The Writing Process
Keep in mind the purpose of the writing assignment.
Writing can have many different purposes. Here are just a few examples:
Summarizing: Presenting the main points or essence of another text in a condensed form
Arguing/Persuading: Expressing a viewpoint on an issue or topic in an effort to convince others that
your viewpoint is correct
Narrating: Telling a story or giving an account of events
Evaluating: Examining something in order to determine its value or worth based on a set of criteria.
Analyzing: Breaking a topic down into its component parts in order to examine the relationships
between the parts.
Responding: Writing that is in a direct dialogue with another text.
Examining/Investigating: Systematically questioning a topic to discover or uncover facts that are
not widely known or accepted, in a way that strives to be as neutral and objective as possible.
Observing: Helping the reader see and understand a person, place, object, image or event that you
have directly watched or experienced through detailed sensory descriptions.
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You may need to use several of these writing strategies within your paper. For example you
could summarize federal nutrition guidelines, evaluate whether the food being served at the
dorm fits those guidelines, and then argue that changes should be made in the menus to
better fit those guidelines.
(from the OWL at Purdue.edu)
First things first…
Don't feel constrained by format issues at first. Don't worry about spelling, grammar, or writing
in complete sentences. Brainstorm and write down everything you can think of that might relate
to the thesis and then reread and evaluate the ideas you generated. It's easier to cut out bad ideas
than to only think of good ones. Once you have a handful of useful ways to approach the thesis
you can use a basic outline structure to begin to think about organization. Remember to be
flexible; this is just a way to get you writing. If better ideas occur to you as you're writing, don't
be afraid to refine your original ideas.
Freewriting…
Freewriting is the first technique many writers try when they sit down to start writing. Read what Peter
Elbow says about this tool:
“They are sometimes called "automatic writing," "babbling," or “jabbering" exercises. The idea is simply
to write for ten minutes (later on, perhaps fifteen or twenty). Don't stop for anything. Go quickly without
rushing. Never stop to look back, to cross something out, to wonder how to spell something, to wonder
what word or thought to use, or to think about what you are doing. If you can't think of a word or a
spelling, just use a squiggle or else write "I can't think what to say, I can't think what to say" as many
times as you want; or repeat the last word you wrote over and over again; or anything else. The only
requirement is that you never stop.
What happens to a freewriting exercise is important. It must be a piece of writing which, even if
someone else reads it, doesn't send any ripples back to you. It is like writing something and putting it in a
bottle in the sea.
1 Freewriting may seem crazy but actually it makes simple sense. Think of the difference between
speaking and writing. Writing has the advantage of permitting more editing. But that's its downfall too.
Almost everyone interposes a massive and complicated series of editings between the time the words start
to be born into consciousness and when they finally come of the end of the pencil or typewriter onto the
page. This is partly because schooling makes us obsessed with the "mistakes" we make in writing.
Many people constantly think about spelling and grammar as they try to write. I am always thinking about
the awkwardness, wordiness, and general mushiness of my natural verbal product as I try to write down
words.
But it's not just "mistakes" or "bad writing" we edit as we write. We also edit unacceptable
thoughts and feelings, as we do in speaking. In writing there is more time to do it so the editing is heavier:
when speaking, there's someone right there waiting for a reply and he'll get bored or think we're crazy if
we don't come out with something. Most of the time in speaking, we settle for the catch-as-catch-can way
in which the words tumble out. In writing, however, there's a chance to try to get them right. But the
opportunity to get them right is a terrible burden: you can work for two hours trying to get a paragraph
"right" and discover it's not right at all. And then give up.
Editing, in itself, is not the problem. Editing is usually necessary if we want to end up with
something satisfactory. The problem is that editing goes on at the same time as producing. . . .
The main thing about freewriting is that it is nonediting. It is an exercise in bringing together the
process of producing words and putting them down on the page. Practiced regularly, it undoes the
ingrained habit of editing at the same time you are trying to produce. It will make writing less blocked
because words will come more easily. . . .
The habit of compulsive, premature editing doesn't just make writing hard. It also makes writing
dead. Your voice is damped out by all the interruptions, changes, and hesitations between the
consciousness and the page. In your natural way of producing words there is a sound, a texture, a rhythm-a voice--which is the main source of power in your writing. I don't know how it works, but this voice is
the force that will make a reader listen to you. Maybe you don't like your voice; maybe people have made
fun of it. But it's the only voice you've got. It's your only source of power. You better get back into it, no
matter what you think of it. If you keep writing in it, it may change into something you like better. But if
you abandon it, you'll likely never have a voice and never be heard.
(Taken from Writing Without Teachers. New York: Oxford UP, 1973, 1-7. )
Example of Student’s Freewriting on “Family” Family. What exactly is a family? Is a family simply a group of people relate genetically or is a family
something more complicated? Dysfunctional. Nuclear. Types of families. Siblings. How many
relationships with each other. Mom and dad. How close are all of us. Examples. Book I read called The
Corrections. Is there ac connection? Picnics. Weekends. Emergencies. Those things that simultaneously
draw us together and pull us apart. Is this an approach I can use. Should I focus on my relationship with
all of them or maybe just one family member. Is it Mom who holds us all together. What about those
related by marriage. How are they connected to this group I call family? Exactly what can I say about my
brothers and sisters in law? And what’s with all of their cats. Is that something I can talk about. Not
related. What are those things we share that bring us together.
2 Clustering/Bubble Method
This method can be helpful for visual learners. It is a spatial map of your writing. It might look something like this: The larger bubbles (or squares or whatever shape you want) are the main ideas, and the smaller ones support those main ideas. Brainstorming for Argument Assignments: Stasis theory is a four-question pre-writing (invention) process developed in ancient Greece by
Aristotle and Hermagoras. Later, the stases were refined by Roman rhetoricians, such as Cicero,
Quintilian, and Hermogenes. Working through the four stasis questions encourages knowledge building
that is important for research, writing, and for working in teams. Stasis theory helps writers conduct
critical analyses of the issues they are investigating.
Specifically, stasis theory asks writers to investigate and try to determine:
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the facts (conjecture)
the meaning or nature of the issue
(definition)
the seriousness of the issue (quality)
the plan of action (policy).
The four basic stasis categories may be broken down into a number of questions and subcategories to
help researchers, writers, and people working together in teams to build information and compose
communication. The stases also help people to agree on conclusions, and they help identify where
people do not agree. Here are the stases and some questions you can ask to help you conduct
research, write, and work toward solving problems:
3 Fact
Did something happen?
What are the facts?
Is there a problem/issue?
How did it begin and what are its causes?
It may also be useful to ask critical questions of your own research and conclusions:
Where did we obtain our data and are these sources reliable?
How do we know they're reliable?
Definition
What is the nature of the problem/issue?
What exactly is the problem/issue?
What kind of a problem/issue is it?
What are its parts, and how are they related?
It may also be useful to ask critical questions of your own research and conclusions:
Who/what is influencing our definition of this problem/issue?
How/why are these sources/beliefs influencing our definition?
Quality
Is it a good thing or a bad thing?
How serious is the problem/issue?
Whom might it affect (stakeholders)?
What happens if we don't do anything?
It may also be useful to ask critical questions of your own research and conclusions:
Who/what is influencing our determination of the seriousness of this problem/issue?
How/why are these sources/beliefs influencing our determination?
Policy
Should action be taken?
Who should be involved in helping to solve the problem/address the issue?
What should be done about this problem?
What needs to happen to solve this problem/address this issue?
It may also be useful to ask critical questions of your own research and conclusions:
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Who/what is influencing our determination of
what to do about this problem/issue?
How/why are these sources/beliefs
influencing our determination?
Note: Related to stasis theory are the six journalistic questions 1) Who? 2) What? 3)
Where? 4) When? 5) Why? 6) How? Lawyers also move through a similar knowledge
building process known as IRAC: 1) Issue; 2) Rules; 3) Application; 4) Conclusion.
Achieving Stasis
Achieving stasis means that parties involved in a dialogue about a given issue have reached consensus
on (or agreed upon) the information and conclusions in one or more of the stases.
4 Making an Outline
Many writers feel that they do not need to use the outlining stage, and they feel comfortable
jumping from their invention strategies straight in to the rough draft. This is fine, and it works
for many people. However, jotting down a “rough” outline can be very helpful as a guide to
return to when you start going off topic. Basically, you want to decide the point to be made in
each paragraph, and the major ways you will support that point.
Title: “The Benefits of Running” I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Introduction A. Running is becoming a very popular sport B. Running is a great form of exercise because it helps people control their weight, develop muscles, and improve mental performance. Weight Control A. Aids Self Control B. Burns Calories C. Encourages Healthy diet D. Suppresses appetite Muscular Development A. Improves tone B. Increase strength C. Improves Endurance Psychological well-­‐being A. Aids Sleep B. Inhibits depression C. Intensifies vitality Conclusion A. Benefits of running make it an excellent exercise choice. B. People who want to improve their health should consider running. Doing Research When Needed At some point, most of us must consider consulting outside information as a means of exploring the topics we write about in greater depth. As a result, we should be knowledgeable about where we can and why we should find material about our topics. An Overview Though research can be quite detailed, let us look at some basic sources of information: 5 •
Personal experience-­‐ Oftentimes, drawing from your own life can provide a rich source of material for topics you write about. Though we have some common experiences, it is how you perceive events that will make your writing relevant. Therefore, do not hesitate to connect with your reader through this method. Assuming it fits the requirements of your assignment. •
Talking with others-­‐ Sometimes conversations with our friends and acquaintances, even strangers for that matter, can give us ideas and important information about topics we are pursuing. As a writer, develop a careful ear. You never know when a conversation may help spark an idea for your writing later on. Pay attention and listen. •
Reading-­‐ Reading and writing are intertwined. Most writers read. If you find yourself stuck, take a break and read something. Anything. Reading is a perfect tool to break the dam holding your thoughts back. Be a sponge. Absorb as much information as possible. Your writing will only improve. Further, reading, if only for information, is the primary source through which we obtain most information. So, familiarize yourself with the library and online databases. These are critical weapons in your war against the wrong word and incorrect information. A “Working” Thesis Statement: “Working” simply means that you can give yourself license to change the thesis if needed. Many times when we start writing, we decide we no longer agree with our thesis, or we want to say something a little different, or maybe even go back to the drawing board. This is fine, great even, because that means you are truly thinking critically and not just writing by numbers. Don’t be afraid to change your thesis once you start writing because it is very important that the thesis sentence matches to the ideas you are discussing and the argument you are making. If it does not, your reader will be confused. Tips for Writing Your Thesis Statement 1. Determine what kind of paper you are writing:
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An analytical paper breaks down an issue or an idea into its component parts, evaluates the
issue or idea, and presents this breakdown and evaluation to the audience.
An expository (explanatory) paper explains something to the audience.
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An argumentative paper makes a claim about a topic and justifies this claim with specific
evidence. The claim could be an opinion, a policy proposal, an evaluation, a cause-and-effect
statement, or an interpretation. The goal of the argumentative paper is to convince the
audience that the claim is true based on the evidence provided.
If you are writing a text which does not fall under these three categories (ex. a narrative), a thesis
statement somewhere in the first paragraph could still be helpful to your reader.
2. Your thesis statement should be specific—it should cover only what you will discuss in your paper
and should be supported with specific evidence.
3. The thesis statement usually appears at the end of the first paragraph of a paper.
4. Your topic may change as you write, so you may need to revise your thesis statement to reflect
exactly what you have discussed in the paper.
Thesis Statement Examples
Example of an analytical thesis statement:
An analysis of the college admission process reveals one challenge facing counselors: accepting
students with high test scores or students with strong extracurricular backgrounds.
The paper that follows should:
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explain the analysis of the college admission process
explain the challenge facing admissions counselors
Example of an expository (explanatory) thesis statement:
The life of the typical college student is characterized by time spent studying, attending class,
and socializing with peers.
The paper that follows should:
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explain how students spend their time studying, attending class, and socializing with
peers
Example of an argumentative thesis statement:
High school graduates should be required to take a year off to pursue community service projects
before entering college in order to increase their maturity and global awareness.
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present an argument and give evidence to support the claim that students should pursue
community projects before entering college
Revision
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Focus on changes in structure and paragraphs Do not let yourself edit or proofread at this point Everything can be changed! (nothing is sacred) Steps in “revisioning” the paper: Once you have finished the first draft of your paper, realize that there is so much work still needed to complete a truly well-­‐crafted work. Always plan ahead! With the proper time set aside for a paper, you can get a lot more accomplished than just finishing the night before. But as we all know that is easier said than done. With a completed draft, you now have the time to read over your work. Do not check for errors or proofread and edit. Rather, look for coherency, transitions, flow, and development. The biggest mistake a student can make when it comes to the revision process is to believe that because they have a completed draft it fully makes sense and flows well. Professional writers, scholars, academia, and other writers of the world all know that these factors are not always completed after the first draft. Introduction: The key for the introduction is making sure your thesis seems clear for the audience. Look over your main points in the essay and see if all of your evidence leads directly to your rough draft thesis or if maybe it needs a little tweaking. Realize that writers can start with one idea and this can change will writing the paper over time. So even if your thesis does not match your evidence, this is the perfect time to go ahead and revise. Also, make sure whatever introduction technique you are using provides a clear connection to the thesis and helps the reader get an overall feel for the paper. Body paragraphs: Sometimes, many times, body paragraphs are not always in the most logical order. This is especially true when the paper does not follow a linear path. Though our initial thoughts put ideas in certain forms, we sometimes need to rearrange paragraphs to allow the paper to flow more smoothly. Again, if the paper is not in a linear path, then the paper should lead the reader to a more important claim with each new body paragraph. So a good standard would be to place the body paragraphs in order of least important to most. Even within body paragraphs, the sentences might be in a confusing order. When reading through each paragraph, remember to see if each sentence is leading us to a clearer 8 understanding of the main point of the paragraph and thus the overall thesis of the paper. You might rearrange, erase, add, and continue to develop the unity of each paragraph. This might be the most important aspect of the revision process. Conclusion: A concise conclusion brings everything together to leave the reader a sense of completeness. When revising a conclusion, make sure you are tying up all loose ends. If you feel that you are leaving out something, odds are that the reader feels the same way! Therefore make sure your overall theme and thesis for the paper feels completed when you finish revising your conclusion. The revision process does not stop with just one read-­‐through or draft. You might revise the paper in totality multiple times to convey your point. Sometimes certain body paragraphs might seem good but the conclusion feels lacking so you might focus there. Just know there is no one “correct way” to revise. Proofreading
Knowing What to Look For 9 v Be aware of the mistakes that you tend to make most frequently and make a special effort to watch for them. v In order to gain awareness of your writing mistakes, be sure to read over the comments and corrections from previous assignments. Learn how to correct these mistakes and try to catch them next time in the proofreading stage. v If your biggest problem is run-­‐on sentences or misplaced apostrophes, then read through your paper checking for just that one problem. You can do another read through to catch other mistakes or typos. v When proofreading, pay special attention to the second half of the essay because rushing can lead to errors. Tips and Methods v Before you start proofreading, take a short break after writing and do something else—take a stroll outside, play with the dog, do the dishes—in order to clear your head and get some perspective on your work. When you write essays in class, try not to work up to the last minute so that you have time take a breather before you start proofreading. v Read through your paper carefully and slowly in order to catch unconscious errors. Look carefully at each word, and even read it aloud. v Proofread your paper in reverse order to make sure that your sentences and paragraphs that can stand on their own. v You should try proofreading aloud in order to get you to slow down and read the page as it is written instead of how you meant to write it. Reading aloud helps draw attention to what is actually written on the page instead of what you, as the writer, know it should day. v If you want to use a new word, be sure and look it up so that you use it correctly. Also, if you have used the same word too many times, use a thesaurus to find a suitable synonym. v Be sure to proofread the final copy before you hand it in. v Always print the paper off to proofread it at least once. Then use the corrections made on paper to correct the digital version. v Use spell-­‐check, but remember that it will not catch everything. v Finally and most encouragingly, you do not have to proofread alone! Get a buddy from class or elsewhere to swap papers with you and let them go through your paper while you go through theirs. 10 Some books we recommend for further reading on writing processes:
Peter Elbow& Pat Belanoff: A Community of Writers: A Workshop Course in Writing (2000,
McGraw Hill)
Jay Silverman, Elaine Hughes, and Diana Roberts Wienbroer: Rules of Thumb: A Guide for
Writers, 4th ed. (1999, McGraw Hill)
David Skwire and Sarah Skwire: Writing With a Thesis (2001, Harcourt)
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