PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ISLAM, DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL HARMONY IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 2017
Proceedings of the International Conference on Islam, Development and Social Harmony in Southeast Asia 2017
Editors: Mohd Nasran Mohamad, Muhamad Razak Idris, Farid Mat Zain, Cheloh Khaegphong,
Anis Pattanaprichawong & Nik Abdul Rahim Nik Abdul Ghani
© Faculty of Islamic Studies, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor Malaysia
Academy of Islamic and Arabic Studies, Princess of Naradhiwas University, Thailand
ISBN 978-983-9368-79-6 (2017), http://www.icdis2017.com
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MOSQUE CONSTRUCTION
WITH CHINESE ELEMENTS IN MALACCA
S Salahudin Suyurno, Nor Adina Abdul Kadir & Muaz Mohd Noor
Abstract: The rapid pace of trading activities at the port of the Straits of Malacca had led to many traders,
including Chinese merchants, to do commerce in Malacca. Their presence in Malacca created a space for
cultural assimilation between two different nations, which subsequently led to a unique development process
for mosque design and style. The Demak Great Mosque on the North Coast of Java, Indonesia is recognized
as the oldest mosque in the region, with the Meru roof structure and tiered roofs as its main characteristics.
This clearly shows that the architecture of mosques at the time had received the influence of stupa
construction from the Hindu-Buddhist era. In this study, the researchers are attempting to trace the Chinese
reception and influence in the construction of mosques in Malacca. The three mosques in Malacca that are
used as the main source of the study are the Kampung Hulu Mosque, Kampung Keling Mosque and Tengkera
Mosque. These mosques are among the oldest mosques in Malacca, and the result of the study shows that the
constructions of these mosques had been influenced by Chinese elements, which can still be seen in the
present day.
Keywords: mosque architecture, Chinese elements, oldest mosques in Malacca
INTRODUCTION
The record on the construction and architecture of mosques in Malay Peninsula, particularly
Malacca prior to the time of Portuguese had been sparse. All the documentation that may have
existed on Islam was destroyed by the Portuguese when they took Malacca from the Malays.
Mosques were only been mentioned in general in the records of the Portuguese, Chinese, British
and Malay and no detailed account on the architecture of mosques during the Malacca Sultanate
have been found. The situation is different compared to Indonesian architecture, where the
historical details of mosques construction and their uniqueness have been preserved in the archives.
As such, the architecture of mosques in Malaya before the fall of Malacca cannot be specifically
identified, in terms of its architectural characteristics.
In Indonesia, one of the mosques that has been preserved in its Chinese architectural design
and well recorded is the Demak Great Mosque, built in 1478. The mosque is located in the North
Coast of Java and is the oldest centre of Islamic development in Malay and Indonesian
Archipelago. It was built during the reign of Raden Patah, who defeated Majapahit and established
the Islamic rule of Demak. This achievement was followed by the building the symbol of Islamic
supremacy and the person responsible for construction of Demak Great Mosque was a Chinese
Muslim by the name Gan See Chang ( H. J De Graaf, Th. G. Th. Pigeaud). He was a foreman in the
voyage of Zheng He which sailed to Semarang. The role of the Chinese people in mosque
architecture was mentioned by Graff and Pigeaud in the Malay Annals of Semarang and Cirebon:
“The Malay annals contain interesting information on the building of mosque by spreading Islamic Chinese Communities
in the archipelago. The style of these Chinese mosque cannot have been different from the pagodas used in China for
religious purpose by all denominations, which are characterized by number of superimposed roofs. The Malay tale
concerning the changing of Chinese mosque into temples is evidence for the inherent association of this style with
religion, irrespective of denomination. The Malay annal information on the part taken by non-muslim Chinese of
Semarang in the building of the first great mosque in Demak 1470 confirm the hypothesis of the Chinese origin of the
dynasty of Demak cannot doubted. As Chinese communities we established in the archipelago, the pagoda style of
mosque had an opportunity to spread widely”
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Chinese Influence in the Old Mosques of Malacca
Apart from the local and Islamic influence, mosque architecture is also influenced by Chinese
architectural elements. This can be seen from the old mosques in Malacca built during the colonial
times. The shapes of minarets and roofs are decorated with wavy ridges, similar to pagodas or
Chinese temples. However the basis of old mosques in Malacca was still based upon the
architecture that has existed in the Malay Archipelago, which is the pyramidal tiered roof. The
architecture of mosques in South-east Asia shares certain similarities with mosques of China.
Compared to mosques in West Asia, Europe and India, mosques in South-East Asia have
received less attention from arts historian. This is due to the negative outlook that mosques of the
region, which are made of timber, have less value than those made of stone. This view can be
traced back to the impetus of Western orientalists and scholars who have placed the superiority of
stone architecture or Monumental Architecture, referring to the Greek tradition of Europe. H.
Aboebakar, an Indonesian scholar reflected upon this when he said:
After learning of the mosques in other places, with their attractive crafts, mesmerizing culture, it is indeed heart-breaking
to return to one’s homeland and see the mosques there. The form and style of its crafts are yet made suitable to the
beautiful nature surrounding the mosques, and not even befitting a rich nation like Indonesia where God has been
generous with His bounty in the natural resources, with almost of its inhabitant are Muslims. We can see throughout the
land that very few of our mosques are able to attract and enrich our attention.
Yet, the mosques of the region are distinctive in their own way. The main feature of the
architecture can be found in the shapes, patterns and designs which integrate various influences. It
should be noted that the style of mosques of the region is not an interpretation of the Middle
Eastern or Indian tradition. This is because the Muslim missionaries who came to spread Islam in
the archipelago were neither architect nor engineers. The main characteristic of these early
mosques is the Meru roof structure and tiered roofs. This clearly shows that the mosque
architecture of that time was influenced by stupa construction during the Hindu-Buddhist. After the
advent of Islam, early mosques were built with timber since it was the most readily available
material. Timber was also supple and suitable in humid tropical climates.
The oldest known mosque of the Malay Archipelago is Demak Grand Mosque. It was said to
be constructed by the wali songo who played a major role in advocating Islam in Java. There are
various opinions on its construction date, varying from 1428, 1466 to 1478. These dates are
particularly relevant because during 1518, the Hindu Kingdom of Majapahit was defeated by the
Demak Islam rule under raden Patah. The mosque used timber material and its roof is three-tiered,
similar to the roof of Kampung Laut Mosque, Kelantan. The shape of the roof is the main style of
mosque architecture in the Malay Archipelago. Another important feature of these mosques it’s the
use of crown roof at the top of the roof. The crown roof has also been applied in other mosques of
the region. For example, the crown roof at Grisek Mosque and Kampung Keling Mosque, Malacca.
In the beginning, this crown mosque was made of timber, while in other older mosques and the
newer ones, it was made with cement. The shape of the roof clearly displays the influence of
Buddhist architecture. Therefore, this has been use to argue for the role played by the early Chinese
Muslim settlers in constructing mosques in the Malay Archipelago. The Demak Great Mosque was
said to have involved a large number of craftsmen from China. The role and contribution of the
Chinese was further reiterated by H. J de Graaf and Th. G. Th. Pigeaud:
The Malay Annal contain interesting information on the building of mosque by the spreading Islamic Chinese
communities in the Archipelago. Of style of these Chinese mosque cannot have been different from the pagodas used in
China for religious purposes by all denominations, which are characteristic by a number of superimposed roofs. The
Malay tale concerning the changing of Chinese mosque into temples is evidence for the inherent association of this style
with religion, irrespective of denomination. The Malay Annal’s information on the part taken by non-Muslim Chinese
origin of the typically Javanese mosque style, with a roof in stories, for the Chinese origin of the dynasty of Demak
cannot be doubted. As Chinese communities were established in the Archipelago, the pagoda style of mosque had an
opportunity to spread widely.
In Malacca, the physical characteristics of mosques and musollas are unique and eye-catching
due to the roof being shaped like layered pyramids. When examined closely, the final part of the
roof displays designs and carvings of Chinese idols. The mimbar niches in the mosques were made
from carved timber, closely related to Chinese furniture carpentry. Kampung Hulu Mosque,
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Kampung Keling Mosque and Tengkera Mosque are old mosques of Malacca which use archways
that suggest Chinese inspiration as well as wall decorations from Chinese pottery. These are
evidences of Chinese influence in the mosque architecture of the region. The Chinese influence and
origin has not been readily explained, although opinions do exist on the influence dating back to
the time when Chinese craftsmen came to construct the buildings in Malacca. Even from the very
early conception of Malacca, a close relationship existed between Parameswara and the Ming
Dynasty of China. In 1411, Parameswara went to Peking as return visit of Admiral Zheng He to
Malacca in 1409 and the ties between the two governances had inspired the development of
Malacca. The early mosques in Malacca were distinctive for the layered pyramid shape and
pagoda-shaped minare, which displayed Chinese influence. A study on Kampung Keling Mosque,
Malacca, carried out by a student of Architecture Faculty, MARA Technology Institute reveals that
the mosque is 200 years old and began as a philanthropic endeavour by a wealthy Chinese man
named Shamsudin who just embraced Islam. The Chinese inspiration can clearly be seen from the
carvings, minaret and archway of the mosque architecture, displaying a harmonious combination of
Chinese and Islamic elements.
The Chinese influence was especially apparent in mosque architecture since it was a novel
notion at that time which provided opportunities for variation of innovations and new ideas. Apart
from that, the influence of Chinese architecture can also be seen on shop houses, courtyards,
housing utensils and furniture. Though it should be noted that, Chinese influence in terms of home
architecture and room arrangement was less commonly found since Malay homes at that time had
already established their own Malay style.
Mosque Construction of Chinese Element in Malacca
In the Malay Archipelago, one of the mosques that are still existing with Chinese style architecture
and well-recorded on that account is the Demak Grand Mosque, built in 1478. It is located in Pantai
Utara Jawa/the Java North Coast and was the oldest centre of Islamic development in Malay
Archipelago. The uniqueness of this mosque that received Chinese influence was due to the
cultivation by Chinese people who migrated to the Malay Archipelago. The Chinese influence is
apparent from the similarities that the mosque shares with the religious pagodas in China, based on
the roof arrangement. Chinese crafts can also be seen from the use of Chinese tiles, Chinese brick
walls, Chinese carvings and paintings on the mimbar, walls, archway and stone wall of the mosque
– all of which were greatly influenced by Buddhism.(Bruce Allan, 1996) The seven voyages led by
Zheng He as commanded by Ming Emperor makes for a strong theory that the Meru design of the
roof came from China. This influence can be detected from its pagoda-shaped minaret, sulur
buyung at the corners of the roofs, as well as the carvings on the mosques.(Ta Ta Se, 2009)
The largest influx of architecture and design that was brought to Malacca to China, especially
from the Southern Region took place around 600 years ago. The early development of Chinese
craft in Malacca went through two main phases, during the 15th and 18th century. The first phase
was during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) and the Malay Malacca Sultanate (1409-1511), while
the second phase happened when Malacca was occupied by the Dutch (1641-1824). Between the
16th and 17th century (1511-1611), Chinese craft was not developed due to Portuguese colonization
of Malacca. According to Simak Ismail, there were two ways in which Chinese craft made its way
into Malacca.
•
•
•
First Phase (15th century) – Chinese style influence was pioneered by Zheng He during the
time of Malay Sultanate and Ming Dynasty.
16th – 17th century – there was no development of mosque and all religious activities stalled.
Second phase (18th century) – mosque development flourished once again with the arrival of
the Chinese people as the main crafters of construction activities in Malacca.
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The arrival of Chinese craftsmen to
Malacca
Method 1: brought directly
by the Chinese who came
to Malacca
Method 2: brought by the Chinese
who lived in Betawi (Jakarta), based
on Dutch’s instruction
The first phase of Chinese craft into Malacca took place through the first method. According
to Ezrin Arbi, the entry was parallel to the advent of Islam to Malacca and its subsequent progress.
(
Ezrin Arbi, 1971). The development of mosques in Malacca took place as soon as Parameswara or
Sultan Iskandar Syah embraced Islam. (Amelia Fauzia) At the same time, Chinese design was
introduced in Malacca when Malacca began a diplomatic relation, which was not restricted to the
common formal relation but was further strengthened with exchanged of gifts to ensure a good
bond between the nations involved. During the first visit of the Malacca Sultan, Parameswara to
China (1411), the Emperor of China had gifted him with several Muslim craftsmen, who were
involved with the construction of mosques in Malacca. (Hamka, 1980)
According to Tom Pires, the mosques in Malacca, especially the Malacca Sultanate Mosque
which was located near the sultan’s palace was well-known throughout world and shared
similarities with Demak Great Mosque. (Armando Cortesao) The prototype of Demak Great
Mosque style was introduced to Malacca around the 16th century and the style, and had spread
widely to the West Coast. At this stage, the Malaccan style as it became to be known, was
introduced by Chinese craftsmen who sailed with Zheng He ad Javanese sailors who visited
Malacca. (Bruce Allan, 1996) This indicate that the official mosque of Malacca Sultanate
incorporate Chinese style since the Demak Great Mosque had also received Chinese influence and
Zheng He was the individual responsible in introducing this particular style.
The rapid development of mosques at each of the stopover also took place due to the support
of Muslim Chinese rulers who encouraged the spread of Islam, particularly Emperor Ming Hsung
Tse. Based on this call to Islam, every time Zheng He visited South East Asia, he would play a part
in spreading the religion as well as build mosque at the respective area. (Sumanto al-Qurtuby)
Therefore, in each of his voyage, he would bring with him materials and architectural design plan
from China. (Kohl, David G) In the year 1409, Zheng He was said to have brought materials used
in construction activities such as ceramic tile roof, which was specifically designed to support the
roof of Malay royal palace. (Moorehead, F. J, 1957). The tiles used at the beginning of Malacca
construction was definitely brought from China. According to Hwang Ching, (Lamprey, 1867),
most of the buildings in Malacca, i.e. palaces and mosques, were developed based on styles from
China, using construction materials brought by Zheng He.(Alexander Wain, 2012)
Ken Yeang believes that Chinese crafts in the form of mosques in Malacca became even
greater when Emperor Cheng Le, a Muslim Chinese ruler, came to throne in the late 14 th century.
He introduced several main designs to Malacca, which were well received in the region. The
function of the square mosque design was expanded and the walls of the mosque were replaced
with bricks. The layered roofs were added with Chinese tiles as protection from the surrounding
climate and the crown at the top of the roof was introduced as a new style. This Malaccan style
shares similarities with pagodas of China and was widely spread throughout the Malay
Archipelago. Incidentally, the development of Chinese architecture was also in conjunction with
the arrival of Hang Li Po Princess to Malacca in one of the voyages of Zheng He, where she was
given in marriage to Sultan Mansur Shah in 1426. Her arrival, with five hundred Muslim followers
who settled eventually in Bukit China, had led to the increase of Chinese community in Malacca.
This migration had also brought with them distinct styles and structures of architecture, which
became part of the practice of constructions in Malacca.
Ezrin Arbi states that because of the royal marriage, a community of ‘Cina Baba’ or
Peranakan Chinese. (L. P. Thomas, 1985) Subsequently, the skills of these Peranakan Chinese
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craftsmen had also influence the construction method and the original architecture in Malacca.
(Ezrin Arbi, 1975). As such, it can be said that the presence of the princess and her followers had
played a major role in Chinese architecture style, which was carried on by their descendants. Tom
Pires recorded a mosque that was built on the command of Sultan Mansur Syah in Malacca. The
purpose of the mosque was to provide ease for the Chinese Muslim community in their worship,
and it was a given fact that the mosque was constructed based on how the Chinese community
preferred it to be, aligning with their culture. Unfortunately, the mosques built in Malacca during
the golden era of Malacca Malay Sultanate were destroyed by the Portuguese during their
colonization. The Portuguese had demolished the royal palace and the mosque at Bukit Bendera,
now known as St. Paul Hill, to build their fort and church. (Ab. Rashid Budin, 1978). Mosques
outside the city were also burned down, and other local constructions such as government buildings
and tombs were also destroyed.(Abdul Halim Nasir, 2004) However, these mosques did survive in
terms of providing prototypes for the subsequent mosques that were to be built after Portuguese
lost in 1641.
The second phase of Chinese crafts from China took place through the first and second
method. The first method happened when the Chinese who disagreed with the new power rebelled
against the transition of the Ming Dynasty to Qing (1644-1911) decided to migrate and made
Malacca their destination. The migrants brought with them their custom, art and culture. The
second method happened when the Dutch invited Chinese from Betawi (Jakarta) to Malacca. The
increasing numbers of the Chinese community during the Dutch colonization were used as
evidence that Chinese migration to Malacca took place under Dutch watch in order to assist the
process of development planned by the Dutch, including the construction of mosques. The Chinese
presence in Malacca was greatly welcomed by the Dutch and their skills were recognized. (Hoyt &
Sarnia Hayes, 1996), Most of the Chinese in Malacca came from Guangdong and were very skilled
in carpentry and masonry. In Malacca they worked as builders and carpenters. (Handitono &
Samuel Hartono, 2007). They completely mastered their crafts and even craftsmen of Europe were
not able to compete with the Chinese craftsmen. (Andaya Barbara Watson, 1983)
Chinese design and architecture may not only be seen on mosques of Malacca, but have also
contributed to the local development process, including the construction of shop houses, terrace
houses and other religious buildings. Chinese-influenced style can also be seen on houses with
large yards and gardens. Additionally, the designs of furniture in Chinese houses are among the
existing influence that can be seen even to the present day.( Ezrin Arbi, 1975), Bruce Allan is of the
opinion that the roof of Malacca mosque was made by Chinese craftsmen who built Chinese
temple.(Bruce Allan,1996) This can be taken as proof that participation of the Chinese in
craftsmanship in Malacca was not limited to the construction of Chinese temples, but also include
the development of mosques and other buildings. The skills of the Chinese were highly valued, to
the extent that a Malay ruler once wrote a letter to a Western ruler asking a number of Chinese
craftsmen to carve the walls of buildings in Malacca. Based on the observation carried out for the
present study, we have found that the buildings around the selected mosques have motifs with
Chinese elements. These carvings are similar to those that can be found on the mosques. The
similarities indicate the possibility of the same craftsmen being involved in the construction of the
mosques and their surrounding buildings.
The Chinese community was instrumental in the development of mosques located at the heart
of Malacca, while the prototype building of mosques on the city outskirts was based on the ones
built in central Malacca. The distinctive style became known throughout as the ‘Malaccan Style’.
Generally, all the mosques built during the Dutch colonial rule were mostly outside of the main
city, since the central part of Malacca was used for the Dutch administration. There were five
mosques that have been constructed during that time, namely Peringgit Mosque (1720), Kampung
Hulu Mosque (1728), Tengkera Mosque (1728), Pengkalan Rama Mosque (1730) an Kampung
Keling Mosque (1748). The first voyage of Zheng He to South East Asia and the migration of Hang
Li Po to Malacca had given a major impact to the establishment of mosque designs with Chinese
elements. These voyages have brought about design plans which were eventually practiced in
Malacca. Through the second phase, the Chinese community invited from Betawi and the group
that migrated from China to Malacca played a major role in the development of mosques. The
Demak Great Mosque built during the time of Zheng He’s voyages became the model for mosques
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in Malacca. This can be seen twice; the first phase that occurred in the 15 th century of the Malacca
Malay Sultanate, while the second phase was during the time the Dutch opened the space for the
locals to practice their religion and thus aiding the process of mosque development in Malacca. As
such, the Chinese craftsmen became some of the pioneers in assisting the Muslims of South East
Asia to actualise the style of mosques that were to become models for other mosques in the Malay
Archipelago and subsequently became part of the mosque tradition for the Muslims of the region.
Conclusion
The Chinese community in Malacca since the early Malacca Malay Sultanate have been in the
region for the purpose of trade, marriage and diplomatic relations. Their presence can be identified
during the time of the Portuguese as well though in a small number, while an influx was seen
during the time of the Dutch. Architectural aspects of Chinese elements were introduced and its
impact can be seen in the construction of mosques built under Dutch rule. The open door policy
adopted by the Dutch had allowed the local people to carry out religious activities, and they were
even provided with funds to build mosques. The Chinese community who was invited to partake in
the development process was responsible for the building of the mosques and the architectural
components of Chinese elements were absorbed as key elements in the construction of the
mosques. For example, the crown roofs, suyur bulur, pagoda-shaped minaret, Meru roofs or
pyramid-shaped roofs, archways similar Chinese archways and mimbar niches. Therefore it can be
concluded that the architecture of the oldest mosques in Malacca have accepted Chinese influence,
which can still be seen in the present day.
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