ESSAY
GLOBAL VOICES OF SCIENCE
Science in the Arab World:
Vision of Glories Beyond
Wasim Maziak
clinical medicine and mathematics (the word “algorithm” derives from the name Al Khwarizmi).
This thirst for knowledge was soon transferred
to other parts of the Islamic empire, and AlAndalus soon competed with Baghdad as the
cultural hub for Arabs and Muslims.
Of equal importance to the influence of
the Arab-Islamic scientific discoveries on the
European Renaissance was the reintroduction of ancient Greece’s natural philosophy to
medieval Europe by way of translations by
Islamic scholars. The historian James Burke
identifies several knowledge shocks that
ignited the Renaissance. One was delivered
by Ibn-Sina (Avicenna, 980 to 1037), whose
Kitab Al-Shifa (“The Book of Healing”)
introduced medieval Europe to the principles
of logic and their use to gain knowledge, and
placed science and religion on equal terms as
sources of knowledge and understanding of
the universe. Another major shock was delivered by Ibn-Rushd* (Averroes, 1126 to
1198), whose writings and commentaries
reintroduced to medieval Europe the
Aristotelian approach to studying nature by
observation and reasoning.
From that point on, the scientific paradigm of knowledge production advanced
relentlessly throughout Europe. At the same
time, the Arab-Islamic civilization and its
contributions to science and knowledge
started its long decline with Ibn-Khaldun
(1332 to 1395), who established in his
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Of all its accomplishments, the West is per- changed the world: the epic intellectual
haps most proud of its scientific revolution, achievement of Arab-Islamic scholars since
which has been unfolding for the past half- the 8th century. Flourishing libraries in cities
millennium. Only students of history remain like Toledo and Cordoba contained thousands
consistently mindful of the pivotal and cat- of books on every field of knowledge. Unlike
alytic role that the Arab world
the Moguls, who in the 13th cenplayed in the early phases of this
tury destroyed Baghdad and its
revolution. Now, all of us should
This yearlong
libraries, thereby abruptly ending
have a vested interest in advancing
essay series
the golden era of the Arab-Islamic
science and technology in the Arab
celebrates 125
civilization, the Europeans were
community. Science and technolyears of Science by
quick to realize the value of these
ogy provide the means to feed peoinviting researchers
windfalls of knowledge.
ple, improve their health, and crefrom around the
During the Abbasid reign (750
ate wealth. They can help to reduce
world to provide
to 1258), learning in Islam was
societal tensions and build internaa regional view of
encouraged in every field of
tional bridges for badly needed
the scientific
knowledge, and scholars of every
dialogue and mutual understandenterprise.
color and creed traveled to
ing. To usher science and technolSeries editor,
Damascus and Baghdad to study
ogy more thoroughly into Arab
Ivan Amato
and work. In these tolerant times,
culture and society, however, the
Islam’s leaders encouraged learnWest needs to acknowledge the
ing and the use of reason to underArab world’s historical contributions, and the stand nature. The early Abbasid Caliphs—
Arab world needs to stop dwelling on its most notably Al-Mansur, Harun Al-Rachid,
golden past by also embracing lessons about and Al Ma’mun, who reigned from 754 to
science and technology that the West learned 833—embraced science as a state’s defining
long ago.
policy, ushering in a golden era of ArabIn medieval Europe, where the Christian Islamic civilization. An avid movement of
dogma that the world unfolded according to a translation and studying of ancient books and
divinely predetermined plan prevailed, there of advancing new knowledge ensued on an
was little space for those willing and eager to unprecedented scale. Arab and Muslim scholunderstand nature in order to use it for their ars scored achievements in every field of sciown benefit. Beginning in the 11th century, ence: mathematics, astronomy, medicine,
the ailing Arab provinces in Spain (Al- optics, and philosophy. Al Razi’s (Rhazes) and
Andalus) were falling to European armies, Al-Khwarizmi’s seminal work in the 9th and
and with them came priceless spoils that 10th centuries laid the foundation for modern
Wasim Maziak is the director of the Syrian Center for Tobacco Studies in Aleppo, a pioneer collaborative research and research capacity–building center in the Arab world. He earned an MD in 1984
from the Aleppo School of Medicine, Syria, and in 1990 he received his Ph.D. in allergy immunology
from Kiev Medical Institute, Ukraine. He built his research experience in epidemiology and clinical
medicine at the Institute of Epidemiology and Social Medicine in Muenster, Germany, and the
National Heart and Lung Institute in London, UK. Much of his research career has been devoted to
the study of asthma as well as tobacco use and addiction, including the emerging public health
threat of waterpipe smoking. Most recently he initiated the Research Assistance Matching (RAM)
program aimed at helping researchers in developing countries get specialized assistance in their
research projects. For this essay, he has synthesized his experience and observations as a working
scientist in Syria to analyze the larger context of science in the Arab world.
All essays and interactive features appearing in this series can be found at www.sciencemag.org/sciext/globalvoices/
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CREDIT: WASIM MAZIAK
Wasim Maziak
Syria
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“Muqaddamah” the basic
Even as most poor Arab that the arrival of innovations brings with it,
tenets of modern sociology,
states viewed science as a directly or indirectly, the lifestyle and sociobeing the last prominent
luxury that they could not cultural values of their innovators. Wealth, it
Arab thinker of the era.
afford, wealthy Arab states seems, is powerless against the culture of
Moreover, this descent was
perpetrated an illusory those who create and own the technology. For
accompanied by a major
adoption of science and most Arab societies today, the tides of inputs
shift in the dominant
technology. Rich Arabs coming from all directions—from their conthought paradigms in Arabbelieved that oil money plus flict-ridden present, from the unjust distribuIslamic contexts, from the
Western technology was a tion of wealth, and from their tyrant-conrational and tolerant to a
simple formula for industri- trolled regimes that tolerate no dissent—have
more conservative school of
alization and moderniza- been confusing, relentless, and exhausting.
thinking that denounced
tion. Thus, acquiring the lat- The resulting frustration has been channeled
philosophy and rationalism.
est technological products outward toward the West in the form of disArab seed of science. Ibn-Rushd
This conservative, indoctrior shares in hi-tech indus- dain and hostility, and inward in the form of
(Averroes, 1126 to 1198) helped to
nated view of the world con- open new ways of thinking by tries became synonymous an antagonistic view of the world.
tinues to be influential today attempting to overcome the con- with being partners in the
In this conflicted sociological and emowith no real challenge to it tradictions between Aristotelian technological revolution of tional context, there has been little space in
other than that of the philosophy and revealed religion the modern world. After all, the Arab mind to distinguish between market
reformists of the 19th and by distinguishing between two most Arabs view science as dynamics, politics, and nations, to perceive
early 20th centuries, such as separate systems of truth—a sci- a commodity that can be the valuable discourse and diversity within
Jamal Eddin Al-Afghani entific body of truths based on separated from the thought Western societies, or to appreciate the moral
and Muhammed Abduh.† reason and a religious body of processes and sociocultural values and work ethics of Western culture.
Both scholars explicitly truths based on revelation.
attributes of its producers. Instead, the entirety of the West has been
opposed Western colonialThis perspective makes it gradually demonized. And by linking modern
ism, but they embraced rationalism and hard to appreciate the differences in culture Western culture to the period of the Crusades,
sought to reconcile Islamic principles with and values between technology-producing many Arab opinion-makers forged a historithose of modernism.
and technology-consuming societies.
cal basis for this vilification as an uninterAt the same time, the “West” was doing its rupted continuation of the evils of the past
The Decline of Science in the Arab World
part to solidify this schism by treating Arabs (arguably many people in the West, especially
Currently, the scientific output of Arabs is dis- as a mere market sector rife with insatiable after 9/11, have adopted a similar mind-set
proportionate to their human and economic consumers that it had to appease, but without toward Arabs and Muslims). From a psychocapacities. Taking biomedical research as an any commitment to developing this sector’s logical standpoint, such an attitude is underexample, Arab countries currently produce less own science and technology capacities. This standable. As a proud people, Arabs turned to
than 1% of citations in the world and contribute view resulted in a business-type alliance with their golden past for a refuge, and as a threatless than 0.5% of papers appearing in the 200 contractual commerce, but no real dialogue ened culture, they turned to their native
leading medical journals.‡ Annual spending on beyond that. For a while, this state of affairs thought system (Islam) for answers. More
research and development in Arab countries is seemed to suit both sides, but the rapidly than that, however, this reaction has proestimated at 0.15% of their gross domestic advancing information-communication tech- ceeded to the point where the past has become
product (GDP), compared to a world average nology disrupted the quietude. But
of 1.4%.§ Lack of funding, poor institutional who among us could have foreseen the
support, and meager integration within the profound impact of these technologiinternational scientific community are among cal developments on nearly all aspects
the many reasons that analysts have cited to of life of nearly every society a decade
explain the current status of science in Arab or two ago?
states. More general factors, such as wars, conPerhaps more than anyone, those in
flicts, and international political and economic traditional Islamic societies felt the
sanctions, also have been implicated.
shock: The proliferation and expanThese undoubtedly are important factors, sion of information technologies
but they do not include the more fundamental brought a ruthless invasion of Western
roots of science’s current situation in the Arab culture into virtually every sphere of
world. For example, countries enjoying rela- life. With satellite TV, the Internet, and
tively long periods of stability and affluence electronic communication, Western
(most of the Gulf States) do not fare better in lifestyles, fashion, behavior, and valterms of biomedical research, especially when ues infiltrated Arab homes with no
the large number of foreign scientists working real way to keep this influx in check. I
there is taken into consideration. On the other suspect that this unsolicited invasion
hand, countries like Lebanon and Jordan, of Western culture and values has been Renaissance maker. In this manuscript illumination, the
which suffered from long internal strife and felt more directly by Arabs today than Arab scientist and philosopher Ibn-Sina (Avicenna, 980 to
poverty, fare better than other Arab states when by their grandfathers in the 19th 1037) converses with others in a pharmacy. His “Al Qanun
their scientific production is weighed against and early 20th centuries, who faced of Medicine” served as the standard medical text in
their GDP. This suggests that less obvious fac- European armies occupying their Europe for seven centuries, and he also laid some groundtors are playing decisive roles in the valuation homelands.
work for the European Renaissance by advocating the use
of science in Arab societies.
Arabs were awakened to the fact of reason and logic as the way to gain knowledge.
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CREDITS: © ARCHIVO ICONOGRAFICO, S.A./CORBIS
GLOBAL VOICES OF SCIENCE
GLOBAL VOICES OF SCIENCE
distilled and purified, and Islamic teachings in place, functional democratic institutions role in the cross-national cultural arena. This is
have been selectively used to embrace and also would make it more difficult for rulers to not to say that there is a master Western mind
abet the emerging anti-Western sentiment.
spend most of the national income on arms at the controls in some global informationWith little reason for pride or celebration, while other areas, including science, suffer communication headquarters. The global
Arabs leaned toward trivializing mortal earthly greatly from the lack of funding.
arena is open to everybody, and the more a
life, choosing instead to reassess the main purMost higher scientific institutions in Arab nation is advanced technologically and open
pose of existence as ensuring heavenly immor- countries are run by governments, which, in to new ideas, the more it is likely to contribute
tality. A logical extension of this existential undemocratic systems, means that their goals to, and influence, this emerging global culture.
reevaluation has been to view the West’s interest actually are more political than scientific. This The dilemma for Arabs today comes down to
in science as an improper indulgence in mate- mode of governance reflects unfavorably on choosing between self-exile from the global
rial trivialities. For decades, these changes were many aspects of academic life, rendering sci- community for the sake of preserving cultural
proliferating and festering under the
surface, creating an atmosphere inimthat has been
ical to science and one effectively
closed to the possibility of learning
perceived by so many Arabs as threatening
from the Western experience.
Science was caught in the crossfire. Subconsciously for many
Arabs, modern science’s ties to the
West, to rationalism, and to natural
materialism gave it the flavor of
enmity. And because science cannot be entific merit and research of little importance identity, or contributing one’s own identity to a
practiced nowadays without close collabo- for career advancement and precluding any global culture with no specific or chosen
ration with Western academic institutions, genuine evaluation of the scientific perform- color, religion, or ideology. Were Arabs to take
research has become, in the minds of many ance of these institutions. Lack of high-quality the leap into this new global context, it may
Arabs, a suspicious activity and yet another research by faculty members, in turn, limits not be a farfetched prediction that the center of
potential gateway for Western incursion.
training opportunities for students and hinders influence of this culture might start to shift to
As a result, the pathway to the future shifted the development of the very organizational the East within a few decades.
from one involving science to one based on the structures that would support the growth of
A moment of opportunity is at hand. The
return to true Islam. Left unanswered in this research capacity. This has turned most Arab Arab world needs to reopen its collective mind
choice was what a shunning of science would universities merely into centers for knowledge to the West, by acknowledging the West’s conentail and how to face the challenges of the dissemination, not for questioning, criticism, tribution of modern science to the world. At
inevitable technology gap that would come and an authentic search for new knowledge.
the same time, the West should recognize the
with the choice. On the other side of the equaTo allow research and science to take off Arabic contribution to the scientific revolution, the main competing view to the Islamic once again in Arabic countries, universities tion without downplaying the role that Islam
one in Arab countries today, the liberal-demo- and academic institutions need to be redefined has played. Real pride of the golden past of
cratic paradigm, focuses mainly on political as centers for both the dissemination and gen- Arabs means extracting the right lessons from
structure and is equally ambivalent about the eration of knowledge, and research funding it: adoption of science by the state, encouragecentrality of science as a driving force for needs to be allotted according to proper evalu- ment of free scientific inquiry, promotion of
development. With the scientific community ation mechanisms.
science among the masses, and most imporbeing all but mute, science in the Arab world
But what are the prospects for Arabs in tantly, embracing the scientific accomplishhas currently no one to speak on its behalf, and today’s science landscape? The same informa- ments of other cultures without fear or prejuit occupies an insignificant niche. Moreover, tion revolution that has been perceived by so dice. Certainly, the highest standard of piety
its approach to understanding and investigat- many Arabs as threatening also presents an should become once again the individual’s
ing nature, as well as its own history, attracts unprecedented opportunity for every nation in contribution to the welfare of his society, and
virtually zero interest.
the world to close the science and technology the greatest sin, the acceptance of a continuing
gap. Every society now has the means to build and avoidable backwardness and dependence.
Reawakening of Arab Science
its own science and technology capacities and
Science thrives on freedom of inquiry and in ways that do not necessarily follow the path References and Notes
*During the Renaissance, Ibn-Rushd was often referred to as
unfettered flow of information. Most Arab of the West’s scientific revolution. Such a
the “The Commentator,” in comparison to Aristotle “The
societies are run by dictatorships that practice prospect should make it easier for Eastern culPhilosopher,” signifying his status and contribution.
different levels of censorship on their citizens, tures to build their science base, and indeed, †On his return from a journey to Europe, Sheikh Muhammad
Abduh, signifying the precedence of deeds over rituals in
leading to a weakening of democratic institu- many nations in Asia are doing just that withthe Islamic context, said,“In Europe I found Islam but not
tions. Such institutions are vital for the devel- out much concern about the loss of their culMuslims. Here in the East, I find Muslims but not Islam.”
‡A. A. Al-Khader, Saudi Med. J. 25, 1323 (2004).
opment of science by unlocking the diversity tural identity or moral values.
§E. Massod, Nature 416, 120 (2002).
within the society, making it less prone to quiBut for Arabs, there is a sizable price to pay
G. O.Tadmouri, N. Bissar-Tadmouri, Lancet 362, 1766 (2003).
etly adopt rigid dogmas and doctrines, advo- for being able to instantly know the weather ¶W. Maziak, T. Asfar, Health Care Women Int. 24, 313
(2003).
cating the importance of science and freedom forecast in remote areas or to gather 100 opinof inquiry, and shielding scientists from social ions on any topic with little more than a few
The author is at the Syrian Center for Tobacco Studies, Post
and political pressures against research deal- keystrokes. After all, this technology is forgOffice Box 16542,Aleppo, Syria. He is also affiliated with the
ing with sensitive social and cultural issues, ing its own global culture with mainly Western
Institute of Epidemiology and Social Medicine in Muenster,
such as the influence of polygamy on the phys- influences. To buy into it as a non-Westerner,
Germany. E-mail:[email protected]
10.1126/science.1114330
ical and mental health of women.¶ If they were therefore, is to personally accept a nonleading
=
also presents an
unprecedented opportunity for every nation in the
world to close the science and technology gap.
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The same information revolution