Alcohol Consumption in Individual Sports and Team
Sports
Andri Ragnars Guðjohnsen
2015
BSc in Psychology
Author: Andri Ragnars Guðjohnsen
ID number: 020989-2039
Department of Psychology
School of Business
ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM SPORTS
Foreword
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the BSc Psychology degree, Reykjavik
University, this thesis is presented in the style of an article for submission to a peer-reviewed
journal.
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ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM SPORTS
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine whether participants who regularly practiced
individual or team sports were more likely to drink moderately than people who rarely
practiced individual sports or team sports. It was also examined whether those who engaged
in either individual or team sports and had good family support were more likely to drink
alcohol in moderation than those who had little family support. Data from The Icelandic
Centre for Social Research and Analysis (ICRA) was used in this study. There were 1,859
participants, 883 boys and 966 girls, all born in the years 1994 to 1997. The results showed
that those who practiced team sports rarely did consume alcohol more often than people who
practiced team sports often. However, there was no significant difference in alcohol
consumption between those who practiced individual sports often or rarely. The results also
showed that those who often participated in team sports and had good family support
consumed alcohol less than those who had less support from their families. Family support
had no significant impact on the alcohol consumption of those who practiced individual
sports.
Keywords: Individual sports, team sports, alcohol consumption and family support.
Útdráttur
Tilgangur þessarar rannsóknar var að skoða hvort einstaklingar sem æfðu einstaklingsíþróttir
eða hópíþróttir reglulega væru líklegri til að neyta áfengis í hófi heldur en þeir sem æfðu
einstaklings eða hópíþóttir sjaldan. Þá var einnig skoðað hvort einstaklingar sem voru í hópog einstaklingsíþróttum og fengu góðan stuðning frá fjölskyldu sinni drykkju áfengi af meiri
hófsemi heldur en þeir sem fengu lítinn stuðning frá fjölskyldu sinni. Við úrvinnslu þessarar
rannsóknar voru notuð gögn frá Rannsóknum og Greiningu. Þátttakendur vorun1.859, 883
strákar og 966 stelpur, fædd á árunum 1994-1997. Niðurstöður rannsóknarinnar sýndu að þeir
sem æfðu hópíþróttir sjaldan drukku áfengi oftar heldur en þeir sem æfðu hópíþróttir oft. Það
var enginn munur á áfengisneyslu þeirra sem æfðu einstaklingsíþróttir sjaldan eða reglulega á
áfengisneyslu. Niðurstöðurnar sýndu einnig að það þeir sem voru í hópíþróttum og fengu
góðan stuðning frá fjölskyldu sinni voru líklegri til að drekka áfengi sjaldnar en þeir sem
fengu lítinn stuðning frá fjölskyldu sinni.
Lykilhugtök: Einstaklingsíþróttir, hópíþróttir, áfengisneysla og stuðningur fjölskyldu.
3
ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM SPORTS
Alcohol consumption in individual and team sports
Most athletes seek success in the sport they practice and more importantly, the
enjoyment of the sport (Duda, Fox, Biddle, & Armstrong, 1992). But what is the main
difference between athletes who succeed in sports and those who do not? People who succeed
are goal orientated (Mouratidou, Barkoukis, & Rizos, 2012). For individual or team sports
players to achieve their goals, many factors have to be in order (Kleingeld, van Mierlo, &
Arends, 2011). However, there are also factors which can prevent people from achieving their
goals and one of these also has a negative effect on sports performance and that is alcohol
(Hull & Young, 1983; O’Brien & Lyons, 2000; Suter & Schutz, 2008). Alcohol is the most
consumed drug amongst adolescents (Bruner & Fishman, 1998) and athletes (O’Brien &
Lyons, 2000) and that is a big concern. Alcohol reduces stamina, strength, speed and
coordination, four things vital to those who seek success. It takes the liver 2-3 days to recover
from alcohol consumption so a large amount of alcohol is never good for you in any way
(Vella & Cameron-Smith, 2010).
Many studies have been made on alcohol consumption and sports and it is interesting
to see whether results differ depending on nationality, race, the frequency of practice and the
kind of sport people practice. In the year 1953, Strauss and Bacon indicated that students who
practiced sports were at lower risk of alcohol consumption than their peers (Williams Jr. et al.,
2006). But is that the case in recent studies? A study by Terry-McElrath and O’Malley (2011)
showed that participants who practiced sports were at more risk of consuming alcohol at the
age of 18 than those who did not. A longitudinal study by Eitle, Turner and Eitle (2003)
examined whether sport participation would reduce the risk of alcohol use amongst high
school students in South Florida. Results showed that people who played sports in high school
consumed less alcohol than those who did not participate in any sports. A few years later the
results were the opposite: those who played sports in high school, especially football, were
4
ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM SPORTS
more likely to drink alcohol than those who did not participate in sports. However, black
participants who took part in sports were less likely to drink alcohol (Eitle et al., 2003). A
similar study by Wichstrøm and Wichstrøm (2009) examined whether sports participation
during adolescence prevents alcohol consumption in the future. The study started in 1992 and
finished in 2006 and the interesting thing about this study was that it controlled for potential
confounders like family structure, pubertal timing, peer substance use, academic achievement,
social acceptance and socio-economic status. This was really important because it allows the
researchers to measure which other things also affect alcohol consumption. Results showed
that participants who practiced team sports were more likely to use alcohol in their late
adolescents. However, participants who practiced individual sports reported reduced growth
in alcohol use in their late adolescence. Other studies have also shown that sport participation
amongst college students can sometimes lower the risk of alcohol consumption (see in Vest &
Simpkins, 2013; Thorlindsson & Bernburg, 2006; Ward & Gryczynski, 2007). But what
solutions are there to decrease alcohol consumption amongst adolescence? In Australia there
is a program called the Good Sports Program which was founded to prevent and lower the
risk of alcohol consumption. A study by Rowland, Allen and Toumbourou (2012) examined
whether members of clubs which were involved in the Good Sports Program were more or
less likely to consume alcohol than members of clubs which were not involved in the
program. The results showed that members of clubs which were involved in the Good Sports
Program and had more discipline and more advanced implementation of the program
consumed less alcohol than members of other clubs. This study tells us that there should be
more programs like the Good Sport Program to lower alcohol consumption amongst athletes.
In Icelandic colleges there is a program called “Afreksbrautin”, similar to the one in Australia,
which aims to support athletes to become better at their sports and to reduce alcohol and other
substance abuse. Students have to attend almost all of their classes, they have to show
5
ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM SPORTS
academic achievement and they are forbidden to consume alcohol, tobacco or other illegal
substances (Óskar Þór Ármannson, Sigurður Sigursveinsson, Magnús Þorkelsson, Friðrik
Einarsson, & Bjarni Jóhannson, 2009). However, studies should be made to observe whether
the program is working, whether students are fulfilling the demands made and whether these
demands are enforced.
As mentioned before most athletes seek success in the sports that they practice and
most importantly, the enjoyment of the sport but is there a difference between individual
sports and team sports as relates to alcohol consumption? A study by Martens, Watson and
Beck (2006) found that swimmers and divers consumed more alcohol than people in team
sports such as baseball, basketball, soccer and volleyball. A study by Ford (2007), however,
showed the opposite: that people who practice team sports were at more risk of binge drinking
than those who practice individual sports. The results showed that participants who were
involved in female soccer and male hockey were more likely to binge drink than participants
who ran track. A French study by Lorente, Souville, Griffet and Grélot (2004) examined the
relationship between sport participation and alcohol use amongst French high school students.
Results showed a significant difference between people who practiced team sports and those
who practiced individual sports. People in team sports tended to drink more than people in
individual sports. Results also showed that people who trained more than six times per week,
at individual or team sports, were at less risk of consuming alcohol than those who did not.
There was also a difference between males and females. Females were more likely to have
never used alcohol and practiced all kinds of sports both regionally and internationally. A
similar study by Peretti-Watel, Beck and Legleye (2002) showed that people that practiced
team sports regularly consumed alcohol more often than people who practiced individual
sports.
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ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM SPORTS
Studies on whether there is an association between alcohol consumption and a
particular form of sport have to look at confounders which can also have an effect. A study by
Vest and Simpkins (2013) asked whether sport participation was a protective or a risk factor
for alcohol use and how peers influenced drinking. Results showed that sport participation
was protective for alcohol use if participants’ friends and teammates showed low alcohol use.
However, if friends and teammates showed high alcohol use, sport participation was a risk
factor for alcohol use. The results also showed that for participants who practiced more than
one sport, the behaviour of teammates and friends had no effect on alcohol use. A Norwegian
study by Bu, Watten, Foxcroft, Ingebrigtsen and Relling (2002) examined how sport
participation, family support and living areas affect alcohol consumption amongst teenagers.
Results showed that organized sport participation was a preventive factor for alcohol use.
However, poor family support, a single-parent household and peer drinking were associated
with low prevention of alcohol use. A similar study by Hoffmann (2006) showed that male
athletes who had high socioeconomic status and female athletes who had low socioeconomic
status were at more risk of alcohol consumption than non-athletes who were involved in
extracurricular activities such as student government and honour societies. Hoffman mentions
that there were distinct environmental differences to consider. However, the study did not
look into which environmental factor could most affect alcohol consumption. This could be
because males who have high socioeconomic status are self-confident and popular, and
females who have low socioeconomic status are insecure and vulnerable and turn to alcohol to
decrease their stress and discomfort. This shows that people who have support from their
families and friends and who practice sports are likely to use alcohol moderately.
Based on previous studies on sports and alcohol consumption, results indicate that
those who practice sports tend to drink more often than those who practice sports rarely or not
at all. In this study there will be two hypotheses. Hypothesis 1: Those who practice individual
7
ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM SPORTS
or team sports regularly are more likely to drink moderately than those who practice
individual sports or team sports rarely. Hypothesis 2: Those who engage in either individual
or team sports and have good family support are more likely to drink alcohol in moderation
than those who have little family support.
Method
Participants
The primary study surveyed 75.5% of all Icelandic high-school students who were
enrolled in the fall of 2013, a total of 11,116 boys and girls (Hrefna Pálsdóttir et al., 2014).
The present sample consisted of 1,859 participants, 883 boys and 966 girls, who were selected
randomly out of the total number of participants from the primary study and the assumption
for a randomized sample was met. Ten participants did not specify their gender. Participants
were born between the years of 1994 and 1997; all other age groups were excluded because
the author did not want to see what older people all other age groups were excluded as to
normalize the sample. Figure 1 shows how many boys and girls in the sample were born in
each year. Participants did not receive any payments or school credits for
350
312
288
300
252
250
Frequencies
202
200
150
263
220
171
141
Boys
Girls
100
50
0
1994
1995
1996
Year of birth
Figure 1. Participants’ year of birth.
1997
8
ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM SPORTS
Research design and measures
This study was cross-sectional and the data used in this study came from a
questionnaire by The Icelandic Centre for Social Research and Analysis (ICSRA) (Hrefna
Pálsdóttir et al., 2014). The questionnaire contained 95 questions on 35 pages. In addition to
demographic variables the present study only used the following subset of the questions that
was relevant to the current research questions.
Dependent variable: The dependent variable was alcohol consumption and it was on
an ordinal scale but it was continuous so the assumption was met. However the assumption
for normality was not met. Two questions with 7 items were used to measure alcohol
consumption (Appendix). The first was as follows: “How often have you been drunk in the
last 30 days”: 1 = “Never”, 2 = “1-2 times”, 3 = “3-5 times”, 4 = “6-9 times” and 5 = “10-19
times”. Value 6 = “20-39 times” and value 7 = “40 or more” were excluded. The second
question was as follows: “How often have you drunk one of the following drinks in the last 30
days”: 1 (beer), 2 (wine), 3 (strong alcohol), 4 (homemade alcohol), 5 (shot) and 6 (alcoholic
soda, such as Breezer or Somersby). The options were as follows: 1 = “Never”, 2 = “1-2
times”, 3 = “3-5 times”, 4 = “6-9 times” and 5 = “10-19 times”. Value 6 = “20-39 times” and
value 7 = “40 or more” were excluded. These two questions were computed into a new
variable called “alcohol consumption” and the new variable was given a scale of 7-41. The
higher the score, the more alcohol the participants drank. Those who scored from 7-14 drank
rarely or never, those who scored 15-21 drank from time to time and finally those who scored
from 22-41 drank often.
Independent variables: There were two independent variables, team sports and
individual sports. One question with 41 items was used to measure both individual and team
sport activity. Only 5 items were used in the present study to measure team sport activity
(Appendix). The question was as follows: “Do you participate any of the following”: 1
9
ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM SPORTS
(football), 2 (handball), 3 (basketball), 4 (volleyball) and 5 (hockey). The options were as
follows: 1 = “almost never”, 2 = “a couple of times a year”, 3 = “a couple of times a month”,
4 = “1-3 times per week” and 5 = “4 times per week or more”. Options 1 = “almost never”, 2
= “a couple of times a year” and 3 = “a couple of times a month” were given a new value, 1
(rarely or never). Options 4 = “1-3 times per week” and 5 = “4 times per week or more” were
given a new value, 2 (often). These five items were computed into a new variable called
“team sports”. The same question was used to measure individual sport activity. There were
12 items used in the present study to measure individual sport activity (Appendix). The
question was as follows: “Do you participate any of the following”: 1 (track and field), 2
(golf), 3 (swimming), 4 (skiing) and 5 (tennis), 6 (gymnastics), 7 (cycling), 8 (horse riding), 9
(wrestling), 10 (ice skating), 11 (weightlifting), 12 (power lifting). The options were as
follows: 1 = “almost never”, 2 = “a couple of times a year”, 3 = “a couple of times a month”,
4 = “1-3 times per week” and 5 = “4 times per week or more”. Options 1 = “almost never”, 2
= “a couple of times a year” and 3 = “a couple of times a month” were given a new value, 1
(rarely or never). Options 4 = “1-3 times per week” and 5 = “4 times per week or more” were
given a new value, 2 (often). These eleven items were computed into a new variable called
“individual sports”.
Covariate: The covariate was family support. Two questions with a total of nine items
were used to measure family support (Appendix). The first question was as follows: “How
easy or difficult would it be to get the following from your parents”: 1 (care and warmth), 2
(conversations concerning personal topics), 3 (advice concerning education), 4 (advice
concerning other stuff) and 5 (help with various problems). The options were as follows: 1 =
“very difficult”, 2 = “rather difficult”, 3 = “rather easy” and 4 = “very easy”. The second
question was as follows: “How well does the following apply to you”: 1 (My parents are
aware who I am with at night), 2 (My parents are aware where I am at night), 3 (My parents
10
ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM SPORTS
know my friends), 4 (My parents know my friends’ parents). The options were as follows: 1 =
“Fits me very poorly”, 2 = “Fits me rather poorly”, 3 = “Fits me rather well” and 4 = “Fits me
well”. Option 5 = “This question does not apply” was excluded.
These two questions were computed into a new variable called “family support” and
the new variable was given a scale of 9-36. The higher the score, the more family support the
participants got. Those who scored a 9-23 had little family support and those who scored a 2436 had good family support.
Procedure
The research was conducted via a questionnaire sent to all high schools in the country,
where teachers administered them to their students following special instructions. Students
who attended school on that particular day were asked to participate. However, students were
not forced to participate and they could also withdraw at any time from the study. Students
were repeatedly instructed not to write their names nor their identification number on the
questionnaires to exclude the possibility of tracing a questionnaire to a participant. Students
were also asked to answer honestly and ask for help if needed. After completing the
questionnaires, students were told to put the questionnaire in an unmarked envelope and hand
them over to their teachers (Hrefna Pálsdóttir et al., 2014).
Results
Figure 2 shows descriptive statistic for the dependent variable. Majority of the
participants or 81% consumed alcohol rarely or never. Only 14% had consumed alcohol
occasionally (sometimes) and 5% of the participants had consumed alcohol often.
11
ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM SPORTS
1600
12
1411
1400
Frequencies
1200
1000
800
600
400
246
200
88
0
Rarely or never
Sometimes
Often
Alcohol consumption
Figure 2. Participants’ alcohol consumption.
Table 1 shows the total number of participants who practiced team sports. Out of the
1,745 participants there were 1,205 (70%) who practiced team sports rarely and 540 (30%)
who practiced team sports often. Those participants who practiced team sports rarely
consumed alcohol more often on average than participants who practiced team sports often.
Table 1.
Frequencies, mean scores and standard deviation for team sports on alcohol consumption.
Team sports
N
M (SD)
Rarely
1205
11.27 (5.43)
Often
540
10.41 (5.22)
Total
1745
11.01 (5.38)
Table 2 shows the total number of participants who practiced individual sports. Out of
the 1,745 participants there were 946 (55%) who practiced individual sports rarely and 799
(45%) who practiced individual sports often. Those participants who practiced individual
sports rarely did not consume any more alcohol on average than participants that practiced
individual sports often.
ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM SPORTS
13
Table 2.
Frequencies, mean scores and standard deviation for individual sports on alcohol
consumption.
Individual sports
N
M (SD)
Rarely
799
11.09 (5.27)
Often
946
10.93 (5.47)
Total
1745
11.00 (5.38)
Table 3 shows the total number of participants who received family support. Out of
the 1,595 participants there were 152 (10%) who had very little family support and 1,443
(90%) who had good family support. Those participants who had little family support drank
more often on average than participants who had good family support.
Table 3.
Frequencies, mean scores and standard deviation for family support on alcohol consumption.
Family support
N
M (SD)
Little
152
13.02 (7.37)
Good
1443
10.76 (4.89)
Total
1595
10.98 (5.20)
A two-way factorial analysis of covariance was conducted (FANOVA) to see whether
the frequency of participants’ sports practice affected their alcohol consumption (Table 4).
The assumption of homogeneity of variance was tested with Levene's test. The Levene's test
was significant (p=.007) which shows that the group variances were different and the
assumption was not met. Table 4 shows that the main effect of team sports activity on alcohol
consumption was significant F (1, 1741) = 11.224, p < 0.001. The main effect of individual
sports activity on alcohol consumption was not significant F (1, 1741) = 0.832, p > 0.001.
There was no interaction between individual sports activity and team sports activity on
ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM SPORTS
alcohol consumption F (1, 1741) = 2.158, p > 0.001. There was also no significant difference
between genders.
Figure 3 shows the interaction effects of team sports activity and individual sports
activity on alcohol consumption. People who rarely practiced team sports tended to drink
alcohol more often than people who often practiced team sports. However, there was no
significant difference between those who often or rarely practiced individual sports on alcohol
Alcohol consumption
consumption.
12
10
11.4
10.32
10.6
10.74
8
Team sports
6
Rarely
4
Often
2
0
Rarely
Often
Individual sports
Figure 3. Interaction of team sports and individual sports on alcohol consumption.
A two-way analysis of covariance was also conducted (ANCOVA) to see whether
family support had any effect on how often people consumed alcohol, whether they practiced
team or individual sports. The assumption of homogeneity of variance was tested with
14
ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM SPORTS
15
Levene's test. The Levene's test was significant (p=.007) and that shows the group variances
were different and the assumption was not met. Table 5 shows that the main effect of family
support on alcohol consumption was significant F (1, 1590) = 37.834, p < 0.001. The main
effect of individual sports activity on alcohol consumption was not significant F (1, 1590) =
1.221, p > 0.001. However, the main effect of team sports activity on alcohol consumption
was significant F (1, 1590) = 8.680, p < 0.001. There was no interaction between individual
sports activity and team sports activity on alcohol consumption F (1, 1590) = 0.658 p > 0.001.
Table 5
Main effects and interaction for family support, team- and individual sports on alcohol
consumption.
Effect
Team sports
Sum of
squares
228.574
Individual sports
1
Mean
square
228.574
8.680
0.003
32.162
1
32.162
1.221
0.269
996.320
1
37.834
0.000
17.332
1
17.332
0.658
0.517
1590
26.334
Family support
Team sports*Individual
Df
996.320
F
P (Sig.)
sport
Error
41870.985
Discussion
The purpose of the study was to examine whether people who often practice individual
sport and team sports were more likely to drink moderately than those who rarely practice it.
Also examined was whether those who engage in either individual- or team sports and have
good family support are more likely to drink alcohol in moderation than those who do not
have a good family support.
The findings partially supported the first hypothesis. A two-way factorial analysis of
covariance was conducted (FANOVA) to see whether how often people practiced either
ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM SPORTS
individual or team sports made a difference in alcohol consumption. The findings indicated
that those who rarely practiced team sports did consume alcohol more often than those who
often practiced team sports. However, there was no significant difference in alcohol
consumption between those who often or rarely practiced individual sports. Prior studies on
this topic have shown similar findings: that sport participation reduces alcohol consumption
(see in Vest & Simpkins, 2013; Thorlindsson & Bernburg, 2006; Ward & Gryczynski, 2007).
However, other studies have also shown that those who practice sports, especially team
sports, seem to consume alcohol more frequently (Eitle et al., 2003; Whichstrøm &
Whichstrøm, 2009; Lorente et al., 2004; Peretti-Watel et al., 2002) which is not in accordance
with this study. The Australian study by Rowland et al. (2012) was an important and
interesting study because it showed how effective programs like the Good Sports Program are
in decreasing alcohol consumption among athletes, and there should be more programs like
the Good Sports Program to prevent alcohol consumption amongst adolescents. Icelandic
colleges have a similar program called “Afreksbraut” which makes demands upon its
participants but studies should be made to observe whether the program is working, whether
students are fulfilling the demands made and whether these demands are enforced. This study
also examined whether there was a gender difference. The result showed that there was no
significant difference between genders, which was in accordance to the present study (Lorente
et al., 2004).
The findings also partially supported the second hypothesis. A two-way analysis of
covariance was conducted (ANCOVA) to see whether those who engaged in either individual
or team sports and had good family support were more likely to drink alcohol in moderation
than those who did not. There was a significant difference between family support and alcohol
consumption. Those who had good family support consumed less alcohol than those who did
not. The findings also showed that those who often practiced team sports and had good family
16
ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM SPORTS
support consumed less alcohol than the other groups. There was no significant difference
between family support and individual sports. This shows that whether family support was
good or bad made no difference on how often participants practiced individual sports. Prior
studies are in accordance with these findings. The study by Bu, Watten, Foxcroft,
Ingebrigtsen and Relling (2002) similarly showed that those who have bad family support
seem to drink alcohol more often. Another study by Hoffmann (2006) also showed that it is
important to have good family support to reduce alcohol consumption.
The present study had some limitations. The study was self reported so the participants
could have been answering the questions dishonestly. The assumption of homogeneity of
variance was violated and that means that the group variances were different and the
assumption was not met. The assumption for normality was also not met, which is not good
but the assumption of homogeneity of variance not being met was still worse. There was also
one limitation which concerns the independent variables. Those who rarely practiced
individual sports could have been often practicing team sports and vice versa so that could
have skewed the findings a bit. It is also important to mention that alcohol consumption can
differ depending on an on or off season so that could also have had something to say. The
strengths of the present study were that the sample was randomized and also there were many
people who participated, which was really good.
Overall sports are most of the time a risk factor for alcohol consumption amongst
athletes and it is vital to educate people about the damaging long-term effects of alcohol,
especially for athletes. Future studies should always try to control for confounders when
examining sports and alcohol consumption, especially the influence of peers, and these future
studies should control for ethnic groups and gender. It would also be interesting for future
studies to compare many countries together and examine where alcohol consumption is in
moderation.
17
ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM SPORTS
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Appendix
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