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Biochimica et Biophysica Acta xxx (2009) xxx–xxx
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Biochimica et Biophysica Acta
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s e v i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / b b a g r m
Review
A structural view on the mechanism of the ribosome-catalyzed peptide
bond formation
Miljan Simonović a,⁎, Thomas A. Steitz b,c,d,⁎
a
Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Illinois at Chicago, MBRB 1170, 900 S Ashland Ave., Chicago, IL 60607, USA
Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
d
Howard Hughes Medical Institute at Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
b
c
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 20 April 2009
Received in revised form 23 June 2009
Accepted 25 June 2009
Available online xxxx
Keywords:
50S subunit
70S ribosome
Peptidyl-transferase center
Peptide bond formation
Peptide release
Ribozyme
a b s t r a c t
The ribosome is a large ribonucleoprotein particle that translates genetic information encoded in mRNA into
specific proteins. Its highly conserved active site, the peptidyl-transferase center (PTC), is located on the large
(50S) ribosomal subunit and is comprised solely of rRNA, which makes the ribosome the only natural
ribozyme with polymerase activity. The last decade witnessed a rapid accumulation of atomic-resolution
structural data on both ribosomal subunits as well as on the entire ribosome. This has allowed studies on the
mechanism of peptide bond formation at a level of detail that surpasses that for the classical protein
enzymes. A current understanding of the mechanism of the ribosome-catalyzed peptide bond formation is
the focus of this review. Implications on the mechanism of peptide release are discussed as well.
© 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
The ribosome is a large RNA–protein machine that catalyzes
protein synthesis in all living organisms. It is composed of two
subunits in all kingdoms of life. In eubacteria and archaea the large
subunit comprises ∼3000 nucleotides of ribosomal RNA (rRNA), N30
proteins and sediments at 50S, whereas the ∼ 1500 nucleotides and
N20 proteins of the smaller subunit sediment at 30S. These
conveniently different sedimentation coefficients are used as descriptors of the large (50S) and the small (30S) ribosomal subunits, while
the entire ribosomal particle is referred to as the 70S ribosome (in
eukaryotes these are 60S, 40S and 80S, respectively). Not only do the
two subunits differ in their size and morphology, as evidenced by the
early micrographs of the entire E. coli 70S particle [1], but they also
perform distinct roles during protein synthesis [2]. The 50S subunit
contains the peptidyl-transferase center (PTC) that catalyzes the
synthesis of peptide bond, whereas the 30S subunit contains the
decoding center that ensures that the tRNA with the correct anticodon
is bound to the ribosome and paired with the mRNA codon.
The early studies of the ribosome and the mechanism it utilizes to
make proteins were confined within the realm of basic biochemistry
and the low-resolution electron microscopy. However, by the early
⁎ Corresponding authors. M. Simonović is to be contacted at tel.: +1 312 996 0059;
fax: +1 312 413 0353. T. A. Steitz, Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry,
Bass Center, Rm 418, 266 Whitney Ave., New Haven, CT 06520, USA. Tel.: +1 203 432
5619; fax: +1 203 432 3282.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Simonović), [email protected]
(T.A. Steitz).
1990s both ribosomal subunits and the entire 70S ribosome from
several organisms were crystallized [3–5]. The major challenge to
determining their structures, however, was to correctly solve a heavy
atom derivative. This was finally accomplished in 1998 using heavy
atom cluster compounds at very low resolution (15 Å), which allowed
Steitz and colleagues to phase the crystals of the 50S ribosomal
subunit from the archaeon Haloarcula marismortui (Hma50) and
produce the first map, at 9 Å resolution, showing continuous RNA
helices [6]. Ramakrishnan and colleagues rapidly took this approach
and obtained an electron density map of the 30S ribosomal subunit
from T. thermophilus at 5.5 Å [7], while that of the Hma 50S subunit
was extended to 5.0 Å resolution [8]. In only another year the
resolution of the large ribosomal subunit map was extended to 2.4 Å
[9] and that of the small subunit to 3.0 Å resolution [10]. These
important successes were followed by a crystal structure of the 50S
subunit from Deinococcus radiodurans at 3.3 Å resolution in 2001 [11],
and a 5.5 Å electron density map obtained for the 70S ribosome from
T. thermophilus (Tth70) complexed with three tRNA molecules and
mRNA [12] that allowed fitting of the atomic structures of the 30S
and 50S subunits to make a 70S ribosome model. Then, the 3.5 Å
resolution apo-structure of the E. coli 70S ribosome was determined
[13]. Finally, Ramakrishnan and coworkers were able to determine
the crystal structure of the entire T. thermophilus 70S ribosome
complexed with mRNA, partially ordered A-site tRNA, the P-site tRNA
and the E-site tRNA at 2.8 Å resolution [14], while Noller and
colleagues determined the crystal structure of a similar complex at
3.7 Å resolution [15].
1874-9399/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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A rapid accumulation of structural data was paralleled by a series
of elegant mutational, kinetic and computational experiments that
had a common goal of deciphering the mechanism of the ribosomecatalyzed peptide bond formation. Upon binding of suitable substrates, the 70S ribosome catalyzes the peptide bond formation
rapidly with the rate of N300 s− 1 [16]. The 50S subunit alone is also
able of catalyzing the peptidyl transfer reaction at a similar rate when
fragments of the tRNA substrates are used [17]. This is the essence of
the fragment assay that was used in the biochemical studies of the PTC
for decades. The advantage of the fragment assay is that it is not
dependent on the complete tRNA substrates and translation factors,
which are otherwise necessary if the 70S ribosome is used. An
approach analogous to the classical fragment assay was employed in
the detailed structural studies of the PTC in which the 50S subunit of
H. marismortui was used as a model system. A series of small mimics of
the tRNA substrates were soaked into the Hma50 crystals with the
goal to capture the heart of the ribosome in distinct stages of the
catalytic cycle. Indeed, the approach produced a series of highresolution snapshots of the PTC in various stages of the peptidyl
transfer reaction. The current detail of structural data acquired for this
large RNA–protein machine outshines that of the many classical
protein enzyme systems. However, one should be aware that this
method has its natural limitations. For instance, all the processes
where the communication between the tRNA molecule, the translational factor(s) and the two subunits is essential for ribosomal
function, such as accommodation or translocation, could not be
addressed using this approach.
After a brief description of the elongation phase of the ribosomecatalyzed translation, the detailed description of the structure of the
ribosomal PTC in complex with substrates, products and intermediates along the reaction pathway of peptide elongation is presented.
Also, the current consensus on the mechanism of the ribosomecatalyzed peptide bond formation is summarized.
1. Translation
The ribosome “reads” mRNA in a 5′–3′ direction and synthesizes
the corresponding protein from its N-terminus. Both ribosomal
subunits contain three binding sites for tRNA molecules that are in
distinct functional states: (i) the A site binds the aminoacyl-tRNA,
which brings a new amino acid that is to be incorporated into the
growing polypeptide, (ii) the P site binds the peptidyl-tRNA (as well as
the initiator fMet-tRNAfmet), and (iii) the E site binds the deacylated
tRNA that is to be soon dissociated from the ribosome (Fig. 1). The 30S
subunit binds mRNA and it ensures the fidelity of translation through
close monitoring of the anticodon–codon interactions [18]. The 50S
subunit, on the other hand, binds the acceptor ends of substrate tRNAs
and it catalyzes the peptide bond formation in which an α-amino
group of the aminoacyl-tRNA attacks the carbonyl carbon of the
peptidyl-tRNA. From a chemical standpoint the reaction is an
aminolysis of an acyl-ester link formed between the carbonyl carbon
of the peptidyl moiety and the O3′ atom of the P-site A76. Upon
peptide bond synthesis, the lengthened peptidyl-tRNA is bound to the
A site, whereas the deacylated tRNA is in the P site. Peptide elongation
is further promoted by the GTP-dependent protein elongation factors
EF-G and EF-Tu. EF-G promotes translocation of the A-site bound
peptidyl-tRNA into the P-site and of the P-site bound deacylated tRNA
into the E site. Consequently, the ribosome moves down the mRNA
filament with an active site that is ready for a new reaction cycle. Then,
the elongation factor EF-Tu delivers the aminoacyl-tRNA to the A-site.
The proper codon–anticodon interactions stimulate the GTP-ase
activity of EF-Tu, leading to its dissociation from the complex. The
acceptor end of the A-site aminoacyl-tRNA reorients and positions
an incoming amino acid for the reaction with the peptidyl moiety
attached to the P-site peptidyl-tRNA in a process known as
accommodation. The rate of accommodation is significantly slower
than the rate of peptide bond formation and is measured to be
Fig. 1. A schematic diagram of the elongation phase of the ribosome-catalyzed translation. A peptidyl-tRNA is bound to the P site and the deacylated tRNA is in the ribosomal E site.
The elongation factor EF-Tu complexed with GTP (orange) delivers an aminoacyl-tRNA to the A site. The deacylated tRNA dissociates from the E site on binding of the aminoacyl-tRNA
to the A site. Upon codon recognition the GTP-ase activity of EF-Tu is stimulated and this causes a conformational change in EF-Tu upon which the factor dissociates from the
ribosome. If the appropriate codon–anticodon interaction is established the CCA-end of the A-site aminoacyl-tRNA undergoes conformational change in a process known as
accommodation, whereas the non-cognate tRNA is rejected at this point. After accommodation a free α-amino group of the aminoacyl-tRNA is oriented properly for the nucleophilic
attack onto the acyl-ester link of the peptidyl-tRNA in the P site. The peptidyl transfer reaction occurs rapidly yielding a lengthened peptidyl-tRNA bound to the A site and the
deacylated tRNA in the P site. The translocation of the reaction products and mRNA is promoted by the elongation factor EF-G in a GTP-dependent manner. The peptidyl-tRNA moves
from the A site into the P site, whereas the deacylated tRNA moves from the P site into the E site. Also, the ribosome has now shifted in the 3′ direction of the mRNA and a new codon
occupies the A site on the 30S subunit. After dissociation of the EF-G:GDP complex from the ribosome a new round of peptide synthesis ensues. Once the ribosome encounters the
translational stop codon the termination phase of protein synthesis is initiated (not shown).
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∼ 10 s− 1 [19]. This rate is, however, much higher when small analogs
are used and is estimated to be ∼ 50 s− 1 allowing detailed kinetic
studies using this system [20,21].
Once the ribosome encounters a stop codon, protein synthesis
stalls, one of the two class I protein release factors (RFs), RF1 or RF2,
bind to the A site and promote hydrolysis of the acyl-ester link
between the nascent peptide and the P-site bound tRNA. In this way
the nascent polypeptide is released from the ribosome. The class II
protein release factor (RF3) promotes the dissociation of the RF1/2
from the ribosome and, finally, the two ribosomal subunits dissociate
with the help of a recycling factor.
2. The peptidyl-transferase center and its complexes with
substrate analogs
The PTC is located in domain V of the 50S subunit. Although there
are 15 proteins that interact with the domain V in the 50S subunit of H.
marismortui, not a single protein was found within ∼ 18 Å of the PTC
confirming that the ribosome is indeed a ribozyme [22]. Even though
subsequent structures of the T. thermophilus 70S ribosome with three
bound tRNA molecules show that L27 protein (not present in H.
marismortui) interacts with the CCA of the P-site tRNA, it is not close
enough to directly participate in catalysis of peptide bond formation
[14,23]. The walls of the PTC are composed of the A and P loops,
whereas its floor opens up into the exit tunnel through which the
nascent polypeptide chain protrudes (Fig. 2A). A number of crystal
structures of Hma50 complexed with the appropriate substrate
mimics revealed how ribosome recognizes its substrates.
The crystal structure of Hma50 in complex with a mimic of the
aminoacyl-tRNA, CC-puromycin (CC-Pmn), bound to the A site revealed
interactions between the A-loop and the CCA-end of the A-site substrate
analog (Fig. 2B) [24] and confirmed the earlier proposal by Noller and
colleagues [25] that the CCA-end of the A-site substrate is interacting
with the residues of the A loop. More precisely, C74 forms a stacking
interaction with U2590 (U2555), C75 forms a Watson–Crick basepairing with G2588 (G2553), whereas A76 makes a type I A-minor
interaction with U2590 (U2556) and G2618 (G2583). The numbering of
the 23S rRNA residues based on the H. marismortui sequence is used
throughout the text, while the corresponding position in the E. coli
ribosome is shown in the brackets. The same interactions have been
3
observed when other analogs were used [26–29]. Likewise, the P loop
binds CCA of the P-site substrate [22,24,26–29]. For instance, when the
peptidyl-tRNA analog, CCA-Phe-caproic acid-biotin (CCA-Pcb), was
soaked into the Hma50 crystals it was found that C74 and C75 form
Watson–Crick base-pairing with G2284 (G2251) and G2285 (G2252),
respectively, whereas A76 stacks onto the ribose of A2486 (A2451) and
makes a hydrogen bond with the O2′ hydroxyl of A2485 (A2450)
(Fig. 2C) [24]. The CCA ends of the analogs bound to the A and the P sites
are related by 180° rotation and it was proposed that this may contribute
to the translocation of the peptidyl-tRNA from the A site to the P site
once the peptide bond is formed [24] as well as being necessary for the
appropriate positioning of the peptidyl-group and the attacking αamino group. Examination of the crystal structure of Tth70 with the
deacylated tRNA bound to the P site revealed that CCA of the complete
tRNA interacts with the P loop in the same fashion as the small P-site
substrate analogs do with Hma50 (see below: The PTC is the same in the
50S subunit as in the 70S ribosome) [14]. Other interactions have been
observed in the PTC of Tth70. For instance, the N-terminal tail of the
protein L27 interacts with the CCA-end of the P site tRNA, thereby
stabilizing its conformation [14,23]. Although the deletion of the three
N-terminal residues from L27 affects the rate of translation [30], this
protein is not involved chemically in catalysis. The archaeal protein L10e,
which is a homologue of the bacterial protein L16, may play a similar role
in the H. marismortui 70S ribosome. However, the corresponding region
is disordered in the Hma50 crystals [9].
The peptidyl moiety was oriented towards the exit tunnel in all the
mimics of the peptidyl-tRNA that are bound to the P site (Fig. 2C).
Specific interactions between the peptide mimic and the ribosome,
however, have not been observed [22,24,26–29]. This is not surprising
because tight interactions between the newly synthesized polypeptide and the exit tunnel would almost surely lead to inhibition of
translation. Interestingly, CCA-Pcb binds equally well to both the A
and P sites in the PTC, thus, to prevent the binding of the analog to the
A site, the antibiotic sparsomycin was employed [24]. Perhaps the
non-selective binding of CCA-Pcb should not be surprising since this
analog is also a mimic of the A-site product and, therefore, should have
substantial affinity for the A site as well. In addition, the footprinting
experiments using small fragments of tRNA substrates revealed that
the fragments would bind to the P-site only in the presence of
sparsomycin [31]. A somewhat different P-site substrate analog, CCA-
Fig. 2. The structure of the ribosomal PTC and the mode of tRNA recognition. (A) A cartoon diagram of the 50S subunit from H. marismortui showing the exact location of the PTC
[116]. The two-fold symmetry of the active site is evident. The P loop is blue, the A loop is red, whereas the floor and the walls of the PTC are orange. The arrow points to the tunnel
entrance. rRNA is light blue, while the proteins are colored in light green. (B) The A loop (green) binds CCA of the A-site substrate analog CC-Pmn (blue) [26]. C75 makes Watson–
Crick interactions with G2588 (G2553) and C75 base stacks with U2590 (U2555). (C) The P-loop (green) bases G2285 (G2252) and G2284 (G2251) form Watson–Crick base pairs
with C74 and C75 of the peptidyl-tRNA mimic CCA-Pcb (blue), respectively [26]. In A and B hydrogen bonds are shown with dashed lines.
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puromycin-Phe-caproic acid-biotin (CCA-Pmn-Pcb), binds only to the
A site in the absence of sparsomycin, presumably because one or more
methyl groups on the puromycin moiety decreased the affinity of the
ligand for the P site [24]. In the context of the 70S ribosome, however,
the peptidyl-tRNA has a higher affinity for the P site than for the A site
suggesting that the entire tRNA is needed for appropriate substrate
selection [32,33]. Also, a number of binding assays revealed that the
peptidyl-CCA has higher affinity for the P site on the 50S subunit [34–
36]. Thus, two determinants may influence the stronger binding of the
CCA-Pcb, and presumably that of the peptidyl-CCA, to the P site. The
first is an additional Watson–Crick interaction formed between C74
and the P-loop base G2284 (G2251), whereas the second is a rotation
of CCA by ∼ 180° relative to the acceptor arm, which presumably
allows a more favored conformation of the peptidyl-CCA to be
adopted. The higher affinity of the peptidyl-CCA for the P site might
drive the formation of the so-called hybrid state intermediate during
the elongation phase of translation.
3. Products translocate after peptidyl transfer
A number of footprinting, kinetic and single-particle cryo-electron
microscopy (cryo-EM) studies have shown that upon peptide bond
formation the acceptor end of a tRNA in the A site, which carries now a
longer polypeptide chain, rapidly reorients and moves into the P site
of the 50S subunit, whereas its anticodon stem is still bound to the A
site of the decoding center in the 30S subunit [25,32,33,37]. Likewise,
the deacylated tRNA in the P site reorients and binds to the vacant E
site on the 50S subunit, while its anticodon loop remains attached to
the P site on the 30S subunit [25,32,33,37]. This is the basis of the
widely accepted hybrid states model of protein synthesis, which
postulates that the anticodon and the acceptor ends of a tRNA can
simultaneously bind different tRNA-binding sites on the 30S and 50S
subunits.
Over 40 years ago Watson hypothesized that translocation takes
place after peptidyl transfer, thus, explaining how the ribosome might
move along mRNA [38]. Also, Noller and coworkers have proposed
that the peptidyl transfer can occur uncoupled from movement of the
A-site tRNA [25]. That this is indeed the case was confirmed by using
Hma50 crystals and appropriate reaction substrates. The peptidyltRNA mimic CCA-Pcb was used as the P-site substrate, while the
aminoacyl-tRNA analog C-puromycin (C-Pmn) was used as the A site
substrate (Fig. 3A) [28]. Although reaction substrates were soaked into
the crystals, the resulting electron density maps revealed that only the
products of the reaction were bound to the PTC of the 50S subunit: (i)
C-puromycin-Phe-caproic acid-biotin (C-Pmn-Pcb) was bound to the
A site, (ii) the CCA oligonucleotide was attached to the P site, albeit
with much lower occupancy (Fig. 3B) and (iii) the E site was empty.
The observed low occupancy of the CCA oligonucleotide in the P site
suggests that the affinity of the P site for the reaction product is
significantly lower than that for the reaction substrate. The Hma50
crystals were catalytically active with a slower rate when compared
with the sample in solution [28]. More importantly, CCA ends of the
resulting products remained attached to the substrate binding sites
suggesting that the translocation of products can only take place after
peptidyl transfer leading to the revised hybrid states model of protein
synthesis (Fig. 4) [28].
GTP hydrolysis and the release of inorganic phosphate may trigger
structural rearrangements in the ribosome that further promote the
translocation [42,43]. Indeed, Frank and colleagues have shown that
binding of EF-G induces the counter-clockwise rotation of the 30S
subunit, which is accompanied by formation of the P/E hybrid state
[44,45].
The hybrid states, however, can form spontaneously on the 70S
ribosome and they have recently been visualized by cryo-EM on the
70S ribosome particles that were free of translational factors [46,47].
The ratcheting movement of the 30S subunit thus promotes the tRNA
repositioning from the A/A-P/P state into the A/P-P/E state. In
addition, the single-molecule fluorescence energy transfer experiments have shown that the pretranslocation ribosomes spontaneously
fluctuate between the classical and hybrid conformations, whereas
the posttranslocation ribosomes are locked in the classical, nonrotated state [48,49]. Kinetic and FRET studies have also suggested
that the binding of the elongation factor EF-G to the 70S ribosome and
the movement of the acceptor stem of the deacylated tRNA into the E
site of the 50S subunit both stabilize the hybrid state of the ribosome
[48,50–53]. Moreover, Noller and colleagues have shown that the
hybrid state intermediate is stabilized in presence of GTP, GDPNP or
GDPNP·fusidic acid but not in presence of GDP [52]. Also, only EFG·GTP and EF-G·GDPNP are capable of promoting the tRNA
translocation [52].
Further, it has been shown that GTP hydrolysis by EF-G and/or EFG dissociation from the ribosome promotes the dissociation of the E
site bound deacylated tRNA from the ribosome [52,54], which is in
agreement with the earlier proposal that the binding of the deacylated
tRNA to the E site involves a stable codon–anticodon interaction and
that there is an anticooperative allostery between the A and E sites on
the ribosome [55]. In contrast, Wintermeyer, Rodnina and colleagues
have shown that the binding of the deacylated tRNA to the E site is
transient and that its dissociation from the ribosome is spontaneous
[56].
Finally, cryo-EM reconstructions have revealed that the L1 stalk
moves inward upon EF-G binding to the ribosome [45]. The authors
speculated that the movement may stabilize the binding of the
deacylated tRNA to the E site. More recently, the FRET studies have
shown that the L1 stalk moves independently of intersubunit rotation
[53,57]. Both groups have found that the L1 stalk fluctuates between
the open (ratcheted) and closed (nonratcheted) states in the pretranslocation ribosomes. In the closed (nonratcheted) state, the tRNAs
adopt classical conformation and there are no interactions between the
L1 stalk and the E-site tRNA. In the open (ratcheted) state, the tRNAs
are in the hybrid state and the E-site tRNA interacts with the L1 stalk.
Fei et al. [53] have also found the EF-G binding stabilizes the open
(ratcheted) state, whereas Cornish et al. [57] have found that the L1
stalk is either in the fully open or the fully closed states in the
ribosomes with the vacant E site. The two studies, however, describe
the conformation of the L1 stalk in the posttranslocation ribosomes
differently. While Fei et al. [53] have shown that the L1 stalk is in the
closed (nonratcheted) state, Cornish et al. [57] have suggested that the
L1 stalk adopts a newly identified half-closed conformation. More
importantly, both groups proposed that the L1 stalk plays an important
role in binding, movement and release of the deacylated tRNA.
4. Product translocation in the context of the 70S ribosome
5. The A-site substrate binding induces conformational change in
the PTC
Because spontaneous formation of hybrid states, also known as A/
P and P/E states, is not sufficient for completion of translocation [32],
it has been proposed that, upon GTP hydrolysis, the domain IV of EF-G
displaces the anticodon loop of the A-site tRNA as the 30S subunit
rotates clockwise back to the classical state [39,40]. Kinetic studies
have shown that the rate of translocation increases by 50-fold upon
EF-G-catalyzed GTP hydrolysis [41], and it was proposed that both the
After completion of the peptidyl transfer and following translocation, the peptidyl-tRNA is bound to the P site, the deacylated tRNA has
moved over to the E site, whereas the A site remains empty until the
next aminoacyl-tRNA is delivered. An important question here is how
the translating ribosome prevents an unwanted hydrolysis of the
peptidyl-tRNA bound to the P site when the A site is empty? Crystal
structures of Hma50 complexed with substrate and intermediate
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5
Fig. 3. Identification of the pretranslocation intermediate in catalytically active crystals of the 50S subunit from H. marismortui. (A) Crystals of Hma50 were soaked with a mixture of
substrates shown on the left hand side with the expectation that the active 50S ribosome would yield products shown on the right hand side. (B) Examination of the resulting
electron density map revealed that the lengthened peptidyl-tRNA analog, CCA-Pmn-Pcb (red), was produced and bound to the A site (dark green), whereas CCA (blue) was found in
the P site (light green). The figure is adapted from the reference [24].
analogs provided evidence that the PTC undergoes a conformational
change upon binding of the proper A-site substrate. The absence of
this conformational change without the A-site tRNA precludes an
unwanted hydrolysis of the peptidyl-tRNA [26,27].
In the posttranslocation complex in which the peptidyl-tRNA
mimic (CCA-Pcb) occupies the P site and the A site is empty, the acylester link is completely sequestered from water by 23S rRNA bases
U2620 (U2585), A2486 (A2451) and C2104 (C2063) (Fig. 5A).
Furthermore, the ester oxygen is oriented toward the position
where the α-amino group of the incoming amino acid will eventually
be positioned. This essentially means that the carbonyl carbon is not
positioned properly for a possible nucleophilic attack in the absence of
the A-site tRNA. However, the binding of the A-site substrate mimic,
CC-hydroxy puromycin (CC-hPmn), to the same complex induces a
conformational change in the PTC in which the base of U2620 (U2585)
moves away from the ester link (Fig. 5B, C) [27]. This movement
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Fig. 4. A schematic diagram of the revised hybrid state model of translation. (I) The peptidyl-tRNA is bound in the P site and the A site is empty. (II) The elongation factor EF-Tu (light
red) delivers an aminoacyl-tRNA to the ribosomal A site in a GTP-dependent manner. Upon GTP hydrolysis EF-Tu (dark red) dissociates from the ribosome. The anticodon and the
CCA-end of the aminoacyl-tRNA are bound to the A sites in the 50S and the 30S subunit, respectively. Likewise, the ends of the peptidyl-tRNA are attached to the P sites producing the
so-called P/P and A/A states. (III) Upon peptidyl transfer the peptidyl-tRNA is now attached to the A site, whereas the deacylated tRNA is in the P site. Again, both the anticodon and
the CCA ends of the product tRNAs are bound to the same ribosomal sites suggesting that the tRNAs are in their P/P and A/A states after peptidyl transfer. This state is observed in the
crystals of Hma50 (see Fig. 3) and is termed as the pretranslocation state. (IV) CCA of the deacylated tRNA moves into the E site, while the CCA-end of the peptidyl-tRNA translocates
into the P site. The corresponding anticodon loops, however, remain attached to the A and P sites giving a rise to the A/P and P/E hybrid state. (V) Finally, the elongation factor EF-G
(green) promotes the translocation of the anticodon loops in a GTP-dependent fashion. The figure is adapted from reference [24].
allows repositioning of the acyl-ester so that its carbonyl carbon is
now exposed to the nucleophilic attack by the properly positioned αamino group of the aminoacyl-tRNA (Fig. 5B, C). These findings
suggested that the ribosome promotes the reaction of the amino acid
condensation by properly orienting the reaction substrates. Along
these lines it has been suggested that the ribosome serves as an
entropic trap that draws its catalytic power from the ability to orient
and position substrates [58]. In this respect, however, the ribosome is
not unlike other enzymes, all of which obtain a major portion of their
catalytic power by correctly positioning their substrates [59].
6. Catalytic mechanism
The ribosome catalyzes an aminolysis of an acyl-ester bond in the P
site. The reaction begins with a nucleophilic attack of the α-amino
group of the aminoacyl-tRNA bound in the A site onto the carbonyl
carbon of the peptidyl-tRNA positioned in the P site and it proceeds
through a tetrahedral oxyanion intermediate. The intermediate
collapses into the lengthened peptidyl-tRNA in the A site and the
deacylated tRNA in the P site. The ribosome brings ∼ 107-fold increase
in the reaction rate compared to an uncatalyzed reaction in solution
[58]. Early biochemical experiments in which substrate and product
analogs were used revealed how ribosome specifically recognizes its
ligands, but provided inadequate answers to more pertinent questions
concerning the catalytic mechanism. The role of the ribosome in
positioning the reactive groups involved in the reaction as well as the
identity of any ribosomal group that contributes to the catalysis was
not revealed. It was also not clear whether metal ions or water
molecules bound to the PTC participate in catalysis. Furthermore, the
stereochemistry of the reaction intermediate as well as the mechanism of the stabilization of its oxyanion remained unanswered.
The Yarus inhibitor, an analog of the tetrahedral intermediate, was
employed in initial structural studies [22]. The binding of the Yarus
inhibitor unambiguously identified the PTC on the 50S subunit [22],
but the analog had a few structural shortcomings. The lack of C74 and
C75 in the A-site component contributed to the flexibility of the
Fig. 5. The binding of the A-site substrate induces a conformational change in the PTC, which in turn promotes peptidyl transfer. (A) When the peptidyl-tRNA is in the P site and the A
site is empty, the acyl-ester link is sequestered from water by the 23S rRNA. The peptidyl-tRNA mimic CCA-Pcb is colored green, the PTC is shown as a beige surface, the 23S rRNA
bases C2104 (C2063), A2486 (A2541) and U2620 (U2585) are shown as beige sticks as well. Two water molecules (red spheres) are modeled at the putative attack locations and it is
clear that due to steric clashes water cannot access the acyl-ester link when the A site is empty. (B) The binding of either the transition state analog (TSA) (red) or CC-hPmn (pink) to
the A site induces the conformational change in the PTC, whereas C-hPmn (beige) does not promote the conformational change. C-hPmn binds somewhat higher in the A site when
compared to both CC-hPmn and TSA, and its α-amino group is positioned far from the carbonyl carbon of the aminoacyl-tRNA (blue sphere). (C) The induced-fit conformational
change in the residues G2618–U2620 (G2553–U2585) and U2541 (U2506) allows the rotation of the carbonyl oxygen. The rotation is the largest in the case of the transition analog
soak (blue) allowing the nucleophilic attack by the free α-amino group onto the carbonyl carbon. The rotation occurs in the presence of CC-hPmn (light blue) as well but to a
somewhat lesser degree. In the presence of C-hPmn (beige), however, the carbonyl oxygen prevents the nucleophilic attack. The direction of the nucleophilic attack is shown with a
red arrow. In B and C, the PTC residues are colored as following: orange for the TSA soak, light orange for the CC-hPmn soak and grey for the C-hPmn soak. The figure is adapted from
reference [23].
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puromycin moiety, which often ended up binding to the entrance of
the tunnel. The somewhat lower resolution of the initial study (3.2 Å)
significantly hampered the efforts to correctly position the phosphorous mimic of the tetrahedral carbon as well as to correctly assign the
oxyanion oxygen. Initially, the oxyanion was proposed to form a
hydrogen bond with the N3 atom of A2486 (A2451) and suggested
that this nitrogen might play the role of a general base and that of an
oxyanion hole [22]. However, Mankin and coworkers revealed that the
catalytic power of the ribosome remained almost unscathed when
A2486 (A2451) was replaced by any other nucleotide in the E. coli 70S
ribosome [60] and that the chemical modification of A2486 (A2451)
by dimethylsulfate, which was previously used to monitor pKa of this
residue, was in fact not dependent on pH [61]. Concurrently, Dahlberg
and colleagues found that neither G2482 (G2447) nor A2486 (A2451)
are involved in catalysis by analyzing the mutants of both the E. coli
70S ribosome and the Bacillus stearothermophilus 50S subunit [62].
Further, Strobel and colleagues demonstrated that the binding of the
Yarus inhibitor was not pH dependent suggesting that the oxyanion
does not interact with a group with near-neutral pKa [63]. Finally,
Green and coworkers provided the crucial evidence that A2486
(A2451) is not directly involved in catalysis by a study in which they
showed that mutating A2486 (A2451) in the 70S ribosome did not
affect the rate of peptidyl transfer when the intact aminoacyl-tRNA
substrates were used [64]. Other mutational and kinetic studies
converged to the conclusion that none of the other conserved 23S
rRNA residues in the PTC are involved in catalysis either [21,64–66].
The rate of reaction was affected greatly only when the non-canonical
A2487-C2104 (A2450-C2063) pair was mutated into the G–U pair
[67], or when puromycin was used as the A-site substrate [21,64–66].
Studies that followed proved to be influential in identifying the
elusive group responsible for the ribosome-catalyzed peptide bond
formation. Barta and colleagues provided the first evidence for the
role of the P-site O2′ hydroxyl group by using a nucleotide analog in
the P site and proposed proton shuttling mechanism [68]. Subsequently, Weinger et al. [72] found that the removal as well as the
replacement of the O2′ hydroxyl by the fluoro group in the P-site
tRNA can account for an almost 106-fold reduction in the rate of
peptide bond formation. Involvement of the O2′ hydroxyl group in
peptide bond formation was proposed before [68–71], but the critical
difference was that Strobel, Green and colleagues measured the rate
of the peptidyl transfer in the context of the 70S ribosome, complete
tRNA substrates, and under the conditions where the chemical step is
rate-limiting [72]. However, the effect of the O2′ hydroxyl group
should be taken with caution, since the absence of O2′ hydroxyl in
A76 leads to the reduction of the rate of the non-catalyzed reaction by
almost 100-fold. Finally, Steitz and colleagues determined a series of
Hma50 structures complexed with a variety of transition state
analogs and they reached the following conclusions: (i) the peptidyl
transfer reaction proceeds through a tetrahedral intermediate with S
chirality, (ii) metal ions (mono- or divalent) observed in the PTC do
not promote catalysis, (iii) the oxyanion hole is formed by a water
molecule positioned by the 23S rRNA bases A2637 (A2602) and
methyl
U2619 (U2584), and (iv) the oxyanion oxygen points away from
A2486 (A2451) (Fig. 6A, B) [26]. Because of the proximity of the O2′
hydroxyl to the O3′ atom of A76 that is linked to the peptide chain, it
was proposed that O2′ hydroxyl is critical for proton shuttling from
the attacking α-amino group to the leaving O3′ hydroxyl. Indeed, it
has been shown that the O2′ hydroxyl group remains neutral in the
transition state confirming its role in the proton shuttle [73]. More
recently, Strobel colleagues have concluded that at the transition state
the α-amino nucleophile is neutral, which is in a stark contrast to the
development of the positively charged amino nucleophile during an
uncatalyzed aminolysis reaction in solution [74]. The formation of the
N–C bond is, therefore, proportionate to the disruption of the N–H
bond suggesting that peptide bond formation and the breakage of the
acyl-ester link occur in concert (Fig. 6B).
7
In addition, Polacek, Micura and colleagues developed an in vitro
system in which they were able to replace specific moieties and
individual atoms within the PTC of the Thermus aquaticus 70S
ribosomes, and they have shown that the O2′ hydroxyl of A2486
(A2451) is critical for transpeptidation reaction, but not for peptide
release regardless of the substrate utilized [75,76]. It appears that the
hydrogen bonding capability of the O2′ hydroxyl of A2486 (A2451) is
critical for its role [77]. These findings are in agreement with
structural studies that used Hma50 as a model system. The O2′
hydroxyl of A2486 (A2451) forms a hydrogen bond with the O2′hydroxyl group of the P-site A76 when both the A and P sites of Hma50
were occupied with appropriate substrate mimics and transition state
analogs [24,26–28]. In a structural study on the CCA-promoted
peptide release, however, it was found that the O2′ hydroxyl of the
P-site A76 faces away from the A site and that it forms a hydrogen
bond with the O2′ hydroxyl of C2104 (C2063) instead. This may
explain why replacing the O2′ hydroxyl of A2486 (A2451) is found not
to impair the peptide release reaction. Polacek and coworkers
suggested that the O2′ hydroxyl of A2486 (A2451) plays a role in
stabilizing the 2′-endo conformation of the P-site A76, which in turn
may prevent the transesterification reaction between the O2′ and O3′
hydroxyls of the P-site substrate that is bound to the ribosome [77].
Thus, all the studies suggested that the ribosome does not contribute
groups that are directly involved in the chemistry of catalysis, but it
serves to position and orient substrates properly for reaction.
In conclusion, the ribosome utilizes a combination of the
entropic, general acid–base and electrostatic shielding mechanisms
to promote peptide bond formation. The two binding interfaces in
the PTC, the A loop and the P loop, specifically recognize the acceptor
ends of the aminoacyl- and the peptidyl-tRNA, respectively. The
binding of the A-site substrate induces conformational change in the
PTC, which allows reactive groups to be oriented properly for the
peptidyl transfer reaction (entropic component). Peptide bond
formation is further promoted by a substrate-assisted mechanism
in which the O2′ hydroxyl group of the P-site A76 plays a crucial role
in the proton shuttling (general acid–base component), whereas a
water molecule coordinated by the ribosomal bases stabilizes the
oxyanion of the tetrahedral intermediate (electrostatic shielding
component).
7. Implications for the mechanism of peptide release
When the ribosomal A site encounters a stop codon, protein
synthesis stalls and this signals that the nascent polypeptide should be
released from the ribosome. Thus, the ribosome is not only capable of
promoting peptide bond formation, but it is also able to catalyze
hydrolysis of the acyl-ester link. In contrast to the reaction of peptide
bond formation where proteins are not involved in catalysis, the
release of newly synthesized peptide is directly promoted by protein
release factors, RF1 and RF2. A number of mutational studies have
identified key residues both in the PTC [64,78,79] and in RFs [80–85]
that are important for the release reaction. Also, it was found that a
preferred nucleophile for the RF-promoted peptide release is water
and that the O2′ hydroxyl group of the peptidyl-tRNA substrate might
play the same role in the RF-promoted peptide release as in the
peptide bond formation [86,87].
The cryo-EM studies have revealed that RF2 is in open conformation when bound to the ribosome and that it emulates both
structurally and functionally the A-site tRNA substrate [88,89].
Subsequently, several crystal structures of the 70S ribosome complexed with RFs have been determined. Initially, Ramakrishnan and
coworkers determined the crystal structure of the 70S-RF2 complex
at 6 Å resolution [90]. In agreement with the cryo-EM studies, it was
found that the domain 3 of RF2 swings away from domains 2 and 4
placing the GGQ motif in the PTC, whereas domains 2 and 4 interact
with the decoding center [90]. The domain 1 was found to interact
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M. Simonović, T.A. Steitz / Biochimica et Biophysica Acta xxx (2009) xxx–xxx
Fig. 6. The stereochemistry and mechanism of the peptidyl transfer reaction. (A) The complex with the transition state analog revealed that the oxyanion oxygen points away from
A2486 (A2451). The structure further suggested that the reaction proceeds through an intermediate with S chirality. The base of U2637 (U2602) and the ribose of U2619 (U2584)
coordinate a water molecule that forms an oxyanion hole. (B) A schematic diagram of the transition state analog shown in A. (C) The mechanism of the peptidyl transfer based on the
structural and kinetic data. The attack of the α-amino group of the aminoacyl-tRNA (red) onto the carbonyl carbon of the peptidyl-tRNA (blue) occurs in concert with the proton
shuttle. The O3′ oxygen and the O2′ hydroxyls of the P-site A76 as well as the α-amino group of the aminoacyl-tRNA are involved in the proton shuttle. The reaction proceeds through
a six-membered intermediate state (in brackets) in which the formation of the new C–N bond is commensurate to the dissolution of the N–H bond. Finally, the intermediate collapses
into the reaction products shown on far right. Panels A and B are adapted from reference [22], whereas panel C is adapted from reference [52].
with L11 of the 50S subunit [90]. However, the low resolution of the
study hindered the efforts of identifying critical interactions
between the conserved residues of RFs and those in the ribosome.
Subsequently, Noller and colleagues obtained crystals of the 70S
ribosome complexed with RF1 [91] and RF2 [92] that diffracted to
3.2 Å and 3 Å, repectively. Also, Ramakrishnan and colleagues
improved considerably the diffraction limit of their 70S-RF2 complex crystal form to 3.5 Å [93]. These crystal structures revealed that
the binding of the PxT/SPV motif of RF1/2 induces a conformational
change in the A site of the 30S subunit, which in turn stabilizes the
stop codon recognition. This further promotes the conformation of
RF in which the interaction between its highly conserved GGQ motif
and the PTC occurs [91]. Laurberg et al. [91] proposed that the
backbone amide of Q230 in the RF1 is responsible for orienting the
hydrolytic water, whereas Weixlbaumer et al. [93] suggested that
the O2′ hydroxyl of the P site A76 might be involved in catalysis of
the RF2-promoted peptide release along with the backbone and the
side-chain amides of Q240. More recently, Noller and colleagues
have replaced glutamine 240 with proline and showed that the
removal of the backbone amide in Q240 abolishes the RF2-promoted
peptide release [92], whereas the side-chain replacement alone did
not affect the release activity.
In an alternative approach the mechanism of the peptidyl-tRNA
hydrolysis was studied using Hma50 as a model system. The basis for
this study was an observation that the deacylated tRNA [94] and CCA,
but neither CA nor A [95], were able to promote peptide release.
Thus, the oligonucleotides CCA and CA were used as the A-site
substrate mimics, whereas a non-hydrolyzable analog of the
peptidyl-tRNA, CCA-nPcb, was used as the P-site substrate [29]. It
was found that only CCA, through its O3′ hydroxyl, is able to
coordinate the hydrolytic water molecule, whereas CA was bound too
remotely from the P site to be involved in catalysis of the peptide
release (Fig. 7A, B). Despite the differences in their binding, both CCA
and CA induced a conformational change in the PTC similar to the one
observed in earlier studies on the peptide bond formation (Fig. 7C).
Considering that CC-Pmn was able to induce conformational change
and C-Pmn was not, it was proposed that the stacking interaction
between C74 of the A-site substrate and the A-loop base U2590
(U2555) is responsible for the induced-fit conformational change in
the PTC. In the same study it was suggested that release factor
binding might induce similar changes in the PTC as observed in the
50S subunit and that its GGQ motif might serve to coordinate the
attacking water molecule. Indeed, Weixlbaumer et al. [93] observed
that RF2 binding induces a similar conformational change in the PTC
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9
Fig. 7. Peptide release is promoted by the induced-fit conformational change in the PTC. (A) The A site CCA (light blue) promotes peptide release by coordinating the hydrolytic water
molecule (red sphere) through its O3′ hydroxyl group. Also, the carbonyl oxygen of the peptidyl-tRNA analog, CCA-Pcb (blue), forms a hydrogen bond with the base of A2486 (A2451),
which allows the nucleophilic attack by the water. (B) On the other hand, CA (light blue) binds higher in the A site and its O3′ hydroxyl is positioned too remotely from the P-site acylester bond to be able to catalyze peptide release. Also, the carbonyl oxygen forms a hydrogen bond with a water molecule and its not oriented properly for the nucleophilic attack. In A
and B, the 23S rRNA residues are colored in green. (C) The binding of both CA and CCA to the A site induces the conformational change in the PTC. The P site is oriented toward the
reader, whereas the A site is behind the U2619–U2620 (U2584–U2585). CCA-Pcb is in blue and the CCA oligonucleotide in the A site is cyan. The induced-fit conformation of the PTC is
colored orange, whereas the apo-PTC is grey. (D) A conformational change is observed in the PTC of the T. thermophilus 70 S ribosome when in complex with RF2. The induced-fit
change is similar to that observed in the 50S subunit complexed with the appropriate A site substrate. The 70S-tRNA complex is grey, whereas the ternary 70S-tRNA-RF2 complex is in
red. The GGQ motif of RF2 is orange with the side-chain of Q240 shown as sticks. Panels A and B were adapted from reference [25], while panel D was adapted from reference [65].
of the 70S ribosome to that found in analogous complexes of Hma50
(Fig. 7C, D) [93]. However, to complete our understanding of the
mechanism of peptide release, further structural studies on the 70SRF complexes and in the presence of a mimic of the amino-acylated
tRNA substrate are necessary.
8. The PTC is the same in the 50S subunit as in the 70S ribosome
The most detailed structural studies on the mechanism of peptide
bond formation have been done using the 50S subunit from H.
marismortui as a model system. On several occasions it was suggested
that the PTC in the 70S ribosome might adopt a different conformation
than that observed in the isolated 50S subunit [13]. Most recently, this
proposal was reiterated with a crystal structure of the 70S ribosome
from T. thermophilus complexed with both the P- and E-site tRNAs [15].
Upon examination of their 3.7 Å resolution model, Korostelev et al. [15]
suggested a different position for A2486 (A2451), and closer orientation of the P-site A76 to the non-canonical A2485-C2104 (A2451-
C2063) base pair than what was found in any of the crystal structures
of Hma50 complexed with substrates, intermediates or products. The
proposed differences in the PTC structure were, however, inconsistent
with the proton shuttle mechanism of peptide bond formation.
Concurrently, Selmer et al. [14] have obtained a crystal form of
the T. thermophilus 70S ribosome complexed with the P-site tRNA in
which the PTC adopted a conformation identical to the one found in
Hma50 when in complex with the analogs of the P-site substrate.
Apart from differences in the identity of the P-site tRNA as well as in
the length of mRNA, the two Tth70 crystal forms were in the same
functional state. Because of the high level of sequence conservation in
the PTC, it is reasonable to expect that the structure of the active site
would be conserved as well. Indeed, cross-crystal averaging of the
data sets derived from both crystals of Tth70 has shown that the PTC
adopts the same conformation in both crystal forms as in the 50S
subunit of H. marismortui [96]. Furthermore, kinetic studies have
shown that the 50S subunit catalyzes the reaction of peptide bond
formation at the same rate as the 70S ribosome in the presence of
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M. Simonović, T.A. Steitz / Biochimica et Biophysica Acta xxx (2009) xxx–xxx
appropriate substrates [17]. Also, a hypothesis was put forward that
the PTC was the first element of the proto-ribosome that was present
over 4 billion years ago in the Last Universal Ancestor and that its
structure is likely to be strictly conserved in all domains of life [97].
Finally, while this manuscript was under preparation Ramakrishnan
and colleagues published two crystal structures that represent distinct
functional states of the intact T. thermophilus 70S ribosome [23]. In a
structure that represents a state before peptidyl transfer reaction, a
mimic of the amino-acylated tRNA was bound to the A site and an
unacylated tRNA occupied the P site. On the other hand, in a structure
that mimics the post-peptidyl transfer state the amino-acylated tRNA
occupied both the A and the P sites. The authors found that binding of
the aminoacyl-tRNA to the A site induces the conformational change
in the PTC of the 70S ribosome that is very similar to that observed in
structures of the H. marismortui 50S subunit when complexed with
the mimics of the A-site substrate [27]. More importantly, the
orientation of both the A-site α-amino group and the O2′ hydroxyl
of the P-site A76 is the same as in the context of the 50S subunit and it
is consistent with the proposed substrate-assisted mechanism of
catalysis [72]. Taken together, these observations confirm that the
structure of the PTC is the same in the 50S subunit and the 70S
ribosome and that all conclusions on the mechanism of peptide bond
synthesis derived from the structures of the 50S subunit are true for
the entire ribosome.
9. Conclusions and future directions
Structural studies on the ribosome have undergone a dramatic
expansion in the last decade. A number of crystal structures of the
complete ribosomal particle complexed with mRNA, substrate tRNAs
and with protein release factors are now available. Concurrently, cryoEM maps of high quality have been obtained for the complexes
between ribosomes and various elongation factors that represent
distinct stages in the process of the ribosome-catalyzed translation.
While this manuscript was in preparation a model of the ribosomal
polysomes was obtained by cryo-electron tomography [98]. Here,
“beads on a string” are shown in action at higher resolution than ever
before providing an explanation as to how multiple ribosomes can
simultaneously work on the same mRNA molecule. Further, while the
mechanism of discrimination of the cognate tRNAs from the noncognate or near-cognate tRNAs by the ribosome is understood [18,99–
106], it is still unclear how the cognate codon–anticodon interaction is
signaled to EF-Tu and then to the PTC. High-resolution structural
studies on the 70S ribosome complexed with EF-Tu and either the
cognate or the non-cognate tRNA are thus warranted. These structures
would reveal how the cognate codon–anticodon interactions promote
the catalytic activity of the PTC and would explain why the noncognate interactions fail to do so. In addition, the exact molecular
mechanism of product translocation that is promoted by EF-G is not
clear. A number of cryo-EM studies revealed ribosomal sites in the
hybrid state and proposed the role of EF-G and the L1 stalk in the
translocation of the product tRNAs [48,49,53,57]. However, a highresolution structure of the ternary complex between the 70S
ribosome, EF-G and tRNA in the appropriate state remains to be
determined. Perhaps the most challenging problem is the one
concerning the mechanism of the co-translational translocation of
proteins across biological membranes as well as the mechanism of the
early events of protein sorting. A number of cryo-EM studies that have
already been published offered conflicting answers [107–111]. Therefore, crystal structures of the ribosome that is stalled in the act of
translation and is bound to either the translocon channel or to the
signal recognition particle are necessary. Studies on co-translational
translocation may not only be useful for deciphering the mechanism
of protein sorting, but they may prove to be invaluable for a set of
questions related to ribosomal stalling that occurs in vivo. A number of
peptide sequences such as TnaC, SecM and ErmC were found to have
the ability to regulate gene expression by stalling the ribosomecatalyzed mRNA translation (reviewed in [112–115]) and these exact
peptides are being used in preparations of stalled ribosomes for
structural studies on co-translational translocation. Beyond the
identification of the sequence requirements necessary for stalling,
little is known about specific interactions between the stalling peptide
and the exit tunnel of the ribosome. More importantly, it is not clear
how interactions between the nascent peptide and the exit tunnel
may affect the PTC structure. Finally, a detailed atomic model of the
eukaryotic ribosome is still missing. The monumental advances in the
field of ribosome structure in the last decade bring these very
important biological questions within grasp.
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