unpleasant manner when the appromi = operation and maintenance charge rate in per unit for
priate opportunity arises. The rest of this section should be
the ith device.
considered with these points in mind.
ni = amortization period in years for the ith device.
The cost of energy generated by any energy system that does
Pi = capital cost in U.S. dollars per kilowatt for the ith
not require fuel is solely due to the amortization of the capital
device.
and operation and maintenance, if taxes and insurance charges
=
in kilowatts of the ith device.
rating
Ri
are neglected. This cost can be expressed as
Considerable simplification results if the amortization period
and the operation and maintenance charge rate can be taken as
p
r(I +r)n
C
(1)
the same for all devices. Then
l+[r)
in which
C = generation cost in U.S. cents per kilowatt hour.
k = annual average energy production factor (also known
as plant or load factor).
annual kilowatt hour energy output of the system
8760 (kilowatt rating of the system)
m = fraction of the capital cost needed per year for operation and maintenance of the unit.
n = amortization period in years.
P = capital cost in U.S. dollars per kilowatt.
r = annual interest rate in per unit (equal to 0.01 times the
annual percentage rate).
Equation (1) is plotted in Figs. 3 and 4 for plant factors
ranging from 0.1 to 1.0. These charts can be used to obtain
a quick estimate of the generation cost for nonfuel-burning
energy systems. For example, if a wind-electric system costs
$1 500/kW and is located in a site yielding a plant factor of
0.3, then the generation cost (for an annual interest rate of 10
percent) can be read from Fig. 3 as 9.5 cents per kWh.
TcrI
cay
87.6 Req
(4)
where
I = total investment in U.S. dollars
=
ZPiRi,
(5)
Req = equivalent continuous rating in kilowatts
=
Riki,
(6)
and
Tcr = total charge rate
r(1 + r)n
(1 +r) - 1
(7)
RAMAKUMAR AND HUGHES: ENERGY SOURCES AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
1c
3:u
0.1
FACTOR
2
LL
c
i
UU2"'AN0.15I)
2
/
"
EE
/I
7/
nO
v
-J
/013
752
5 30
I
I
w
-
SkSO.4.
w3
(t
c
c
-I'/
20-
2
3
247
7
50)0 -15 20 ~
c
J III,/,~~~~~~~
0:
2
:j
- ~z
U)
LL
LL
(Z
$ PER INSTALLED KW~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~L
2505500
10
2500
o
0
io
750
1500
I00
2d00
z
0
75051000
500
22150
3000
0
w
z
w
2000oo
300
4000
$ PER INSTALLED KW
Fig. 3. Generation costs for nonfuel-burning energy systems;
0.1 <
04
DIESEL COST U.S. ¢/LITER
Fig. 5. Generation costs for small diesel-electric conversion systems.
I
I
y
AMORTIZATION
z
PERIOD, YEARS
25X
z
(-C
0
z
(i,
z
o
a40z
z
Lb
z
0
2
20
0
z
z
0
0
15
5
C
20
z
w
$ PER INSTALLED KW
Fig. 4. Generation costs for nonfuel-burning energy systems;
0.4 S k < 1.0.
If such an assumption is not valid, then a conservative (meaning highest) estimate for the generation cost can be obtained
by using the smallest ni for n and the largest mi for m in (7)
and the resulting value of Tcr in (4). The average generation
cost is plotted in Fig. 6 as a function of (IIReq) for different
values of n with a 10 percent (r = 0.1) annual interest rate and
an operation and maintenance charge of 5 percent (m = 0.05)
of capital per year.
0
2000
CAPITAL
4000
6000
INVESTMENT
IN
8000
U.S.$
10000
PER
EQUIVALENT CONTINUOUS kW
(E P' Ri/Z Riki)
Fig. 6. Average generation costs for multiple-input renewable energy
systems.
As an example of the use of these charts, let the diesel cost
be U.S. 30 cents per 1. Assuming the diesel unit to cost as
low as U.S. $200 per kW, the generation cost can be obtained
from Fig. 5 as 15.5 U.S. cents per kWh. With a 20 year amortization period, from Fig. 6, an average generation cost of 15.5
248
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. E-24, NO. 3, AUGUST 1981
U.S. cents per kWh corresponds to a capital investment of U.S.
$8000 per equivalent continuous kW for the renewable energy
system. Even higher costs will be acceptable as fuel prices go
up due either to the basic oil price increase or to the high cost
of delivery to the remote areas.
Energy systems for harnessing renewable resources, though
they appear to be very expensive in terms of dollars per kilowatt, can be competitive in remote rural areas. This is especially true in resource-poor population-rich countries which
have to import fuel at the expense of their meager foreign
exchange reserves. When one includes the hidden cost of inaction discussed earlier, the attractiveness of decentralized
integrated renewable energy systems becomes very obvious.
the importance of the participation of local educational institutions is evident.
Any attempt that will not improve the villager's basic living
environment but will help only the already rich will not instill hope in the minds of the rural poor. Therefore, providing
energy to improve the basic living environment of those who
need it the most should have high priority. This must be
followed by the use of energy to improve agricultural productivity and, eventually to the buildup of rural agro-industrial
structures. At this point, economic multiplier effects are
expected to come into action, resulting in tangible longterm benefits for everybody in the rural areas and for the
nation as a whole.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
The success of systems introduced to harness renewable
energy sources in the rural areas of developing countries will
primarily depend on two basic factors.
1) Development and availability of appropriate technologies,
hardware, and design methodologies to match the resources to
the needs.
2) Buildup of educational services and the associated infrastructure necessary to properly maintain and utilize the systems
that are already installed.
In both of these areas, educational institutions (both in the
U.S. and in the developing countries) can play a key role.
Educational institutions in the U.S. can collaborate with their
counterparts in the developing countries and assist them in the
establishment of research centers with library, laboratory, and
testing facilities where technological innovations can germinate
and grow. They can also establish international training centers in the U.S. (such as the ones in the University of Florida,
Gainesville, and in the State University of New York, Stony
Brook) to bring scientists and engineers from various developing countries for short periods of time for intensive workshops and training. The ensuing multiplier effect in their own
Unfortunately, conventional fuels are rapidly becoming out countries should lead to the buildup of an indigenous cadre of
well qualified and trained people to shoulder responsibilities
of reach for non-OPEC developing countries simply because
in this area. It is important that at least a few of these U.S.
Thereor
of price or the availability of foreign exchange both.
centers have a representative collection of operating hardware,
fore, if the villager is to have energy at all, it must be of a
probably
working together as an (well-instrumented) intevariety that is locally available-renewable energy sources. It
grated renewable energy system. From the participants' point
is generally not realistic to expect that complete energy systems be manufacturable in the developing countries, but some of view, hands-on experience with such systems could be most
valuable. It appears that the model of agricultural extension
components may be. It is very important in energy planning
programs which have been so successful in many parts of the
in any developing country to determine what can be done at
world can easily be adapted to serve the needs in the renewable
home and what is not practical to do at home. It is at this
energy area. In summary, educational institutions in the U.S.
point that the participation of local educational institutions
becomes vital. Moreover, any energy technology anywhere has can best serve in the "catalyst" role to initiate and sustain recontinual operating problems and requires some constant atten- search centers and research and implementation programs in
tion. Local educational institutions can do an excellent job of the developing countries.
The role of educational institutions in the developing countaking care of the energy systems in their region and in training personnel to perform such jobs. Often, pilot programs are tries is far more important and even crucial. One of their
not needed to demonstrate that a particular technology works. primary responsibilities is to develop student interest at an
early stage (probably in the junior or senior level) in the reRather, pilot programs are needed to identify the day-to-day
operating problems of complete energy systems, to understand newable energy area by involving them in the exploratory,
assessment, design, implementation, and operating stages of
the interface problems that may exist between devices and
between local customs and system operating requirements, and ongoing projects. Graduate students working towards masters
to gather meaningful solutions to these problems. Once again, and doctoral degrees should be encouraged to delve into some
SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS
The concepts of "development" and "quality of life" are
very closely tied to the socioeconomic setting of the individual
concerned. This is especially true with a rural populace with
centuries-old traditions and customs and this puts an extra
burden on those advocating the introduction of renewable
energy sources and energy systems in the rural areas of developing countries.
What course of action should a villager in a developing country follow to get him or her out of the perpetual penury that
he or she is in? To put it simply, the answer is not clear cut.
Often the person is advised by outside experts to follow a path
towards modernization in which the benefits seem low and the
costs appear to be high. Many demonstration programs have
been set up in villages around the world that, while providing
interesting news stories, do not have any chance at all of being
replicated over many additional villages for purely economic
reasons. They in fact do a disservice in that they provide a
source of rising expectations with no possibility of subsequent
fulfillment. This dilemma is always faced by those persons
attempting to improve the energy situation in remote rural
areas of developing countries.
RAMAKUMAR AND HUGHES: ENERGY SOURCES AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
of the problems related to the renewable energy resources
development and utilization. There is no dearth of highly
challenging theoretical and experimental problems in this area,
the solutions of which require the most sophisticated modeling,
optimization, and design techniques. Periodic short courses
and workshops should be offered on various aspects of renewable energy sources aimed at motivating scientists, practicing
engineers, industrialists, and entrepreneurs and some of the
programs may even be designed for educating the general public
on the beneficial impacts of the utilization of renewable energy
resources. The technical schools (such as polytechnics offering
diploma programs in contrast to regular engineering colleges
and universities offering degree programs) can also play an
important role by training technicians in the ways and means
of maintaining and repairing the hardware used in the systems
designed to harness renewable energy sources.
SUMMARY OF WORK AT THE
OKLAHOMA STATE UNIVERSITY
ENGINEERING ENERGY LABORATORY
(OSU/EEL)
For over two decades, engineers and scientists at the Oklahoma State University have been actively involved in seeking
methods for utilizing available fossil fuels more efficiently
and for transferring the world's energy dependence, at least
partly, onto renewable energy resources. The team of researchers include faculty and students from several disciplines
both in and out of the Division of Engineering, Technology,
and Architecture (DETA). To coordinate many of these
activities, an Engineering Energy Laboratory was constituted
in 1973 as a part of OSU's DETA.
In the School of Electrical Engineering, the broadly based
interdisciplinary research program (dating back to 1960) is
primarily aimed at developing continuous and intermittent
duty energy systems to harness renewable energy sources and
to apply them appropriately to provide a proper energy mix to
satisfy the global energy needs in the coming decades. Initially,
the work was sponsored by the area utility companies. In the
recent past, components of this research effort have attracted
funding from agencies such as the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the United Nations
Environment Program, the National Academy of Sciences, and
the U.S. Agency for International Development.
Over the years, the effort in the School of Electrical Engineering has included work in high-pressure moderate-temperature electrolysis and fuel cell design and development, hydrogen energy storage systems, rechargeable hydrogen oxygen
fuel cell development, computer simulation and optimization
of conventional and unconventional energy systems, hydrogenburning internal combustion engine development, basic research
on the nature of the ionization processes in the hydrogen
atom, statistical analysis of the energy in the wind and in the
sun in Oklahoma, prototype wind-electric conversion system
development, variable-speed constant-frequency field modulated generator system development and its application in
wind and solar-thermal-electric systems, studies on Egyptian
energy resources and the development of the wind power
potential in Egypt, synthesis of hydrocarbons from biomass
249
via aqueous pyrolysis, and the development and application
of renewable energy sources and systems for rural development in developing countries. Space does not permit even
brief descriptions of all these projects. However, the ones
that directly relate to the topic of this paper are summarized
in the following paragraphs.
Under the sponsorship of the United Nations Environment
Program, faculty and students have been involved in the design and establishment of a rural energy center in the village of
Pattiyapola in Sri Lanka to harness renewable energy sources
for rural development. This center became operational recently
(1980) and useful data is being gathered by the Ceylon Electricity Board, which has the responsibility for day-to-day
operation and maintenance.
The National Academy of Sciences recognized the seriousness of the energy problems faced by the developing countries
and commissioned an ad hoc panel to study the issues involved
and the possibility of utilizing renewable energy resources to
alleviate it. The panel was chaired by the Director of the
OSU/EEL. It released its findings in 1976 in the form of a
book report entitled "Energy for rural development-Renewable resources and alternative technologies for developing
countries." Since the publication of this report, some significant changes have occurred in the global energy picture. In
addition, there have been some worthwhile developments in
renewable energy resource research. These developments,
though not spectacular, point to slow but steady progress
towards decreasing the cost of some of the technologies.
This, coupled with the rapidly escalating cost of conventional
resources, has made it desirable to prepare a supplement to
the original report, which is expected to be published in the
early spring of 1981. Many of the ideas expressed in this paper
are based on these and other publications. A representative
list of important publications in this area is presented in
the Bibliography.
In addition to the activities mentioned above, several faculty
members affiliated with the OSU/EEL have traveled extensively
in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Far East as energy
advisors to U.S. Agency for International Development missions. They are also actively involved in establishing linkages
for potential cooperative research projects in the application
of renewable energy sources for rural development in the
Third World.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Renewable energy systems can provide a viable way to
energize rural areas of developing countries and to build up
rural economic units that are vital to the stability and wellbeing of developing nations and, in a way, of the entire
world. Since almost all the renewable energy sources are
dilute in nature, low-grade energy should be effectively used
whenever possible. Appropriate ways must be found to convert low-grade energy to high-grade (electricity, liquid, and
gaseous fuels) energy forms by means of synthesis and/or
energy conversion processes. If effectively used, the cumulative impact of even small amounts of intermittently available
energy in rural areas can be considerable.
Utilization of several manifestations of solar energy in tan-
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. E-24, NO. 3, AUGUST 1981
250
dem with the integration of benefits at the user's end appears
to be the most appropriate way to proceed. This can be
accomplished by establishing a village energy center and by
making it a point of focus for educational, cultural, and other
activities.
Although renewable energy systems are highly capital intensive, as fuel prices continue to rise and their availability becomes more tenuous, the economics of such systems appears
to be headed for a favorable status in the years to come.
Local support and involvement are absolutely essential for
the success of projects such as the one discussed here. In the
areas of training of personnel, maintenance of hardware, and
data collection and research, local educational institutions can
play a vital role. Cooperation with U.S. educational institutions can act as a catalyst and accelerate this process. The
need is there and the urgency cannot be overemphasized. It
is up to the technical communities on both sides to accept the
challenge and act.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to acknowledge the encouragement provided by the Oklahoma State University School of Electrical
Engineering during the preparation of this paper.
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R. Ramakumar (M'62-SM'75) was born in
Coimbatore, India, on October 17, 1936. He
1
lE
received the B.E. degree in electrical engineering
from the University of Madras, Madras, India,
in 1956, securing the first rank in that field, the
M.Tech. degree from the Indian Institute of
Technology, Kharagpur, India, in 1957, and the
Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from
Conell University, Ithaca, New York, in 1962.
From 1957 to 1967 he served on the faculty
of Coimbatore Institute of Technology, Coim-
251
batore, India, affiliated with the University of Madras. He then came to
Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, where he currently is a Professor
of Electrical Engineering. At Oklahoma State University, he has been
involved in research related to conventional and unconventional energy
conversion, energy storage, renewable energy sources and systems
development and application, especially in developing countries. During 1978-79 he was a consultant to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in
Pasadena, CA. He has published over 70 technical papers in various
journals, transactions, and national and international conference proceedings, coauthored three U.S. Patents, and contributed chapters in
two books and sections in three handbooks in the areas of energy and
power engineering.
Dr. Ramakumar is a member of the Energy Development Subcommittee ofthe IEEE Power Engineering Society, the Wind Division Board
of the American Section of the International Solar Energy Society, the
American Society for Engineering Education, the International Solar
Energy Society, Eta Kappa Nu, and Sigma Xi. He is a Registered Professional Engineer in the State of Oklahoma.
William L. Hughes (S'48-A'50-M'55-F'62)
was born in Rapid City, SD, on December 2,
1926. He received'the B.S. degree in electrical
engineering from the South Dakota School of
Mines and Technology, Rapid City, in 1949,
and the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical
engineering from Iowa State University, Ames,
in 1950 and 1952, respectively.
From 1944 to 1946 he served in the U.S.
Navy. From 1949 to 1960 he served on the
faculty of Iowa State University. From 1960
to 1976 he served as Professor and Head of Electdcal Engineering at
Oklahoma State University, Stillwater. At present, he is Director of
the Engineering Energy Laboratory and Clark A. Dunn Professor of
Engineering at Oklahoma State University. His wide range of research
interests include electromagnetic radiation, color television systems,
and energy. For the past 20 years, he has been primarily concerned
with energy conversion and energy storage, fuel cells and electrolysis,
wind and solar energy systems, and special electrical energy conversion
devices. He has authored or coauthored numerous papers and has
several patents in these fields. He is also the author of two textbooks
and several chapters and sections in many handbooks. He has been a
consultant to several companies both in the U.S. and abroad. He has
assisted the U.S. Agency for International Development and the National
Academy of Sciences in the assessment of the energy problems of many
developing countries around the world. He chaired the National
Academy of Sciences panel that published "Energy for rural development" in 1976 and its supplement due to come out in 1981.
Dr. Hughes holds memberships in many professional and honorary
societies. He is a Registered Professional Engineer in the States of
Oklahoma and Iowa.