Ice caves
Stuart A. Harris:
ICE
CAVES
AND
PERMAFROST
ZONES
Eishohlen
in Sudwest
und Permafrost
in Siidwest-Alberta
kommen
vor.
sind fiir die Art
Plateauberg-Eishohlen
typisch, die
der Zone
unmittelbar
unterhalb
ge
standigen Permafrostes
bildet werden, wo sich Eis an den Wanden
aufgrund zuriick
in Felsen
Permafrostes
bildet. Canyon-Creek
gezogenen
Eishohlen
sind
charakteristisch
fiir den
zweiten
der
Typ,
mit vielen
durch kalte Luft entsteht, die durch grofie Hohlen
stromt. Das Klima
ist kalt genug, dafi
Eingangen
dem Gefrierpunkt
sieben Monate
im Jahr dort
men kann, was von der sommerlichen Advektion
Luft
unter
durchstro
nicht voll
wird. Die
latente Warme
der Eis
aufgehoben
schmelze erzeugt eine Abflachung
des Warmeteils
der Sinus
Kurven
fiir Felstemperaturen
auf der negativen
Seite von
0 ?C. Die dritte Art von Hohlen
ist vom Typus der Castle
et al., 1971), die eine
guard Hohle
(Ford
grofiraumige
Hohle
innerhalb der Permafrost-Zone
mit einem einzigen
kommen
ist. Eis
Eingang
innerhalb
tritt in den
des Berges
herrschen.
1000 m
aufieren
warmere,
aber
stabile
auf, wobei
Temperaturen
Die
in Siidwest-Alberta
Permafrost-Zonen
aus
bestehen
einer oberen Zone ununterbrochenen
Permafrostes
bis zu einer
von
vertikalen
100 m und
schliefilich einer
Ausdehnung
1200 m machtigen,
in der Eishohlen
auftreten konnen. Diese
ist nordlich
in Richtung
der Zone
Permafrostes
sporadischen
unterhalb
peat north von 56? N
ausgerichtet.
Felsgletscher
scheinen eher mit den Gletschern
als mit den Permafrost
in Zusammenhang
Zonen
zu stehen.
Permafrost
below
0 ?C
monly
divided
is defined as ground which
for more
into
than
two
one
season.
viz:
zones,
It
remains
is
com
and
continuous
discontinuous (e.g., Brown, 1967a), although the lat
terwas earlier subdivided into discontinuous and
spo
radic inCanada (Baird, 1964).
Continuous
but
is relatively
easy to identify
is another
matter.
The
permafrost
permafrost
discontinuous
distribution of patches of perennially frozen ground is
complicated by the fact that they take on several dif
ferent
forms.
have
been
rock
Recently,
1959) and
Cox,
glaciers
ice-cored moraines
as
recognized
examples,
&
(Wahrhaftig
and
(0strem, 1971)
these
tend
IN
to
lower
limits
further
R.
Dr.
Council
season.
in some
Such
form
caves
or another,
contain
ice
generally
and many
examples
may be found fromArizona to theNorthwest Terri
tories in the Rocky Mountains. This paper will exam
ine the apparent distribution of these ice caves in
southwestern Alberta, and their
relationship to the
continuous
E.
J.
and
southwest
volved
and
Brown
of
the writer
have
Alberta
over
for
discontinuous
perma
the National
been
three
to 18
visits
monthly
Research
carrying
out
This
has
re
years.
in
cables
temperature
ground
placed in drill holes at suitable sites between Plateau
near
Mountain
Claresholm
and
Pass
Sunwapta
near
the Columbia Icefield. The preliminary results of this
studywill be found inHarris and Brown, 1978.
Descriptions of ice-caves in the Canadian Rocky
are
Mountains
in Thomp
summarized
conveniently
son, 1976. Since 1966, numerous expeditions by the
Alberta Speleological Society and theMcMaster Uni
versity Caving Group have mapped these caves, but
curiously enough, the relationship of these caves to
appears
permafrost
research
has
stead,
to have
been
cave
speleothem
dating,
on
based
studies.
isotope
been
In
ignored.
largely
on Uranium
concentrated
form, and cave
temperatures
The
is at Mt.
only exception
Castleguard, where Ford et al. (1976) have deter
mined the temperature profile of the cave.Wigley
and Brown (1971) have discussed the physics control
ling
seasonal
entrance,
single
temperatures
and
their
in
system
caves
simple
works
a
with
satisfactorily
in the case of the large Castleguard Cave. There the
1 km long frozen zone lies at the entrance and is
believed to have formed since the area was deglaciated
(Ford et al., 1976).
Other
more
Accordingly,
instrumented
their annual
can occur.
types of ice caves
complex
two
of such caves
have
been
examples
in an attempt
to determine
by the writer
formed
relic
permafrost
Brown,
1978).
and how
the perma
regimes
first type occurs
in an area of
Plateau
Mountain
and
(Harris
temperature
there. The
frost
at
Instrumentation
started
with
monthly
recording hygrothermographs and yearly recording
water
A form of permafrost that has
previously been
ignored except by karst specialists is that of the ice
cave. This may be defined as a cave where the rock
temperature is partly or wholly below 0 ?C formore
of
north.
search into the distribution of alpine permafrost in
Mountain
one
ALBERTA
Methods used
glaciers.
than
SOUTHWEST
frost
occur close to the limit of permafrost,
togetherwith
crystals
61
Alberta
A. Harris
Stuart
Eishohlen
in Southwest
11 figures
With
Zusammenfassung:
Alberta
von
Drei Typen
zones
and permafrost
temperature
ice cave
recorders-placed
Brian Woods.
by
in
the
Plateau
Unfortunately,
these proved too insensitive for detailed work, and
the writer has since used thermocouples (accurate to
? 0.2 ?C) and thermistors (accurate to ? 0.02
?C)
which are placed in crevices in the rock.The ther
mistors gave the best results (except when removed or
chewed by pack rats), but necessitate regular visits to
obtain the data. This method has
subsequently been
used in the Canyon Creek ice cave, which is an
example of a low altitude ice cave with at least five
entrances
through
which
air
can
circulate.
There,
the
62
Erdkunde
must
thermistors
be
removed
between
observations
Band
due
"b* Carbonate
to the large number of tourists, especially on week
ends.
Barton
Tom
Accordingly,
new
a
made
^^
^A^ ^y
the Plateau
caves
ice
Mountain
compass.
prismatic
using
the time
Unfortunately
fragile
a more
accurate
300
Km
and
chain
constraints
the construction
prevented
' '
to protect the
imposed by the Alberta Government
ice environment
a
0'
^
Vx
map of the Canyon Creek ice caves for the author,
and thewriter made themap
while Ben Danielewicz
of
Rocks
Mtn. and Foothills
-Rocky
(3
Maps of the Canyon Creek ice caves had been pre
pared by cavers (see Thompson, 1976) but proved
inaccurate.
33 /1979
of
ALBERTA
/
\C \
map.
J
Results
1. The Ice Caves
(1976) describes a series of caves which
Thompson
ice
contain
summer
in late
in southwest
and
Alberta
BRITISH
in the nearby ranges in British Columbia. These are
theGlittering Ice Palace, Coulthard Cave, Cleft Cave,
Ice Hall, Top of theWorld, Wedge Cave, and Flop
Pot, all in the Crowsnest Pass; the Plateau Mountain
ice cave
west
on Moose
^sJo
s^^^^^(Disaster
COLUMBIA
are
they
associated
with
a pronounced
near
zone
ice
caves
were
and Nahanni
British Columbia,
Territories.
Northwest
reported
The
caves
National
were
Park,
for
originally
med by solution by underground water, and some are
> 275,000 years old (Ford et al., 1972).
Geiger
(1966) has emphasized the importance of
to caves
of entrances
in determining
air
those with
and
?static"
flow, calling
single entrances
entrances
caves. Wigley
those with
several
?dynamic"
the number
and Brown
out
pointing
(1976)
have objected
air movement
that
to these names,
occurs
in both
types.
They give a good summary of their earlier paper
(Wigley and Brown, 1971) dealing with the tempera
ture
caves.
In southwest
in single-entrance
regime
an
additional
is
the presence
berta,
complication
Al
or
absence of permafrost in the zone occupied by the ice
caves. The Castleguard cave is an example of one in
the zone of post-glacial climatically controlled perma
frost apparently in equilibrium with the present-day
this is not typical of all the ice
climate. However,
caves
in the region.
and Canyon Creek ice caves
The Plateau Mountain
were
chosen
for
study
because
they
represent
respec
tively a cave with a single entrance close to the zone
of
continuous
entrances
and
permafrost,
some
lying
and
one
400 metres
with
below
at
least
five
it. Plateau
Mountain cave has generally still air in it,whereas the
Canyon Creek cave usually has wind blowing through
i
i
of movement
it. Direction
cave
varies
of
independent
from
has
112?^
2,225 m
Mountain.
the air
to visit
at
and
Ice
Mountain
its entrance
on
a
/
/
season.
(a) Plateau
cave
of
visit
/
Lethbridge
of Palaeozoic
carbonate
Figure 1: Distribution
Douglas,
1970) and sinificant ice cave areas
ern Rocky Mountains
Creek
/
PlateauMtn.
-*$S^\ ^"'"^
116?
120?
Ck
Calgary
*y
fljah
U. S. A.
from Ainsworth,
/',Canyon
*
wi'
Crowsnest
'"^" ^
of
thick Palaeozoic
limestones which are widely distri
buted in the outer ranges of the Rocky Mountains.
Additional
^^^^\^^^^ont0^
cave
the Canyon
Creek
of Claresholm;
cave
Point
and the Disaster
Mountain;
Miette Hot Springs in Jasper National Park. Their
locations are shown in Figure 1, and it will be seen
that
1
^J^^
Pt. /
/
rocks (after
in the South
the Canyon
is apparently
This
Cave.
cirque
south-facing
wall
at
(7,300 ft) near the north end of Plateau
The
cave
plate-like
hexagonal
probably
ice crystals
contains
of
the
any
cave
largest
so far
described in Canada. They currently measure up to
25 cm in diameter (see Wigley
and Brown, 1976,
Plate 9.2, p. 342). Over-use of the cave by the public
resulted in severe melting, and the cave was gated in
1972 to prevent furtherdamage to the ice crystals. It
is now under the control of the Alberta Provincial
Parks system. Ice thickness on the walls exceeds 1m
in places. Nearby ground temperature cables indicate
that the permafrost is relic, so that the ground tempe
rature
continues
to decrease
to at
least
30 m
depth
(Harris and Brown, 1978).
Figures 2 and 3 show the form of the cave and the
location
Table
of
the
temperature
measuring
stations,
while
1 shows the temperatures of the cave wall
at
Ice caves
Stuart A. Harris:
and permafrost
zones
in Southwest
63
Alberta
various times of the year. The relaxation zone of 60 m
which
0
20
Figure
2: Cross-section
the
showing
(from Harris
rock
y-r
?
M
40
of
Ice crystals
In ?C, Oct. 8th 1976
and Brown,
1
3-0ji^/
o
j
Figure
the rock temperature
ice
Table
1: Rock
measuring
Mountain
measuring
stations
in the Plateau
temperatures
stations, see Figure 2.
8 Oct.,
Measuring
1976
n.d.
this
rock and
the cave
will
constancy
has
cease
to be an
of
grow
earlier
ice cave.
Ice Cave.
at
entrance
its
are
The Canyon
about
m
1,768
in
permafrost
the
outer
the mountains.
of
range
Figure 4 shows the plan of the cave and location of
Mountain
mate
n.d.
-0.2
n.d.
n.d.
-0.2
n.d.
-0.2
0.4
cross-section
as meaured
1977
Th
13.0
stations
measuring
on
the new
on
based
the
1968
and
by thmermocouple
30 Aug.,
1977
Th
Tc
(Tc)
7 Oct.,
dish
Tc
and
1977
for
Th
thermistor
sur
0.61
0.3
0.52
0.4
0.51
No
0.04
0.0
0.05
0.1
0.06
No
0.03
No
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
~0.2
-0.01
-0.15
n.d.
n.d.
-0.1
-0.04
-0.2
-0.02
-0.05
-0.02
5 -0.1
n.d.
0.0
n.d.
-0.1
-0.17
-0.2
-0.10
-0.1
-0.07
Yes
6 -0.1
n.d.
?0.25
n.d.
-0.25
-0.2
-0.17
-0.2
-0.18
Yes
7-0.1
n.d.
-0.2
n.d.
~0.11
Yes
8-0.1
n.d.
-0.2
n.d.
-0.17
Yes
n.d.
-0.10
-0.18
n.d.
-0.2
0.0
-0.09
-0.18
0.1
n.d.
-0.1
(Th).
For
withoutmelting
n.d.
n.d.
1970
Ice present in
1 year
-0.1
-0.3
map
veys of theAlberta Speleological Society.
ice caves
2 Aug.,
temperature
by Tom Barton, while Figure 5 shows an approxi
showing
location of
2 0.0
accurate
to ? 0.2
Thermocouple,
accurate
to ? 0.02
Thermistor,
No determination
an
of
portion of the cave and
steadily recovering its for
latent heat from freezing of
all the available cold in the
Creek
cave
ice
ice crystals
remnants
4 -0.1
3
Th
confirm
ice pillars.
Hexagonal
over
the melted
again
of
Th ThTc
Tc
Tc
result
the
(5,800 feet) on the south-facing slope ofMoose Moun
tain. It is about 210 m (700 feet) above the canyon
floor, and probably some 500 m below themain zone
ice cave
1 July, 1977
Station
Tc
recorders
forming
once
ing
the
and
are
temperatures
temperature
(b) Canyon
Thermocouples
the Plateau
low
crystals in the middle
the cave is slowly but
mer grandeur. Eventually
water vapour will use up
-oa? ]
\t-t Ice crystals
?
th 1976
ln?C, Oct. 8
of
permenent
of temperature. Heat
is currently slowly dissipating
this cold, but in themeantime, conditions are suitable
for the formation of ice on thewalls of caves. The air
inside the cave is cold, and is kept saturated with
water vapour by ground water dripping from the
roof. In the back chamber, these drips are currently
Creek
3: Plan
the
that
yearly
1976
8th,
no
and
temperatures
fluctuating
earlier colder period. The data from themonthly and
1978)
1.01 ?'?/ /_a1
^
pears
ice crave
Mountain
the Plateau
on October
temperatures
has
ice accumulation is consistent with that predicted
from the approximate pipe radius of the narrowest
part of the entrance (seeWigley and Brown, 1971).
It will be seen that there is only a very minor fluc
tuation in the temperature of the rock in the deeper
parts of the cave and that the permafrost is very
marginal. The increase in cold with depth agrees with
data obtained from the nearby boreholes and it ap
Yes
Band
Erdkunde
64
jS^fH\ \i
/ 'V
.*y /
^^^^^^^^^^^^^
^^^^^^^^^
><<<Sx^P^ Unsurveyed
\Kfk_
889lceColomn
Breakdown
Temp.Stations
} yJ
ice caves
Creek
Figure 4: Plan of the Canyon
dified from Thompson,
1976)
Figure
5:
Schematic
cross-section
of
showing
the Canyon
Creek
the rock temperature
ice caves
This cave has wind blowing through it throughout
the winter, even when the outside air is still. It also
commonly has wind in it in summer.The firstcham
ber is ice-floored and exhibits spectacular ice columns
near
its entrance.
These
partly
melt
in summer
under
the influenceof dripping water, and reform in the fall
and winter. The ice floor becomes a shallow lake in
August
and
September.
Ground
temperatures
vary
considerably with season, being coldest in spring and
warmest in late summer (Table 2). Degree of cooling
varies
enormously
from
winter
to winter,
and
is
closely related to the outside air temperature (Fig
ure 6). Unlike the fragile Plateau Mountain ice cave,
the hundreds of visitors a month have negligible ap
parent
effect
on
the regime.
3311979
showing
the location
of
and
location
the gallieres
with
of
ice (mo
permafrost
outside air temperature tends to follow the
The
sine-curve
usual
tures
stations
measuring
follow
a
the
rock
form, whereas
tempera
truncation
sine-curve.
The
truncated
occurs on the cold side of 0 ?Celsius and appears to
be maintained by the failure of the air in the cave to
supply enough heat to completely melt the large
volumes of ice present on the cave floor.This is pre
sumably due to the latent heat of melting of ice
(80 cals/g).
Several changes also occur in the form of water in
the cave. In winter, the bulk of the water is frozen,
the only exceptions being at the pillar nearest the
entrance
where
the
low
sun
causes
some
melting
of
the outer side of the pillar for a short period each day
from late October to the end of February, and some
Stuart A. Harris:
2: Rock
Table
See Figures
22 Feb.
1977
15April
1977
1 1.40
0.40
-1.5602
2a
-2.330
4 Sept.
1977
14 July
1977
n.d.
1.48
1.02#
0.28#
0.03#
0.03#
n.d.
0.03*#
-5.18
-6.95
-6.80
-5.37
-4.92
~6.40
-5.22
-0.13*
-0.98
-5.97
-5.27
6 n.d.
-2.28
-0.38
-0.11*
-0.08*
-1.06
-5.84
-5.53
7 n.d.
-2.37
-0.39
-0.22*
-0.22*
-0.57
-6.43
-4.65*
-0.12*
-
-0.20*
-0.62
-5.37
-4.26*
-
-0.12*
-0.67
-4.06
-4.41*
-0.33*
-0.68
-4.92
-3.69*
-0.12
-0.82
-5.76
-4.85
9
-1.92*
-0.47*
-2.14
-0.33*
-1.61
-0.12*
-2.22
-0.25
on
growing
wall
n.d.#
0.00#
-0.09
0
A
.\
Last
place
for water
0 ?C. The
in ponds
-16
F
1977
at the University
6: Comparison
of
of temperatures
in the Canyon
ice cave. The bars
Creek
and
Calgary
encoun
represent the range of rock surface temperatures
tered from stations 2 to 10 within
the cave, while
the
on the bar
central mark
indicates
the mean
of these
on the date.
observations
the ice cave lies 600 m
Although
Figure
of the weather
station, the general
between air temperature and temperatures
correspondence
on the rock surface in the ice cave is clear.
water dripping on to the tops of the ice
pillars and
columns which are growing. The inner chambers are
dry and there are only a few places with small ice
extent
areas
which
indicates
the elevation
-0.68
Columns growing
reach
-14
FMAMJJASONDJ
?1.040
-0.850
A
to freeze
The air inside the cave tends to be similar in tem
perature to the surrounding rock, although it is clearly
moving into and through the cave from the cold air
outside. This movement is probably by a combination
of the chimney effect ofWigley and Brown (1976)
with gravity (cold air drainage into cracks) when the
air is still, and has the effect of cooling the entire
cave by advection from late October until the end
of April.
In summer,water dripping from the roof tends to
form pools on the ice on the floor, and itmay also
melt the outer layers of the columns and ice fall. It is
undoubtedly aided by warmer air passing through the
cave from other openings, although this air is not
much above freezing point when it reaches the inner
chambers. It brings with itmoisture which forms small
ice crystals on the cold rock walls until the latter
/ \
\
/
::
crystals
-3.52
-7.57
-0.04*
Dripping water with ponds in low spots
the wall.
-2.41
0.05*#
-0.27*
-1.75
on
-1.440
22 Feb.
1977
~0.27#
-0.51
2-10 mean
above
n.d.
26Dec.
1977
-2.40
-2.25
n.d.
J
11Nov.
1977
30 Sept.
1977
5-2.13
10
hi
ice cave.
Creek
n.d.
-0.09
n.d.
j
in Canyon
65
Alberta
n.d.0
?2.350
8 n.d.
Ice crystals
in Southwest
n.d.0
3
-1.780
4-1.71
*
zones
and permafrost
to ? 0.02 ?C)
(accurate
temperatures
by thmermistor
stations
4 and 5 for the locations of the measuring
Measuring
Station
^
Ice caves
of
never
the
cover
became
of
unfrozen
ice
crystals
the pre
vious summer.The sun is too high to shine into the
cave at this time of year.When no wind is blowing,
the air tends to be still in the cave, so that the amount
of advection of cool air inwinter may be greater than
that of warm
The
entire
air
cave
in summer.
lies in the zone
of seasonal
tempera
ture fluctuation (Figure 7) although this is not
entirely
consistent with the theory of Wigley and Brown
(1971).
However
it is problematic
to arrive
at a
rea
sonable estimate of the pipe radius in this cave due to
the fact that the air enters frommultiple cracks,many
of them far too small to explore. Added to this is the
considerable addition of heat in summer from perco
lating groundwater dripping from cracks in the roof.
Figure 7 emphasizes the point. Instead of finding a
cold
zone
zone
entrance
and a warmer
just inside the cave
of constant
temperature
this, the temper
beyond
Band
Erdkunde
66
12
-1-1-1-1-1-1-rn-1-r
2
4 Sept.77
Site
5
4
3
7 (10)
6
south facing slopes in the chinook belt of Alberta. The
type of ice crystals is limited to small granular crys
tals due to periodic remelting,while ice falls, ice lakes
9
8
and
are
3
4
I
^
!
-61
k\
\
a
-'--.-/^"
t
t
t
varies
tion
the
throughout
cave.
In
the places
air enters via cracks.
where
these tend to be the locus of the warmer
mer,
general,
in winter approximate to the loca
of
or
entrances
cold
air
cracks
drainage
tree-line,
zones.
to the
surface
in winter
causes
occur.
In
more
during
the
S
KLa ?
12.000-
10,000
:%|--'^
4000-
I
x
*
summer
shorter
49?
jfavyl/r'*
by air
even
cal
l
j
Vertical Extentof Glaciers
51?
52?
53?
j
I::
1220
'.
'
Figure
of
tree
glaciers along the Continental
Included
is data from Harris
Scotter,
1975;
Idaho
an
Falls,
there
an
be
oc
ice cave
at an unexpectedly
is also
rock
could
low
alti
contain
a
pocket
of permafrost
toOther Forms of Permafrost
location
of
isotherm
(A.
known
F. Mark,
active
rock
glaciers,
ice
personal
communication,
be the case in Nahanni.
and Brown,
*.
** *
I
54?
5
Wj
55?
56?
oj-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-lo
58?
59?
60?
61?
57?
&
Brown,
(a) and
1978;
(b).
Ogilvie
62?
^-U ||-61?
63?
64?
65?
66?
of Latitude
in boreholes,
line, permafrost
in the eastern ranges
Divide
1967
~! zx.2-3050
1
# w -- i -
Degrees
8: Distribution
near
1974), and this may well
on
l/ ill
Cave
Ice
Ice Cored Moraine
%\x
Permafrost inBorehole * .
50"
may
2 ? 3660
200?- a Active
Glacier
Rock
|
period,
this
cooling
of the inner chambers than can be warmed
entering
where
cored moraines, glaciers, and ice caves (Figure 8), it
clearly lies within the distribution of ice caves, but
much lower than the rest of the permafrost features in
this part of the mountains. The picture is not helped
by the fact that the apparent tree line fluctuates con
siderably in height with latitude. This is generally re
garded as indicating changes in elevation of the criti
sum
In
From this study, itwould appear that this ice cave
occurring well below normal climatic permafrost is
due to special conditions where large caves with mul
tiple
case,
cases
snow
When Brown (1967) realized that permafrost must
extend southwards along the higher parts of theRocky
Mountains, he tried to map its probable extent by
?
1 ?C (30 ?F) isotherm interpolated from
using the
climatic data from the Cordilleran region
limited
the
?
1 ?C boundary was
that was then available. The
derived from experience in northern Canada. When
this boundary is plotted together with height of the
from the entrance.
regime
site
that
2. Relationship
(Metres)
7: Variation
in rock surface temperatures
in different
at different seasons of
parts of the ice cave as measured
the year
in Canyon
Creek
ice cave. The
thick arrows
some of the main
indicate
of cracks through
locations
which air in the cave enters or exits from the cave, apart
the colder places
surface,
if subjected to a sufficiently cool continental climate
in themid latitudes.
Figure
ature
some
In
the
tude, itmust also be of this type.Thus any suitably
t
from Entrance
Distance
to
but
cave,
cavernous
t
0 100 200
suitable
es. Since
\..y"
"']
occur.
also
cracks
curs in basaltic lava flows in the caverns left by
draining of fluidmagma or the escape of trapped gas
.. y>
\-iS&fj*.
_
ice columns
vertical
added source of ice, but this is not usually the case.
At Canyon Creek, the solution of limestone produced
-2~
77 ._
|_11^''
&
3311979
&
ice caves,
ice-cored moraines,
active
and
rock glaciers
of the Rocky Mountains
to 66? N.
from the 49th parallel
& Arnold,
1967; Osborne,
Baptie,
1975; Ostrem
1970;
Stuart A. Harris:
Ice caves
and permafrost
zones
m
.2
E
?5
u
0)
C
-
S_i_J_:_|_^_l_i_N
c
2
5
S.
12,000-
*
*
O
10,000-
ft
8000-
c
V
2 6000^
T3
\
I
w /'~*,y
<d
/ Plateau
"
_
I
=
/I
I
?
*
^A
*/Wa\J^
E 4
^'244?
Mtn.
*
X
Canyon
Creek
Glittering
Ice Palace
a.. Vtu
t
y
67
Alberta
C
o <f>
rr
"
i
N
* W
I
55
-3660Ik
~
^
J
v/l/l
II I
/. j
m/V
V\/^W*/
"V G7ac/at/on
I
W
.\
2
.2
V
AftA/V
2
(o
(0 ?LO .C
c
in Southwest
T^>.
"
*
"I"7>;;*v.-..
l A
^//?e-
^
"
-1830 "
* Xa^_
"
-
^
-3050
5
|7m
WV^,^
W
W
^LAi ?
?'r
if
^
W
. _Disaster
400?Point "1220
2000-
X Ice Cave
4 Ice Cored Moraine
# Permafrost in Borehole
Active Rock Glacier
" 610
Vertical Extent of Glaciers
^
0-1-1-1-1-1-1-r-0
52?
51? 49?50?
Degrees
9: Distribution
Figure
of tree line, permafrost
part of the eastern ranges
along the highest
east of the Continental
1978; Ogilvie
Brown,
in boreholes,
of the Rocky
line,
e.g.,
in the Crowsnest
Pass.
Particularly noteworthy is the fact that the zone of
discontinuous
permafrost
with
considerable
vertical
extent recognized by Brown (1972) along theAlaska
Highway along the eastern mountain slopes appears
to grade laterally southwards into the zone of ice
caves
at
about
latitude
55? N.
Ice
caves
occur
north
of this boundary, but the permafrost beneath peat
bogs disappears to the south. Presumably this is
due
to
longer
and warmer
summers.
By
53? N,
perma
frost is absent in peaty swamps at elevations of up
to 2,100 m, though at this altitude, the swamps are in
alpine situations with spring water flowing through
them.
ice caves,
Mountains
ice cored moraines,
active rock glaciers and glaciers
to 55? N. This
from the 49th parallel
is the zone
and also shown is the height of the highest mountains.
Divide,
& Arnold,
& Baptie,
1967; Osborne,
1970;
1975; 0strem
and Gill
However, Cordes
(1974) have presented
evidence that wind can also reduce the height of the
tree
54?
55?53?
of Latitude
It includes
data
from Harris
and
1975.
and Scotter,
form.This contrasts with patches of frozen ground
occurring in drill-holes down to a mere 100 m below
the zone
of
continuous
on
permafrost
Moun
Plateau
tain (Harris and Brown, 1978). Thus permafrost zo
nation in the alpine regions of southwest Alberta can
be
summarized
1. A
zone
of
as: -
continuous
and
permafrost
ice
caves
at
high altitude with or without glaciers, rock glaciers,
and
2. A
ice-cored
zone
of
moraines.
discontinuous
permafrost
ice
and
caves
up to 100 m in vertical extent,with or without gla
ciers, rock glaciers,
3. A zone of scattered
and
ice-cored
ice caves
up
moraines.
to 1,200
m
in ver
tical extent, with or without glaciers, rock glaciers
and
ice-cored
moraines.
zones
are shown
These
for the mountains
Concentrating on the situation in southwestAlberta
schematically
of southwestAlberta in Figure 10.
(Figure 9), it appears that the limit of continuous per
mafrost may lie 50-200 m above the tree-line (Harris
It can be argued that the zone of ice caves includes
and Brown, 1978). In the higher mountains, a zone most of the mountains of southwest Alberta. While
of ice cored moraines, rock glaciers and glaciers ex
this is certainly true, the lower limit of this zone rises
tends down to 600 m below this, although they are
in height as it is traced southwards. Thus inWyoming,
et al. (1976) found only 13 caves with perennial
absent where the mountains lie below the glaciation Hill
in all areas, a zone
limit (0strem, 1966). However,
ice probably present in them out of a total of 245
caves they describe. The lowest altitude of these ice
of ice caves extends down to at least 1,200 m below
the zone of continuous permafrost, although this is caves was 7,400 feet (2,257 m) which is over 1,100 m
also controlled by the presence of caverns of suitable
above the elevation of the lowest cave in the State.
68
Erdkunde
?
10,000-!
o
| i
f
*
^
c
S
12.000-
2?
w
w
-
q-
.?
s
?
!
s
5*
?
3311979
-9
?
i
A
^"3S6?
? ,
i
*
s ^Ua^u/Vy
Will Jw
K G/ac/at/on
i/m/f
a
*IJ
^At/vv^j
^Vv
ify*'
*/\*A/V|
8000--?J^W*
.2=o
5
E
o
S_|_|_J_I_5_N
*
m
h
_
|
Band
Wi
2
W^/**^^,l?<?.
^v^^
Perma f "2440
g
*"---?Jit_
^i^fl^-^^'^N_*I
0-1-1-1-1-1-1-r-0
52?
zones
from the Rocky Mountains
permafrost
zone. Note
that the two sets of zones are quite
the ice caves are confined
By the latitude of Arizona,
tops
down
extend
of
the mountain
to low
even
ranges
elevations,
e.g.
though
the Carlsbad
caves
Cav
erns.Thus the concept of there being a distinct zone
of ice caves is quite defensible.
It should be noted that on theoretical grounds, it
might be expected that rock glaciers would be more
related
closely
to
ice-caves
in
a
zonal
permafrost
distribution if the Balch effectwere themain cause of
and
their existence and activity (see Wahrhafttg
Cox,
1959).
It may
be
that
as more
data
are
accumu
lated in their distribution, thismay turn out to be the
case,
but
at
the moment,
the available
data
suggests
a
distribution parallelling that of glaciers and ice-cored
moraines. This is in accordance with the concept that
they are often derived from former glaciers, or the ice
in them is based on suitably high snowfalls (see Fig
ure 11, afterCurrey, 1968). If itwere otherwise, most
talus slopes in themountains would change into rock
glaciers.
southwestern
54?
53?
55?
of Southwest
Alberta
depicted
of one another.
Alberta,
ice caves
appear
to be
of
at least three types.The first is due to ice formation
on thewalls of caves in the zone of relic permafrost.
The moisture is supplied by percolating water and
the ice crystals are very fragile. They are characterized
by temperatures in the deeper portions remaining just
below zero throughout the year and by the absence of
in Figure
with
9, compared
indepent
wind.
Plateau
The
ice cave
Mountain
is an
example,
and they occur close to or within the zone of conti
nuous permafrost. The ice often takes the form of
large hexagonal plates encrusting the cave walls to
in excess
thicknesses
The
second
mates
where
trances. Cold
months
of
tures below
mer,
warmer
walls
from
type
there
1 m.
of
occurs
are
under
cool
continental
caverns
large
with
cli
en
many
air passing through the cave for seven
the year
?
2 ?C
the
cools
to tempera
In sum
rock walls
of the cave.
through most
circulates
but this advection
air
of heat
is too small to fully counteract thewinter cooling. Ice
is formed in winter from percolating ground water
and in summer by crystal growth on the cold cave
the warmer
air
in the cave.
circulating
Ice
columns form below dripping ceilings, ice falls develop
where
water
seeps
out
of
the
cave
floor
on
inclines,
and small ice crystals form on walls in summer.
The third type is the cave with a single entrance
occurring in the zone of climatically adjusted present
day permafrost. Castleguard Cave is an example and
is characterized
Conclusions
In
610
of Latitude
Degrees
to the
?
?-
51?49?50?
Figre
the glacial
""""
-1220
i??_Ca^
2000-
10: Main
"?
--^.v:::--i83o
?
4000-_^
j^v^Umi'l^^
\
^
6000\
"5
y?*-^/fc.
_?
s
2
l/w -3050
by
crystals
extending
zone
mer
unfrozen
an
outer
about
permafrost
m, with
1,000
characterized
by
zone
an
ice
with
inner war
stable
seasonally
temperatures (Ford et al., 1972). The lengthof the cold
zone fits the predictions ofWigley and Brown (1971;
1976).
Comparing the latitudinal and altitudinal zones of
glaciers,
continuous
permafrost,
ice
caves,
ice-cored
moraines and rock glaciers in southwest Alberta
(Fig
Ice caves
Stuart A. Harris:
zones
and permafrost
ter
in Southwest
introduced
recorders,
temperature
69
Alberta
the
to
author
the use of thermistors,and has discussed the problem
I
^3
<d at Transitional
o aV
_ if Rock Glaciers
*j
7^
Moraines
5-l-/
Protalus
a
=
Ramparts
f
fLobe
to
\
several
form
a
continuous
group
limit with
the
inter
the mountains,
ice caves
and
permafrost
to
related
an
thick
tend
to
zone
of continuous
to
upper
up
permafrost
in vertical
extent, and then a zone up to 1,200 m
occur. This
in which
ice caves may
latter zone
grades northwards into the zone of isolated patches
of
permafrost
below
peat,
north
of
56? N,
docu
mented by Brown, 1976 (b). The evidence as to the
status of rock glaciers is limited but present indications
are
that
they
are
more
closely
to
related
glaciers
(Currey, 1968), and that the Balch effect is not their
primary
cause
nor
control.
The writer is indebted to many people for various
forms of help. The Assistant Deputy Minister, Alberta
Recreation, Parks and Wildlife, Mr. James Potton,
and Dr. Stuart Loomis kindly provided the permission
to visit the Plateau Mountain ice caves, while several
Park Rangers kindly took time out from their other
duties to escort the caving party. Brian Woods, John
Tom
Barton,
Ben
Danielewicz,
and
Stephen
and Kevin Harris accompanied thewriter in the field
or helped with the research at different times,
regard
less of weather.
Dr.
R.
J. E.
Brown
of
that
of Research
provided
the wa
and
Res.,
Bldg.
Krummholz
In "The Kootenay
in Geography",
B. M.
Series No.
18, Tantalus
Res.,
83-93.
in the Mountains
Ph.D.
Unpubl.
of Kansas,
University
Columbia
Low-elevation
Barr,
of Geography,
Surv.
Alberta.
Studies
ed., B.C. Geographical
Ltd., Vancouver,
1974, pp.
Res.
Natl.
Div.
Council,
and Co.,
and Geol.
9767,
of
the
thesis, Dept.
171 pp.
1968,
R.
Douglas,
of Canada.
and Economic Minerals
J.W.:
(Ed.). Geology
Economic
Surv.
Rept. No.
Geology
1, Geol.
1970, 833 p.
Can.,
P.,
Ford, D. C,
Thompson,
cave
caliche
by
deposits
some preliminary
Method:
and Falconer,
E.,
A.,
eds. Proc.
on Geomorphology,
Symposium
1972, pp. 247-255.
metric
observations
and British
field, Alberta
v. 16, 1976, pp. 219-230.
Second
Hill,
W.
C,
Wyoming,
Ogilvie,
1978.
R. T.
and B. Baptie:
Rocky Mountains
1967, pp. 744-745.
of Alberta.
Harvard
Plateau
Univ.
Mountain:
A
in the Canadian
Conf.
In the Press.
and
Sutherland,
Surv. Wyoming
Geol.
J. Glaciol.
Canada.
Columbia,
S. A. and R. J. E. Brown:
study of alpine permafrost
Proc. Third
Mountains.
Internat.
Alberta,
Guelph
of Guelph,
University
H.
Harris,
case
monton,
Dating
P. Schwarcz,
T. M. L.
and thermo
Geohydrologic
in the vicinity of the Columbia
Ice
C., R. S. Harmon,
and P. Thompson:
Ford, D.
Wrigley
Schwarcz:
the Uranium
Disequilibrium
results from Crowsnest
Pass,
in Pleistocene
Methods
Geology,
In: Research
Alberta.
Yatsu,
P.
and H.
R.: The
climate near the ground.
Geiger,
1966.
Press, Cambridge,
Mass.,
Acknowledgements
Morneau,
of Canada.
in British
investigations
Res.
Territory. Natl.
9762, 1967 (b), 55 p.
collection
Green
Longmans,
L. D.
D.:
and Gill,
Cordes,
in the Foothills
of Southern
of Rubble
parallel the tree line. It is therefore suggested that
the alpine permafrost in the area takes the form
of
Polar World.
D. R.: Neoglaciation
Currey,
southwestern United
States.
section of the glaciation
100 m
The
: Permafrost
N.R.C.
1968).
moraines
zones
the permafrost
and
support
his
R. J. E.: Permafrost Map
Div.
Council,
Bldg. Res., N.R.C.
1246 A.
1967 (a)).
Can., Map.
Yukon
ures 9 and 10), it appears that the glaciers and ice
whereas
to
Without
Brown,
of the various
landforms found
Figure 11: The relationship
to the balance
in alpine
between
the supply of
cirques
snow, firm and ice, and the supply of rock debris (after
cored
caves
ice
1964, 328 p.
Toronto,
ColluS^
viurnN^_
Currey,
P. D.:
Baird,
Talus
Supply
occasions.
References
-
Increasing
of
relation
theNational Research Council, Building Research Di
vision, we would still know virtually nothing about
the distribution of alpine permafrost in the area. The
fieldwork was also aided byN.R.C. grant#A-7843.
/
\
the
on
/
i Glaciers.f
I
y
ifProta-f
f
lusiT
^
of
L.
Rocky
Ed
Permafrost,
Tierney:
Bull,
Caves
of
59, 1976, 229 p.
A permafrost profile in the
Can.
Sci., v. 4,
J. Earth
G. D.:
rock glaciers
Osborne,
Advancing
Louise
area, Banff National
Park, Alberta,
Sci., v. 12, 1975, pp. 1060-1062.
in
the Lake
Can.
J. Earth
33/1979
70_Erdkunde_Band
in Canada.
P.: Cave
Special
Thompson,
Exploration
of Geography,
tion of The Canadian
Caver, Dept.
1976, 183 p.
versity of Alberta,
G.: The height of vhe glaciation
limit in southern
0strem,
v. 48 (A),
British Columbia
and Alberta.
Geogr. Annaler,
1966, pp. 126-138.
- :
Rock Glaciers
and ice-cored moraines.
A reply to D.
v. 53 A, 1971, pp. 207-213.
Barsch. Geogr. Annaler,
Wahrhaftig,
Range.
G. W.:
in the Continental
Permafrost
Scotter,
profiles
Divide
and British Columbia.
Arctic
region of Alberta
& Alpine Res., v. 7, 1975, pp. 93-95.
THE
CIRCLES
CHANGING
Grofie
Das
in der ganzen Welt
auf
Kreise
der
THE
OF
Tom
Geometrie
Cullingford,
pp. 329-358.
den Great
Land
der ausgepragten
der Agrarlandschaft
der USA
Rechtwinkligkeit
(75-80%)
wird
in den letzten 20 Jahren zunehmend
durch eine neue
Form
abgelost.
Rechtecke
wie
beriihmte
Grofie Kreisflachen
die
legen
auf
Steine
runden
Bild
iiber die
sich exakt
einem
Damebrett.
Diese
der landwirtschaftlichen
ist die
Geometrie
Wandlung
einer Entwicklung,
die man die bedeutendste
mecha
Folge
nische Neuerung
in der Landwirtschaft
seit der Einfiihrung
des Traktors
genannt hat: die zentrierte Drehbewasserung
(center pivot irrigation).
The farm landscape of theUnited States is famous
throughout the world for its overwhelming rectan
More
gularity.
area was
than
three-fourths
of the total
in systematic
surveyed
cadastral
national
surveys
that
established a regular pattern of grid lines enclosing
These
squares1).
surveys,
most
of which
actually
pre
the
leading
professional
Philip
Voegel
by Dr.
who
is perhaps
Nebraska-Omaha,
and
pivots,
about
knowledgeable
on
center
authority
of the University
of
most
the geographer
center pivots.
studies of this phenomenon
include
Rec
of the American
Beginnings
x) Major
geographical
William
D. Pattison:
Land
tangular
Geography
Chicago,
Survey
American
1966);
Land:
1964); Norman
and Subdivision,
Geographers,
and Hildegard
The
Mississippi
1976).
U.S.
J. W.
of
Series, Association
(Monograph
& Co., Chicago,
Rand
McNally
the
Order Upon
Binder
Johnson:
Rectangular
Country,
of
(Department
of Chicago,
50, University
Land
Thrower:
Original
1784-1800,
Survey System,
Research
Paper No.
(Oxford
Land
Survey and the Upper
York,
Press, New
University
1976,
PLAINS:
GREAT
AGRICULTURE-)
and 3 tables
ceded
a
set
settlement,
and
routes,
transportation
for
pattern
even
lines,
is
property
borders
field
that
an enduring rectilinear legacy in the landscape.
Circling the Square
two
the past
to appear.
Within
has
begun
decades,
a new
however,
Right-angled
rectangular
shape
regu
larity is being modified by the closed curvature of
circles.
The
North
American
landscape
agricultural
has often been likened to a gigantic checkerboard; in
circular
great
creasingly
are
forms
being
superimposed
neatly upon the sqares, like checkers being placed on
the board.
These great circles are simply large irrigated fields.
of
the regularity
However,
the abrupt
their patterns,
ness of their introduction, and the rapidity of their
are
diffusion
as
that more
indications
clear
involved
than a simple change in field shape. Indeed, this strik
of agricultural
ing metamorphosis
and instructed
*) The writer was stimulated, encouraged,
Leslie
F. Sheffield,
Extension
Co-ordinator
for
by Dr.
of the University
of Nebraska-Lincoln,
is
who
Irrigation
probably
London,
Press,
L. McKnight
Plains:
amerikanischen
Academic
Eds.,
AMERICAN
3 figures, 5 photos
With
Zusammenfassung:
die sich wandelnde
wirtschaft
D.
ON
GEOMETRY
in the Alaska
Rock glaciers
and A. Cox:
C,
Soc. Amer., v. 20, 1959, pp. 383-436.
Geol.
T. M. L. and M. C. Brown:
Wigley,
applica
Geophysical
flow.
transfer in turbulent pipe
tions of heat and mass
v. 1, 1971, pp. 300-320.
Meteorology,
Boundary-Layer
The Physics of caves.
T. M. L. and M. C. Brown:
Wigley,
T. D. Ford
and C. H.
In "The Science of Speleology",
G. and K. Arnold:
in southern
Ice-cored moraines
0strem,
British Columbia
v. 52 A,
and Alberta.
Geogr. Annaler,
1970, pp. 120-128.
GREAT
Bull.
Edi
Uni
geometry
represents
a development that has been called themost significant
innovation
mechanical
tion of the tractor2).
The
phenomenon
in farming
is termed
since
center
the
pivot
introduc
irrigation.
Its design is simple in concept but complex in construc
tion. In essence it involves a self-propelled, moving
pipe (a "lateral" in irrigation parlance), dotted with
sprinkler heads, mounted on wheels, and anchored at
the center of the field (the pivot point). It moves in a
circular arc, dispensing water in a regular pattern that
is capable of almost infinitevariation.
After
a
few
years
of
trial-and-error
experimenta
tion, center pivot irrigation was introduced to the
1950s
agricultural scene with little fanfare in the late
E.
2) William
Scientific American,
Splinter:
Vol.
234
"Center-Pivot
(June, 1976), p. 90.
Irrigation",