00013
Civil Air Patrol Senior Officer Course
Volume 1. History, Mission, and
Organization
This E-Version is identical in content (except for pictures) to the AFIADL 13
volumes that are mailed after official course enrollment. Pictures were eliminated
to shorten download time and disk space. Page numbers for content will be
different from those in the volumes mailed to you.
Extension Course Institute
Air University
Air Education and Training Command
Author:
Mr. Mark Wilkinson
CAP National Headquarters
HQ/CAP/ETS
105 South Hansell Street
Maxwell AFB, AL 36112-6332
DSN 493-7584
Instructional Systems
Specialist:
Ronald Muncy
Editor:
Geri Lang
Extension Course Institute
Air university (AETC)
Maxwell Air Force Base, Gunter Annex, Alabama 36118-5643
Material in this volume is reviewed annually for technical accuracy, adequacy,
and currency. For SKT purposes the examinee should check the weighted
Airman Promotion System Catalog to determine the correct references to study.
Preface _____________________________________________________i
Since its founding a half century ago, the Civil Air Patrol (CAP) has earned an
impressive place in the history of American airpower. During world War II, coastal
patrols spotted 173 enemy submarines, sank 2, bombed 57, and scared another
50 away. The cost was high—26 aircrew members killed and 90 planes lost—but
the teamwork and sacrifices of the CAP were vital to the nation at a time when
the Army Air Corps was stretched to the limit overseas. On 29 April 1943, CAP
was transferred to the War Department as recognition for a job well done. Then
on 26 May 1948, CAP was made a permanent auxiliary of the United States Air
Force, composed of volunteers like yourself.
The men who envisioned a need for a national civil air patrol—Gill Robb Wilson,
Thomas Beck, Guy Gannett and others—believed in helping their fellow man, the
local community, and the nation. That spirit continues to burn brightly in members
like you who have a strong desire to render volunteer services to the nation.
To serve and support the nation’s youth through its cadet programs, to enlighten
citizens through aerospace education, and to meet humanitarian needs of those
in trouble while flying or from disasters on the ground, the CAP needs good
leaders at all levels. Like the Air Force, CAP is made up of people, organizations,
and equipment. It’s leadership that brings these elements together to work
effectively.
Compelling and creative leadership is one of the most critical demands today. As
a senior member, you’re responsible for the day-to-day operations of your unit.
The CAP Senior Officer Course provides a foundation for you to begin, or to
continue, your studies in history, communication, offership, management, and
leadership—all essential ingredients of effective leadership.
How well you lead will affect how your unit’s mission is accomplished and
whether operations succeed or fail. The Air Force and Civil Air Patrol have high
expectations of you. Good luck!
The Civil Air Patrol Senior Officer Course is the first step for many CAP officers in
their preparation as future commanders. This course begins with a volume
describing the compatible history, mission, and organization of the United states
Air Force (USAF) and CAP. With this as a foundation, the next volume addresses
professional knowledge items all senior officers should practice. The third volume
is dedicated toward effective communication, a vital skill for all CAP members.
The fourth and final volume ties together all three volumes by focusing on the
CAP officer’s leadership skills.
Code numbers appearing on figures are for preparing agency identification only.
The use of a name of any specific manufacturer, commercial product,
commodity, or service in this publication does not imply endorsement by the Air
Force.
Preface _____________________________________________________ii
To get an immediate response to your questions concerning subject matter in
this course, call the author at DSN 493-7584 between 0730 and 1630 (CT),
Monday through Friday. Otherwise, write the author at Headquarters, Civil Air
Patrol/ETS, ATTN: Mr. Mark Wilkinson, 105 South Hansell ST., Bldg 714,
Maxwell AFB, AL 36112-6332, to point out technical errors you find in the text,
Unit Review Exercises, or Course Examination. Sending subject matter
questions to the Extension Course Institute (ECI) slows the response time.
NOTE; Do not use the Suggestions program to submit corrections for printing or
typographical errors.
Consult your education officer, training officer, or supervisor if you have
questions on course enrollment or administration, Your Key to a Successful
Course, and irregularities (possible scoring errors, printing errors, etc.) on the
Unit Review Exercises and Course Examination. Send questions these people
cannot answer to ASO/ETEO (ECT), 50 South Turner Blvd, Maxwell AFB, Gunter
Annex, AL 36118-5643, on ECI Form 17, Student Request for Assistance.
This volume is valued at 9 hours (3 points).
Acknowledgment
Grateful appreciation is extended to Majors Michael P. Connor, Teresa A.H.
Djuric, Dwane O. Hill, Michael P. Holoway, and Daniel R. Todd. These
individuals researched, wrote, and prepared the final manuscript for this Special
Course as a special project while attending the Air Command and Staff College
at Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama. Without their diligent efforts and thorough
hard work, the quality attained in the courser would not have been possible.
NOTE:
In this volume, the subject matter is divided into self-contained units. A unit menu
begins each unit, identifying the lesson headings and numbers. After reading the
unit menu page and unit introduction, study the section, answer the self-test
questions, and compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
Then do the Unit Review Exercises (UREs).
2-1
Unit 1. Air Force History, Mission, & Organization ................................................3
1-1. History.........................................................................................................3
001. Before World War I .................................................................................3
002. World War I .............................................................................................5
003. Between World War I and World War II ..................................................7
004. World War II ............................................................................................9
005. After World War II .................................................................................11
006. The Korean War era .............................................................................16
007. Air Force evolution in the atomic age....................................................18
008. Emergence of a new aerospace concept..............................................19
009. War in Vietnam .....................................................................................22
010. The early post-Vietnam years ...............................................................24
011. The Air Force from 1978 to present ......................................................28
Self-Test Questions .........................................................................................34
1-2. Vision and Mission....................................................................................36
012. Vision and mission of the Air Force.......................................................36
Self-Test Questions .........................................................................................37
1-3. Organization .............................................................................................37
013. Organization of the Air Force ................................................................37
014. The total force .......................................................................................39
Self-Test Questions .........................................................................................41
Answers to Self-Test Questions.......................................................................42
Unit Review Exercises .....................................................................................44
Unit 2. Civil Air Patrol History, Mission, and Organization...................................48
2-1. History.......................................................................................................48
015. The need for a Civil Air Patrol ...............................................................48
016. The realization of a national Civil Air Patrol...........................................50
017. CAP World War II activities ...................................................................52
018. Other wartime missions.........................................................................56
019. Change in command jurisdiction ...........................................................60
020. The future of postwar CAP uncertain ....................................................61
021. Incorporation of Civil Air Patrol..............................................................61
022. Permanent status as USAF auxiliary ....................................................62
Self-Test Questions .........................................................................................63
2-2. Organization and Mission .........................................................................64
023. The organization of Civil Air Patrol........................................................64
024. The mission of Civil Air Patrol ...............................................................69
025. The USAF-CAP relationship .................................................................70
Self-Test Questions .........................................................................................72
Answers to Self-Test Questions.......................................................................74
Unit Review Exercises .....................................................................................76
Glossary................................................................................................................1
Bibliography ..........................................................................................................1
Department of Defense Publications..................................................................1
Internet Sources.................................................................................................1
Answer Key...........................................................................................................1
2-2
2-3
Unit 1. Air Force History, Mission, & Organization
For the relationship to be mutually beneficial, a very exceptional degree of
organizational compatibility must exist between the United States Air Force
(USAF) and the Civil Air Patrol (XAP). To help CAP members better understand
both organizations and comprehend how they fit into the p8cture of guarding and
serving our nation, this course considers each separately. Since the USAF is the
largest and most complex of the two organizations, this volume begins with a
review of USAF history, then addresses present-day missions and organization.
This unit will help you understand the USAF and how it fits into the Department of
Defense (DoD) total force structure. In Unit 2 we’ll describe the CAP’s dedicated
history, diverse missions, and corporate organization.
1-1. History
World War II (WW II) had been over for two years and the Korean War lay three
years ahead when the Air Force ended a 40-year association with the US Army
and became a separate service. The United States Air Force thus entered a new
era in which air power became firmly established as a major element of the
nation’s defense and one of the country’s chief hopes for deterring war.
Most experts agree a necessary part of understanding any group or organization
is a knowledge of its history. Accordingly, this first unit presents the USAF’s
condensed history beginning with the Wright brother’s early flights and the
Army’s recognition of the airplane’s military value.
001. Before World War I
Nearly 40 years before it became a separate service, the USAF began as the air
arm of the Army. During these formative years with the Army, dedicated and
determined airmen developed air power doctrine. Although balloons and
dirigibles made their marks on the history of flight, the most spectacular
achievements came with the advent of controlled flight by heavier-than-air craft.
Kitty Hawk
A memorable date in history is 17 December 1903. The place was Kitty Hawk,
North Carolina—chosen because of its favorable prevailing winds. The men were
Wilbur and Orville Wright. Their ;mission was to fly a manned heavier-than-air
craft. With Orville at the controls, the first successful flight covered 120 feet and
lasted 12 seconds. On the fourth and final flight of this memorable day, Wilbur
covered 852 feet in 59 seconds. The Wrights had spent four patient and
dedicated years studying and experimenting before their tremendous success at
Kitty Hawk. They had experimented extensively with gliders and had build their
own 12-housepower engine. Many others had attempted heavier-than-air flight in
the years immediately preceding their success, but no manned flight had
succeeded until the Wright brothers. Theirs was a truly remarkable achievement.
2-4
The US Army and aviation
While perfecting their flying machine at Dayton, Ohio, in 1905, the Wrights twice
offered their airplane, or exclusive use of their pending patents, to the US Army.
The brothers considered their Flyer practical for military scouting and
communications purposes, but any potential commercial use had to await further
development. The Army’s Board of Ordnance and Fortifications brusquely turned
down their offers because of bad press over Dr. Samuel P. Langley’s failure to
build a viable aerodrome, or airport, with a $50,000 Federal grant. Rebuffed by
their government, the Wrights stopped flying. They feared that further publicity
would invite the theft of their hard-earned innovations.
Finally, recognizing the growing potential of the airplane in 1907, the Army
established the Aeronautical Division in the Office of the Chief Signal Officer to
study the flying machine and its possible military uses. The Aeronautical Division
at first consisted of one officer, two enlisted men, and a mere three balloons.
Then in February 1908, bolstered by the support of President Theodore
Roosevelt, the Wright brothers renewed their efforts to work with the military.
The War Department contracted the Wrights to build America’s first military
airplane. The airplane specifications required the airplane to have the ability to
carry two men in continuous lift for one hour at a speed of not less than 40 miles
per hour. The first test program for the new aircraft was conducted six months
later. However, the airplane crashed during one of the test flights at Fort Myer,
Virginia, seriously injuring Orville Wright and killing Lieutenant Thomas E.
Selfridge. In July 1909, the final acceptance flight was completed—a 20-mile,
round trip cross-country flight from Fort Myer to Alexandria, Virginia. The airplane
exceeded contract specifications by remaining aloft for 1 hour and 12 minutes
and averaging slightly more than 40 miles er hour. With these results, the
Aeronautical Division expanded in 1910 to consist of two officers and nine
enlisted men, one airplane, an airship (dirigible), and three balloons.
Weapons of war
From January to August 1910, the airplane began its evolution into a weapon of
war. Previously considered useful for reconnaissance only, the airplane revealed
its suitability for use as an offensive weapon. The first serial firing of a rifle from
an airplane occurred at Sheepshead Bay, New York. As air pioneer Gleen
Ccurtiss piloted the aircraft, Lt. Jacom E. Fickel fired a .30 caliber Springfield rifle
at a ground target and scored two hits. Bob drops had already been simulated by
releasing two-pound sandbags from the air. In the following months, live bombs
were dropped. These and other experiments proved the airplane suitable for
offensive purposes.
The Aviation Section
By 1914, the Aeronautical Division received statutory recognition as the Aviation
Section of the Signal Corps, and Army aviation became a permanent function of
2-5
the military. The Aviation Section’s mission included operating all military aircraft,
pertinent appliances and signal apparatus installed in aircraft. The mission also
included conducting aeronautical training. Congress authorized 60 officers and
60 enlisted men for the Aviation Section and established ratings of military
aviator and junior military aviator. With the $175,000 provided for the purpose of
adapting the airplane to military use, the Signal Corps took steps to improve
Army aviation. The section’s first initiative condemned the push-type plane—one
with the propeller behind the engine. This began a long series of development
which continue into today’s USAF in an effort to produce faster and safer aircraft.
Within two years, the First Aero Squadron began operations on the Mexican
border as a prototype tactical aviation unit. This squadron proved the need for
high-powered aircraft and led to increased legislative support for aviation. As a
result, the Aviation Section received a new appropriation of $13 million and
initiated a program to increase the number of squadrons and high-powered
planes.
The year 1916 brought another significant development—Congress passed the
National Defense Act. One main provision of the act strengthened the Aviation
Section and established a reserve corps of officers and enlisted men.
Accordingly, the First Reserve Aero Squadron was formed in May 1917 and was
ordered to active military service soon after the US entered World War I (WW I).
The reserve corps contributed approximately 10,000 trained pilots rated as
reserve military aviation to WW I.
002. World War I
The start of WW I in 1914 focused unprecedented attention on military aviation.
While the battles raged in Europe, the US initiated an extensive experimental
program. The efforts of this program evolved into tangible products. For example,
a portable airport for field use was developed, complete with machine shop,
reserve fuels, spare parts, and even a tent-type hangar.
Entry into the war
When the US eventually entered WW I in April 917, Army aviation had made
gradual progress. Aeronautical progress as a whole had been painfully slow,
principally due to public apathy and minimal Government support. The Aviation
Section of the Army had only 78 pilots, none with sufficient experience for
combat. Comparatively, the Army’s airplane inventory of 142 had a deplorable
readiness level of only 55 airplanes suited for battle or comparable to their
European counterparts in overall performance. Against this sobering background,
in May 1917, the French government made a staggering request for American
support—5,000 pilots; 4,500 aircraft; and 50,000 mechanics. The nation
approved this request and Congress appropriated $640 million to develop US air
potential.
2-6
Americans responded enthusiastically to the challenge presented—for American
planes and men to turn the tide of battle in Europe. The Chief Signal Officer,
Brigadier General George O. Squier, reflects enthusiasm when he appealed to
the nations to “put the Yankee punch into the war by building an army in the air,
regiments and brigades of winged cavalry on gas-driven horses.” However, the
air arm contributed modestly to total victory in WW I considering the total effort
expended. Large-scale strategic bombing still belonged to the future.
Only five US Army aviation officers were in the European theater when the US
entered WW I. Three were attending French flying schools, one was an assistant
military attaché in London, and the fifth was an air observer in Spain. This fifth
officer was an extraordinary man—Major William (Billy) Mitchell. Mitchell lost no
time in getting permission to leave Spain and visit the front as an observer.
Research and development during the war
Army air research and development began in October 1917 when the Army
designated McCook Field at Dayton, Ohio, an experimental air research
laboratory. Another development during the same month was the successful
testing of pilotless aircraft. The Sperry Bug was a lightweight aircraft powered by
a Ford engine. This forerunner of the German “buzz bomb” of World War II and
of today’s complex missiles succeeded in striking a small target at a range of 40
miles. Unfortunately, pilotless aircraft wasn’t developed early enough for use in
WW I.
Operations in France
The United States created in first combat air command and appointed Brigadier
General William L. Kenly as chief of the Air Service, American Expeditionary
Force, in France. Throughout WW I, this organization provided control of all US
Army air activities under a single chief. The 103rd Pursuit Squadron, under
French direction, began operations over enemy lines in winter of 1917 and saw
its first combat action when it engaged German aircraft. In subsequent
engagements, Captains Eddie Rickenbacker and Douglas Campbell made
history by becoming the first of many famous US aces. Comparatively, the 96th
Aero Squadron made the first daylight bombings by US planes, in June 1918,
flying out of Amanty, France. Three months later, the fist large-scale air offensive
of the war involved 1,481 combat aircraft against the Germans.
When the war ended on 11 November 1918, Americans had flown more than
35,000 hours over enemy lines, the majority in aircraft of other nations. Although
Army aviation didn’t fulfill the promises and hopes of American leaders, it
underwent changes during the war which definitely improved its position and
pointed the way to future greatness. Between May and August 1918, the whole
aeronautical structure of the War Department underwent a reorganization. The
Aviation Section divorced from the parent body, the Signal Corps, and became
the Air Service. The US effort was commendable when comparing pre-war
2-7
statistics to the close of WW I. In late 1918, the Air Service had grown from the
pre-WW I size of 7 squadrons into 45,078 pilots compared to 767, and 142
airplanes vice 741. This effort continued to grow following WW I.
003. Between World War I and World War II
In the postwar years, airmen around the world attempted to determine lessons
learned about combat air power. Many American and European leaders began to
foresee the dominance air power would have in future wars. Foremost among
American proponents of air power was non-Brigadier General Mitchell. As
Assistant Chief of Staff of at he Air Service from 1920 to 1925, he pushed for
autonomy of the Army’s air arm.
Struggle for autonomy
Upon his return from overseas after WW I, General Mitchell began in earnest his
fight for an independent air force to include both Army and Navy aviation. Mitchell
gained widespread publicity with his enormous air power education campaign.
Additionally, he believed air power would dominate ground and sea forces in a
total war. Therefore, the air arm should have its proper, independent place in the
armed services. Further, Mitchell said the Air Service should dominate the
coastal defense mission, thereby, inciting a feud with the Navy. The real issue
was whether the Air Service had an independent mission to warrant the
separation of aviation from the Army and Navy. However, the issue became
clouded when most of the public mistakenly believed the controversy cantered on
the question of whether or not an airplane could bomb and sink warxhips.
Despite Mitchell’s efforts, the Army maintained control over the air arm. General
Mitchell was subsequently court-martialed for insubordination and resigned from
the Army. He was posthumously exonerated by history. He receives credit for
showing an otherwise apathetic public the importance of air power, helping to
achieve status for the ‘Army Air Corps.
Army Air Corps
The Army Reorganization Act of July 1920 established the Air Service as a
separate branch of the Army. The act authorized a strength of 1,516 officers and
16,000 enlisted personnel versus a count to date of 1,000 and 7,800
respectively. Furthermore, the act required 90 percent of the officers to be pilots
or observers, and for flying officers to command flying units. After passage of the
army Reorganization Act of 1920, airmen observed a period of relative quiet
during which doctrinal and technical developments continued. Then, in July 1926,
Congress passed an amendment changing the name of the Army Air Service to
the Army Air Corps.
Creating the Air Corps implied the new air arm had the capability to perform
independent and auxiliary support operations. The dream of a separate air force
didn’t die through many years passed before the Air Corps gained real
2-8
independence. In fact, during the years between the two world wars, over 75
measures were proposed to give the air arm a greater degree of autonomy; but
all were blocked by conflicts with other military departments.
In the meantime, notable achievements in aircraft technology and pilot skill made
the news. Charles A. Lindbergh made his famous pioneer solo flight from New
York to Paris in May 1927. This was followed by round-the-world flights and new
endurance flights contributing significantly to scientific knowledge, the
development of equipment, and the evolution of air doctrine. The greatest impact
of these achievements on the Air Corps in attributed to the advances in the
design and construction of the aircraft themselves.
Advances in aircraft design and construction
By the early 1930’s, there were three important developments in aircraft
technology:
1. The advent of the monoplane.
2. A growing use of all-metal construction.
3. The use of retractable landing gear.
In 1931, the Air Corps introduced its first all-metal bomber. The B-9, a mid-wing
monoplane, had retractable landing gear, two engines, and the capability of flying
188 miles per hour. With retractable landing gear, bombers could fly close to the
speed of the best fighter planes, which were still limited to fixed landing gear
because of their thin wings. In the same year, the B-10, with enclosed cockpit,
also became operational.
In July and August 1934, the Army Air Corps conducted the first long-range
bomber flights. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Henry “Hap” “Arnold,
ten Martin B-10 bombers, demonstrated a strategic bombing capability while
flying round-trip from Bolling Field to Fairbanks, Alaska. The B-10, first delivered
in 1932, was the fastest and heaviest bomber in the world capable to flying in
excess of 200 miles per hour. With the introduction of the B-9, B-10, and later the
B-12 high-performance bombers, the bomber became capable of eluding fighterinterceptors of comparative speed.
The B-17, a four-engine bomber of revolutionary design, rolled off the assembly
line in 1935. Its range, bomb-carrying capacity, armament, service ceiling, and
rate of climb exceeded earlier bombers. The B -17 was a technical and
engineering achievement. However,, it was equally important for the influence it
had on solidifying the theory of daylight precision bombardment. “The B-17 was
air power,” General Arnold later remarked.
Establishment of General Headquarters Air Force
On 1 March 1935, the term “air force” was first officially used in connection with a
separate general headquarters for the air arm. General Headquarters (GHQ) Air
2-9
Force was established under Brigadier General Frank M. Andrews at Langly
Field, Virginia. This wasn’t a change in designation for the Air Crops. Instead,
GHQ was a new unit within the Army to provide centralized command of a
combat air force using longer range and heavier bombardment aircraft.
General Headquarters Air Force provided an opportunity to demonstrate the
validity of the doctrine of offensive air power by commanding a new combat air
force.
However, the new organization only partially satisfied the proponents of a
separate air force. Though GHQ Air Force was made subordinate to the Air
Corps in 1939, the Air Corps remained subordinate to the Army high command.
Army Air Forces
The need for an overall command for both the Air Corps and the GHQ, Air Force
led to the creation of the Army Air Forces (AAF) in June 1941. Major General
“Hap” Arnold, then chief of the Air Corps, was placed in command of the new
organization. The effective application of the AAF was assured by the
development of air strategy. The concepts and doctrines were later set down in
Air War Plans Division-1 at the Air Corps Tactical School, Maxwell Field,
Alabama. This plan served as a basis for air actions throughout WW II. The ideas
of General Mitchell and other air prophets had finally been accepted and stated
as tactical doctrine.
Under the threat of war, the AAF rapidly expanded. Production of existing heavy
bombers increased and heavier bombers were developed. Authorization was
also given for increased production of light bombers and attack aircraft, and for
an increase in personnel. Then, on 7 December 1941, the Japanese bombed
Pearl Harbor; on the following day, the United States entered the war.
004. World War II
At 0755 on 7 December 1941, 183 aircraft from a Japanese task force attacked
Hickam Field, Wheeler Field, Ford Island, Kaneohe Naval Air Station, Pearl
Harbor, and other targets in the Hawaiian Islands. An hour later, 170 Japanese
planes made a second attack. The Japanese task force achieved results beyond
its wildest dreams: only 79 of 931 AAF planes remained usable, 87 of 169 US
Navy aircraft were destroyed, and ll of the Pacific Fleet’s battleships were either
destroyed or crippled. Naval defense of the central Pacific rested with three US
aircraft carriers at sea during the attack.
Expansion of the AAF
The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor ultimately brought on the greatest
expansion the air force had ever experienced. When the US entered WW II, the
AAF consisted of 975,000 enlisted; 93,000 officers; and 16,000 cadets with
2-10
19,000 planes to fly. There were eight air forces—four in the US and one eachin
the Philippines, Hawaii, Alaska, and the Caribbean.
US air power’s initial response
The first air attack against the Japanese homeland occurred on 18 April 1942,
only a few short months after Pearl Harbor. While the Japanese forces advanced
through the Pacific, the famous “Doolittle Raid” soared toward Japan. Lieutenant
Colonel James H. “Jimmie” Doolittle led 16 B-25 Mitchell medium bombers
launched from the deck of the aircraft carrier Hornet in an attack on Tokyo. For
the first time, the Japanese people felt the full impact of war.
US bombers in Europe and Africa
In June 1942, Major General Carl A. “Tooey” Spaatz arrived in England and
opened his Eighth Air Force (8 AF) headquarters on the outskirts of London.
Under Spaatz’ direction, the honor of being the first AAF unit to fly in Western
Europe fell to the 15th Bombardment Squadron. It flew with the Royal Air Force
(RAF) in an attack against aerodromes in Holland. Two months later, the 97th
Bombardment Group, under the command of Colonel Frank A. Armstrong Jr.,
flew the first American heavy bomber mission from England. The group
successfully attacked the marshaling yards at Rouen-Scottsville in France.
In March 1943, the North African campaign was in full swing with the Eight Army
pushing back Rommel’s hand-picked Afrika Korps. The Ninth Air Force (9 AF)
heavy air bombardment helped break the back of this German fighting group.
The North African campaign had proven the need for an air commander to direct
air-ground operations. This organization resulted in an update to the Army field
manual in June 1943. This update recognized the importance ofair power saying
“land power and air power are co-equal and interdependent forces, neither is an
auxiliary of the other….”
As a result of new Army field manual guidance, the use of air power became
more important toward the war effort in Europe. In December 1943, General
Arnold told all his air commanders in the European theater, “This is a
must…destroy the enemy air forces wherever you find them, in the air, on the
ground, and in the factories.” Two months later, 8 AF flew 3,300 bomber sorties
teamed with 500 sorties of 15 AF against a dozen factories. The resulting
destruction set back enemy aircraft production tow months at a critical time.
Operation OVERLORD
Following careful air preparation, allied forces invaded Normandy on 6 June
1944, during what was called Operation OVERLORD. The objectives of this air
operation were threefold:
2-11
1. Isolate the assault area from German ground reserves.
2. Isolate the assault area from air reinforcements.
3. Destroy coastal defenses and radar capable of endangering the success of the
attack.
Because the Normandy invasion and the collapse of the German army in the
spring of 1945, air power played a tremendous role. As the success of the
German air force began to decline and the AAF success began to grow, one
thing became clear—air superiority was the foundation of most Allied successes
in both air and ground offenses. This realization led to the use of centralized
control of air power for the first time in history.
The air war in the Pacific
The Philippine invasion in October 1944 was covered by naval task forces in later
by land-based aircraft. By January 1945, Japanese air power was shattered. The
critical blow arrived 6 August 1945, when the US dropped the first atomic bomb
on Hiroshima, Japan. The atomic bomb removed the need for mass formation
bombing attacks by giving one aircraft destructive capability of unprecented
magnitude. Moreover, the surrender of Japan without the necessity for invasion
further marked the advent of the “Air Atomic Age.”
005. After World War II
After the surrender of Japan in September 1945, a swift demobilization of the
AAF began. Personnel strength dropped from more than 2.4 million in 1944 to
about 734,000 by January 1946 and the number of aircraft decreased from
80,000 to about 40,000. By June 1947, the personnel strength dipped to 306,000
with only 11 of the 38 groups considered operationally effective.
US air power developments between 1945 and 1950
The immediate postwar years ushered in a period General Hoyt S. Vandenburg,
Air Force Chief of Staff, characterized in 1953 as the air power “holiday.” In 1946,
the US had a monopoly on atomic power, serving the nation as a proverbial bird
in hand. The jet age had arrived and America wsas confronted by the definite
necessity of creating a modern jet-powered air force. However, in the offing were
years of minimum military appropriations requiring Spartan economy.
In view of the funding limitations, the US decided to preserve the striking power
of the nation’s long-range, nuclear-capable bombers. This decision drew
widespread criticism, but rhe fear of swift atomic retaliation proved the greatest
single deterrent to communist aggression durng the period when America’s
military forces were weak in all other aspects. As a result, technology surged.
With the first flight of the B-36 in August 1946, the possibility of intercontinental
bombing moved closer, and the concept of massive retaliation took on a new
meaning. This first truly intercontinental bomber, with the capability of delivering
2-12
the atomic bomb over distances of 10,000 miles, replaced an extensive quantity
of weapons in the US arsenal ensuring a decade of security following WW II.
Other aerospace accomplishments pronounced AAF the inevitable front-runner
of US air superiority:
1. Captain “Chuck” Yeager broke the “sound barrier” on 14 October 1947, by
flying the rocket-powered X-1 after being launched from the belly of a b-29.
2. The Boeing B-50 Lucky Lady flew the first nonstop flight around the world
(23,452 miles) from Carswell AFB, Texas, in March 1949, completing the flight in
94 hours and 1 minute.
3. In-flight refueling extended the around-the-globe strategic capability of the US.
4. The fist all jet swept-wing bomber, the B-47, entered the operational inventory
in 1950. The B-47 could deliver the nuclear bomb at greater speeds and altitudes
than any other aircraft. For that reason, it was destined to become the mainstay
of Strategic Air Command.
Berlin Airlift
August 1948 brought the Berlin Airlift. In a few short years the “peace” of 1945
had been replaced by the “Cold War” of 1948. The Army Air Forces handed the
Soviet Union its first Cold War defeat by airlifting vital supplies to isolated Berlin.
A besieged city surrounded by hostile forces was kept alive and retained as a
part of the free world. Flying more than 275,000 resupply missions, US military
planes delivered more than 2.5 million tons of supplies—including food,
medicine, coal, oil, and building supplies—to Berlin. This rapid and efficient
application of air power for humanitarian purposes further highlighted the
effectiveness of the AAF as a credible instrument of power. However, this effort
wasn’t without error.
On Black Friday, 13 August 1948, bad weather suddenly developed with low
ceilings and torrential rain. The flight controllers at Templehof were unable to
direct 20 planes from Wiesbaden to safe landing in the driving rain. The first C-54
Skymaster overshot the runway, bursting into flames, but the crew escaped. The
next two C-54’s barely escaped the crash. With 17 planes airborne above
Templehof all calling for instructions, Lieutenant Colonel William H. Turner,
commander of the Berlin airlift, successfully took charge ensuring the safe arrival
of the remaining aircraft. General Turner continued to work with pilots, flight
controllers, and ground crews of the airlift task force to improve safety and
efficiency of the operation.
The first operational commands
On 19 December 1945, General Arnold, commanding general of the AAF,
received a plan for the future. The Scientific Advisory Group had completed a 20year plan, called Toward New Horizons, for developing the Air Force. In this
2-13
comprehensive forecast of future needs, supersonic operational aircraft, guided
missiles, and complete weapon systems were labeled “musts” for continued US
air superiority, and intercontinental ballistic missiles were declared technically
feasible.
The AAF established Strategic Air Command (SAC), Tactical Air Command
(TAC), and Air Defense Command (ADC) on 21 March 1946. Establishment of
these three operational commands reflected the missions of the US Air Force in
their true perspective: the deterrent effect of SAC’s capability to carry warfare to
the heartland of any aggressor; TAC’s cooperation with ground forces and its
capability to spearhead US military action in “small wars;” and ADC’s defense of
the homeland. Air Defense Command’s responsibilities included the newly
established air reserve program. With a purpose of reinforcing the Regular Air
Force and the Air National Guard, the reserve program initially took the form of a
fling club with only one objective—pilot proficiency training. With operational
commands organized, the demobilized US still faced the beginning of a Cold War
reflecting a need for powerful forces to deter war. Developing strong forces called
for the creation of a permanent military in peacetime.
The National Security Act of 1947
The National Security Act provided the basis for establishing military strength in
peacetime adequate to deter war. This was a departure from the traditional
‘American concept of reducing standing forces in peacetime. Additionally, this act
provided for unification of the services under an overall National Military
Establishment. One of the most significant features of the National Security Act
was the creation of the United States Air Force (USAF). Thus, the dream air
leaders shared since the days of WW I became a reality.
Unification of the services
The National Security Act sought to preserve and develop the best features of
the independent services and promote unified control. The act didn’t merge the
services. Rather, the act provided for the “coordination and unified direction” of
the services under the secretary of defense. On the same day he signed the act
into law, President Truman appointed James V. Forrestal as the first Secretary of
Defense and head of the new National Military Establishment in 1947. to build
effective new forces with the limited funds available for defense, the nation had to
make changes to its aging, prewar defense structure. The Japanese attack on
Pearl Harbor had shown the need for modernizing US defenses. The US needed
to bring the services together under unified control in order to prevent
unnecessary duplication of effort. However, this change wasn’t without
opposition, most openly from the US Navy.
Navy leaders were concerned unification would lead to loss of naval and Marine
Corps aviation. Congress had sought to put to rest their misgivings by spelling
out in the act the functions, and the missions of the Navy, to include naval and
Marine Corps aviation units. This didn’t satisfy Navy leaders became they wanted
2-14
the Navy included in the strategic air mission. Therefore, the Navy planned to
develop giant aircraft carriers to handle large aircraft to carry atomic weapons
and capable of conducting strategic bombardment. In the past the Navy had
“shown the flag” throughout the world and Navy leaders didn’t want unification to
prevent the Navy from playing an important new deterrent role.
Unification also required close coordination with the civil government teaming
together the military, economic, and political aspects of defense. Additionally, the
act authorized a Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) composed of the Chiefs of Staff of the
Army and the Air Force, the Chief of naval Operations, the Chief of Staff to the
President, and joint staff of no more than 100 officers. In time the “Chief of Staff
to the President” was renamed secretary of defense (SECDEF) and a chairman
(CJCS) was authorized as chief military adviser to the SECDEF and the
President.
Problems existed with the SECDEF’s total responsibility for, yet limited authority
to, control the military services. For example, the SECDEF was authorized to
establish general policies and programs for defense, exercise general directions
over the services, take steps to eliminate unnecessary duplication, and
coordinate budget estimates prepared by the Departments of the Army, Navy,
and Air Force. However, each Service Secretary exercised control over the
budget for his service and had direct access to the President. Congress
corrected this problem; the National Security Act Amendments of 1949 changed
the name of the National Military Establishment to the Department of Defense
(DoD), established the DoD as an executive department, and made the military
departments subordinate to the DoD. With the new status afforded the DoD, the
SECDEF could make decisions about how to divide the defense dollar among
the services. In the future, services would present a united front and a single
defense budget to the Congress and the US public.
Challenges to the infant USAF
Regardless of opposition, unification became a reality and the USAF became an
independent service. The Depart of the Air Force was created when President
Harry S. Truman signed the National Security Act of 1947. This act became
effective 18 September 1947, when Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson administered
the oath of office to presidential appointee W. Stuart Symington, the first
Secretary of the Air Force. Under the National Security Act, the functions,
property, personnel, and records assigned to the former AAF transferred to the
Department of the Air Force in an orderly two-year implementation plan.
Secretary of Defense Forrestal had to define the Air Force’s role and mission—its
job description—as set forth by the new act before he could decide whether Navy
claims for part of the air power mission were justified. Finding you the exact
nature of the USAF roles and mission presented a problem. The Air Force, unlike
the Army and Navy, had no previous laws defining its composition and powers.
The act describes the USAF mission in the broadest terms; the Air Force is
2-15
responsible for conducting “offensive and defensive air operations” for the nation.
This overall assignment takes in a vast number of operations and a limitless area
around the globe and above it—far into space.
With the strategic importance air power acquired during WW II and the coming of
the atom bomb, the US could no longer rely on the protection of its oceans. Even
while the Air Force was taking shape as a separate service, in the years
immediately following its founding (1947-50), it faced the mounting pressures of
the Cold War in Berlin and Korea. For airmen there was no respite; as they
sought to meet the challenge of the communists in Europe and asia, they faced
new battles at home. Events during these three years helped determine the
position air power would occupy in future US strategy; and the part of the Air
Force would play on the national defense team.
General Arnold displayed exceptional forethought by writing detailed transition
plans for the Air Force during WW II with considerable encouragement from his
commander, Army Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall. General Marshall
believed the AAF earned a place as a separate service by its performance during
WW II. Working closely with General Arnold was General Carl A. “Tooey” Spaatz,
a modest man of great competence who shunned publicity. General Spaatz
succeeded General Arnold as commanding general of the AAF in ‘February
1946. When General Dwight D. Eisenhower replaced General Marshall as Army
Chief of Staff, the two worked together on plans for an independent Air Force,
just as had Generals Marshall and Arnold.
Influence of General Spaatz
General Spaatz became the final champion of autonomy for the Air Force and its
first chief of staff. When General Spaatz took over his new duties, the first
Secretary of the Air Force, W. Stuart Symington, was already on the job. The
new Air Force was fortunate in having these two men as its first leaders. They
understood air power as an instrument of national policy and its prime
importance in national defense. General Spaatz and Secretary Symington also
know how to plead the cause of air power and win public support for the Air
Force.
The combat experience of General Spaatz dated back to WW I. In the lean years
between wars, he had served under Arnold. During WW II, Spaatz became a
master of strategic planning and commanded US Strategic Air Forces in both the
European and Pacific theaters. In the European theater, he participated in preinvasion campaigns and directed the final phase of the bombing offensive
against Germany. After Germany surrendered, General Spaatz was sent directly
to the Pacific theater, where he supervised the final strategic bombing of Japan.
As a key air combat commander during the war, General Spaatz was present at
all three signings of unconditional surrender—at Reims, France; Berlin; and
Tokyo. Although General Spaatz was a hard-driving operational commander and
ardent advocate of air power, he was a man who had a knack for getting along
2-16
with people having views different from his own. General Spaatz was prepared to
lead the new Air Force in assuming its role as a long-range strategic deterrent to
war.
When the Soviet Union broke the US nuclear monopoly and began to produce a
stockpile of nuclear weapons and the means for delivery, the Air Force
developed intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM) for carrying nuclear warheads
and strengthened its strategic bomber forces. It also developed both nucleararmed and conventional tactical weapons to prevent limited wars. Backed by
varied and flexible tactical forces, as well as the powerful nuclear-armed strategic
forces, the Air Force helped meet the communist challenged in Berlin, Korea,
Vietnam, and other places throughout the world.
006. The Korean War era
When war erupted in Korea on 25 June 1950, the armed services were thinking
of another total war thereby placing tremendous faith in our strategic striking
power. However, the Korean War was fought by United Nations (UN) forces
operating under unique rules. The United States and UN’s primary objective, to
confine the conflict to the Korean peninsula, prevented triggering WW III.
Consequently, personnel and planes of the USAF weren’t allowed to wage a total
strategic bombing campaign against enemy bases or other key sites located
outside Korea. At that time, the US had limited ground and air strength to fight a
conventional war. The Air Force, which had emphasized its long-range strategic
bomber force, found itself in a difficult position. The pilots had to sharpen their
close air support and interdiction operational skills in actual combat. President
Truman gave priority to the USAF to build up forces for the Korean War to deter
war with the Soviets. Additionally, the President didn’t authorize the use of
strategic nuclear bombs in Korea because it would deplete the small nuclear
stockpile necessary in the event of a Soviet attack in Europe.
The Air Force continued to feel the pinch of budgetary limitations in the first half
of 1950. Despite required cutbacks, the USAF placed great importance on
increasing its capacity for combat. To this end, it advanced a joint program of
training with the other military services. This policy proved to be wise, for another
war was just over the horizon. Training and combat experience aided the USAF’s
success in many missions.
Air-to-air achievements
The first air battle in Korea took place on the morning of 27 June 1950. a flight of
F-89 Twing Mustangs spotted five Soviet-build YAK fighters heading for Kimpo
Airfield where US dependents were being evacuated to Japan. When the battle
ended, three YAKs had been shot down; Lieutenant William G. Hudson received
credit for the first aerial kill of the war. Late the same afternoon, General
MacArthur ordered the Far East Air Forces (FEAF) to strike North Korea ground
forces. This order marked the beginning of the air phase of the Korean War.
2-17
General Stratemeyer commented, “Nothing in the Korean War changes the basic
fact that air superiority must be won before ground and sea forces can move
freely in modern war.”
The first use of jet fighters by both sides in aerial combat took place in November
1950. For months after the war had started, Korea was the scene of a dogfight
between the F-80 Shooting Star and the Russian-build MiG-15. Although the F80 was inferior in performance, it emerged the victor. Subsequent jet air battles
over North Korea tested the F-86 Sabre against the MiG and resulted in a 14-to-1
kill ratio in favor of the US. The MiG-15 was somewhat superior in performance
to the Sabre. However, Sabre pilots were superior fliers and adapted tactics to
make up for aircraft disadvantages.
Airlift enhancements
The Korean airlift, different in nature and purpose from the Berlin airlift, occurred
in 1951. The air combat logistics operation to Korea, and the evacuation of the
wounded there, further demonstrated the capability and versatility of a the USAF.
The helicopter evacuation of injured personnel reduced casualties by
unprecedented percentages and resulted in full acceptance of this versatile
aircraft by US military forces.
Interdiction successes
The first tactical-guided missile unit was organized in September 1951. Inclusion
of the TM-61 Matador in the operational inventory marked another first. The new
guided missile squadron, later deployed overseas, was another step in the
evolution of air power. The importance of air power was a decisive factor in
warfare was dynamically demonstrated on 23-25 June 1952. On those days, UN
aircraft destroyed or put out of commission more than 90 percent of North
Korea’s electric power potential. In 1953, UN air forces destroyed hydroelectric
dams as well as irrigation dams the enemy depended upon to control the
watering of crops. This taste of total war greatly influenced the Communists and
increased their willingness to negotiate a truce.
After the armistice negotiations began in 1951, both sides adopted the political
and military objective of winning favorable truce terms. UN air forces ere given
the mission of preventing the Communists from launching a sustained ground
attack. The UN ground forces stabilized a strong defensive line, and the air
attacks became the offensive element in a successful overall war strategy.
The Korean Was officially ended on 27 July 1953, at which time General O.P.
Weyland commanded the FEAF. The air campaign in Korea was actually an air
war in its own right. A considerable part of the air effort was made in support of
Army units, but more than half of this effort was aimed at the goal of getting the
best possible armistice terms for the UN.
2-18
007. Air Force evolution in the atomic age
When the Korean War ended in 1953, the American people wanted no more
limited wars. President Eisenhower believed the Soviets could defeat us in either
of two ways:
1. A strong nuclear attack on the US homeland.
2. Forcing the US in to national bankruptcy through a series of limited wars.
The President disposed of the second option by vowing never again to risk
economic harm by fighting on the enemy’s terms. Therefore, the administration
felt the US needed nuclear weapons of all descriptions and a strong strategic air
force.
Organizational changes during the 1950s
In the fall of 1953, the JCS reappraised the strategic outlook and planned to
increase USAF strength. Consequently, a buildup of the USAF wing program
resumed in 1954 after a delay throughout the previous year to allow time for
program analysis. Then, in fiscal year 1955, the USAF budget became the
largest of all US military departments helping to achieve a goal of 137 wings.
There were three milestone reserve laws in the fifties. These were as follows:
•
•
•
Armed Forces Reserve Act of 1952.
Reserve Officer Personnel Act of 1954.
Reserve Forces Act of 1955.
The Armed Forces Reserve Act standardized pay and training categories and
established Ready, Standby, and Retired Reserve mobilization categories.
Patterned after the Officer Personnel Act of 1947, the Reserve Officer Personnel
Act established a system of permanent promotion for reservists. The Reserve
Forces Act doubled the legally permissible size of the Ready Reserve and
authorized a recruitment of non-prior service personnel into the Reserve.
On 1 August 1957, a defense organization for North America was established.
The North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), a joint USCanadian organization to defend North America from air attack, was established
by informal agreement and was formally consummated by treaty in May 1958.
Also in August 1957, General Nathan F. Twining became CJCS. Twining was the
first USAF officer to serve in this important post. Meanwhile, new weapons
systems were being developed to support the new war-fighting organization.
Next came the Defense Reorganization Act of 1958. By this time, the services
had experience in working together as a result of the Berlin airlift and the Korean
War. The smooth teamwork between the services today was developed with
experience and adjustments. In the years immediately following passage of the
2-19
National Security Act, the services, although nominally unified, were still fighting
their separate battles. The controversies that resulted helped to define basic
principles about the employment of weapons and about the roles and missions of
the individual services.
Advances in aircraft
The Air Research and Development Command unveiled guided missiles and the
rocket-powered aircraft, X-2, in 1953. The X-2, built of steel and titanium, was
designed to overcome the “thermal barrier” which occurs when an aircraft travels
beyond a speed of mach 2 (twice the speed of sound). Also in 1953, the USAF
was assigned sole responsibility for the operational employment of land-based
intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBM). By 1954, all USAF fighter planes
were jet-propelled, and more than 50 of the combat wings were fully jet
equipped. Jet-powered bombers and fighters manned by highly trained crews
provided the deterrent force primarily responsible for national security. The
Century-series fighters and the B-52 jet bombers, which entered service in 1955,
gave the nation global security.
Research on manned aircraft extended into new realms in 1955. Altitudes higher
than 90,000 feet and speeds greater than mach 2 (twice the speed of sound)
opened new vistas in the continuing race for air superiority. As rocket-propelled
aircraft probed the fringes of space, human capabilities became a dominant
consideration. With speed records being repeatedly broken, the “heat barrier”
replaced the “sound barrier” as a major challenge.
From 16 to 18 January 1957, a 24,325-mile global circumnavigation was
completed in 45 hours and 16 minutes. On a simulated mission, three B-52
Stratofortress bombers circled the globe nonstop at unprecedented speeds. The
globe was shrinking as the capabilities of the US Air Force were expanding. Just
six months later, the Air Force publicly unveiled its first supersonic medium
bomber, the Convair B-58 Hustler. The Hustler flew at twice the speed of the B52 and had a radical design including a needle-like fuselage, a delta-shaped
wing, and a disposable pod capable of housing nuclear weapons.
A new balloon ascension record was set by Major David G. Simons, a physician,
in August 1957. His balloon rose to the height of 100,000 feet—nearly 19 miles—
where it remained for 39 hours—another world’s record. Major Simons’ purpose
was to prepare the way for space travel by noting his own reactions to the great
height while automatic machines recorded his vital data.
008. Emergence of a new aerospace concept
The development of strategy for space began in 1957 with the Soviet’s launching
of Sputnik I. A series of events and achievements in the 1950’s and 1960’s show
the Air Force’s participation in the evolution of aerospace strategy.
2-20
Atlas achievements
In an important step toward space travel in the following decade, the USAF
teamed with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and
successfully fired an Atlas ICBM in December 1957. This missile was fired from
Cape Canaveral, Florida, and flew to a pre-selected target area 500 miles away.
With only a few weeks to recover, the Cape took on a challenging launch
schedule.
The Air Force fired an Atlas D-series missile the full intercontinental range of
6,325 miles for the first time on 28 November 1958. Two weeks later, an Atlas
was launched to place an 800-pound satellite into orbit containing a tape
recording of President Eisenhower’s Christmas message to the world. After the
successful firing of an Atlas missile in July 1959, President Eisenhower declared
the Atlas operational. Both the Air Force and NASA were to adapt this ICBM for
the heavier weight lifting tasks in the early pioneering years of space.
On 13 October 1960, the Air Force fired an Atlas rocket from Cape Canaveral
that carried three black mice in its nose cone. After soaring 700 miles in to space,
the nose cone was recovered from the Atlantic 5,000 miles away from the launch
point. The mice became the first living creatures to be recovered alive from such
a great distance in space. The following month, the second space capsule was
recovered in the air over the Pacific. After the capsule had passed around the
earth 31 times, the satellite released it on signal, and an Air Force C-119 flying at
an altitude of 9,500 feet made the recovery.
Reconnaissance improvements
On 1 May 1960, a US U-2 high-altitude jet reconnaissance plane, flown by
Francis Gary Powers was downed in the Soviet Union. The incident set in motion
a chain of military and diplomatic repercussions. For example, Soviet Premier
Khrushchev refused to attend a summit conference scheduled for 16 May, unless
President Eisenhower apologized to the Soviet Union for U-2 flights. The Big
Four leaders went to Paris, but the conference wasn’t held. On 10 February
1962, Powers was freed in exchange for Rudolf Abel, a convicted Soviet spy who
was serving a 30-year term imposed by the United States in 1957.
The U-2 initiated another diplomatic situation in October 1962 referred to as the
Cuban Missile Crisis. On 14 October 1962, Air Force Majors Rudolf Anderson,
Jr., and Richard S. Heyser, flying U-2 reconnaissance for SAC, discovered the
Soviets were completing sites for offensive, medium-range ballistic missiles
(MRBM) located in Cuba. Over the next 13 days, President Kennedy and
Premier Krushchev exchanged demonstrative messages in diplomatic attempts
to thwart a nuclear war.
Tensions mounted when U-2 pilot Anderson was shot down by a Soviet surfaceto-air missile (SAM) while flying reconnaissance over Cuba. After considering the
2-21
consequences of retaliation, the President decided the US must make another
attempt at peaceful settlement. On 28 October, the Soviets agreed to dismantle
the strategic missile sites in Cuba and return the missiles to the USSR. The
nuclear confrontation was over. In the aftermath, the US removed intermediaterange ballistic missiles (IRBM) from Europe and Turkey.
X-15 enhancements
On 18 June 1959, the X-15 performed its first free flight from an altitude of
35,000 feet. This high-speed, very high-altitude manned research vehicle was
used by the USAF, NASA, and USN to study technical and physiological
problems encountered during reentry from flights beyond the earth’s atmosphere.
Carried aloft and launched from the wing of a B-52, the rocket-powered X-15
made its first flight in September 1959. Two years later, a world record speed of
4,093 miles per hour was set by Major Robert M. White, USAF, in the X-15
rocket plane over Edwards AFB, California. Major White had established a new
altitude mark of 50 miles in the X-15 a month earlier. The X-15’s last flight—the
199th—was made in 1968. During the course of the $300 million research
program, the X-15 team collected, evaluated, and reported data on hypersonic
(mach 5) aerodynamics, reentry heating problems, and stability and control, as
well as the physiological and psychological aspects of flight.
Satellites and space travel
On 31 January 1958, Explorer I, the first US satellite to go in to orbit, was
launched by a Jupiter C rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida. The following
month, Airman Donald C. Ferrell became one of the men contributing to research
on the physiological and psychological effects of space travel when he entered a
space cabin at Randolph AFB, Texas, for a week’s stay. On 26 March 1958,
Explorer III, the third US satellite, was put in to orbit. Two months later, a USAF
F-104 Starfighter attained a new world altitude record. Piloted by Major Howard
C. Johnson, it flew to 91,249 feet.
Spring 1959 marked a historic event when several volunteers chosen to be
America’s first spacemen under Project Mercury were introduced to the public. A
year later, the Pioneer V, a basketball sized satellite was put in to orbit by a ThorAble booster. Pioneer V transmitted for three months and traveled an impressive
23 million miles.
A Project Mercury capsule designed to carry a US astronaut in to orbit was
tested on 31 January 1961. The Atlas ICBM booster was modified to make it safe
for boosting an astronaut in to orbit in the Mercury. In the capsule, a 37-pound
chimpanzee was rocketed in to space and successfully recovered. The following
day, a solid-fueled, three-stage Minuteman missile was fired for the first time in a
successful test at Cape Canaveral. The missile was intended to become the
number one weapon of the US Air Force. Less than three weeks later,
2-22
Discoverer XX was launched in to polar orbit from Vandenberg AFB, California; it
was the longest and heaviest of the earth satellites in the Discoverer series.
On 5 May 1961, the United States recovered some lost ground in the space race,
after the successful launch of the Soviet Union’s Yuri Gegarin, when Commander
Alan B. Shepard, Jr., USN, was rocketed 116.5 miles above the Earth in a
Mercury capsule. He landed safely in the Atlantic 302 miles away. Two months
later, a similar suborbital flight was also successful. The astronaut this time was
Captain Virgil I. Grissom of the USAF.
Within 9 months after Shepard’s space experience, Lieutenant Colonel John
Glenn, Jr., USMC, became the first American to orbit the earth on 20 February
1962. The Atlas missile with its 360,000-pound thrust, hurled his Friendship 7
capsule into space from Cape Canaveral. Colonel Glenn circled the earth three
times traveling more than 81,000 miles in 4 hours and 56 minutes. The historic
mission ended when Glenn and his capsule were recovered from the Atlantic
near Grand Turk Island by the destroyer USS Noa. A week after Colonel Glenn’s
historic flight, Discoverer XXXVIII was launched in to orbit from Vandenberg AFB,
California, carrying a classified cargo. The Discoverer made 65 orbits in four
days, breaking the previous record.
On 24 May 1962, Lieutenant Colonel M. Scott Carpenter, USN, became the
second American to orbit the globe. His three-orbit trip ended in a period of
uncertainty caused by accidentally overshooting the target area in the Atlantic by
250 miles. As his capsule came down into the water, two USAF paramedics from
the Air Rescue Service jumped into the water to assist him until a helicopter
arrived.
The longest and final flight of project mercury occurred on 15 and 16 May 1963.
Air Force Major L. Gordon Cooper orbited the earth 22 times in the Mercury
capsule Z7. Cooper’s capsule was carried aloft by an Atlas D rocket from Cape
Canaveral and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean 34 hours later.
The race between the US and the USSR to be the first to place a man on the
moon was an on-again, off-again affair during 1963. Regardless, the US had
orbited three times as many satellites as the USSR. NASA had concentrated on
the Gemini program for development of a two-crew spacecraft as a preliminary
step to the Apollo lunar expeditions. As the year drew to an end, Cape Canaveral
was renamed Cape Kennedy in grateful remembrance of the late President John
F. Kennedy who had led our country in to space.
009. War in Vietnam
The United States dependency on air power became even more apparent during
the war in Southeast Asia. The air wars were fought at both long range—the
bombing of North Vietnam—and short range—close air support and interdiction.
2-23
Operation ROLLING THUNDER—the bombing of North Vietnam, 1965-1968
The air strikes against North Vietnam in early 1965 and the first ROLLING
THUNDER missions were intended to warn of heavier punishment. Additionally,
ROLLING THUNDER’s interdiction bombing of military barracks, naval bases,
railroad yards, bridges, and lines of communication in the southern part of North
Vietnam was intended to complement the main employment of ground forces for
tasks inside South Vietnam.
The United States gradually escalated the air campaign after 1965 while trying to
convince Hanoi to negotiate a peace settlement. Although the North Vietnamese
agriculture-based society was a poor target, the monthly sortie rate flown by the
USAF reached 12,000 in 1966. By 1967, air attacks were concentrated on
electric power plants, airfields, certain industries, and the rail lines leading from
China. A majority of these attacks were on interdiction targets, few of which were
economically suited for attack by expensive high-performance aircraft.
ROLLING THUNDER became a classic campaign of measures and
countermeasures, as each day airmen and defenders fought ground-air battles.
The effectiveness of Soviet-build SAMs required US aircraft to penetrate the
target at low levels where they were exposed to ground fire. The USAF began to
use the Wild Weasel fighter equipped with radar-detecting gear and radarhoming Shrike rockets for attacks on the SAM sites. The Air Force also used
fighters for defensive cover against MiGs. However, ROLLING THUNDER failed
to persuade Hanoi to cease actions in the South and resulted in more than 900
American planes lost in North Vietnam.
The in-country war, 1968-1972
Bombing over North Vietnam was replaced with interdiction along the Ho Chi
Minh Trail. Technical improvements to interdiction capabilities of AC-119 and AC130 gunships enabled the USAF to locate and destroy large numbers of vehicles.
Additionally, B-52 raids proved especially effective against truck parks, storage
depots, and logistical staging areas. Although enemy infiltration was never
completely halted, re-supply became inc4reasingly costly for North Vietnam after
1968.
Air power was used in South Vietnam essentially as a complementary, or as a
substitute for, ground artillery. Although Army and Marine Corps artillery
eventually blanketed the country with guns up to 175 millimeters, tactical air
cover could deliver heavier blows and concentrate its full effort at the point of
immediate need. Air power and artillery became complementary, and
arrangements for coordinating fire requests were worked out. The infantry would
find the enemy forces and the USAF would destroy them. Heavy bombers
provided interdiction bombing, secret strikes along the borders, and high altitude
day or night support.
2-24
Operation LINEBACKER I and II
President Nixon suspended the unproductive Paris talks in early May 1972 and
authorized Operation LINEBACKER, an intensive air campaign against North
Vietnam,. Nixon imposed few restrictions on air operations as he sought to
convince Hanoi of the US determination to support the Republic of Vietnam and
to prevent the military defeat of that country. Air Force and Navy aircraft mined
Haiphong harbor, struck at war-making capabilities, and conducted interdiction
strikes within North Vietnam. Using laser-guided “smart bombs,” American pilots
were able to complete their missions with far greater ease than previous years.
LINEBACKER I operations continued until October.
The final contribution of air power to the Vietnam War came in December 1972
when President Nixon launched LINEBACKER II. For 12 days, these massive B52 raids against military targets near Hanoi and Haiphong, unlike the ROLLING
THUNDER missions years earlier, convinced the North Vietnamese to sign the
cease-fire agreement.
010. The early post-Vietnam years
With the close of the war in Vietnam, the US experienced a strong mixture of
emotions and reactions. Americans were grateful to be out of Vietnam under any
circumstances. However, many were highly critical of decisions precluding a total
war effort. Government leaders seemed to reflect the mood of the country in their
uncertainty over the future role of the US in the world. Many Americans lobbied
for a policy of isolation while others wanted the US to remain the leader of the
free world in the struggle against communism. The military services found
themselves in a difficult position in this controversy, especially in the face of the
ever-growing Soviet military machine. In this lesson, we’ll focus on three key
aspects affecting the USAF following the Vietnam War. These are as follows:
•
•
•
Total force concept.
Sociological events.
Technological advances.
Total force concept
The last C-124 and C-119 left the inventory in 1970. They were replaced by C130s, C-123s and C-7s in the active force, and by C-141s, C-5s and C-9s in the
associate unites. While the early stages of re-equipping took place, Secretary of
Defense James R. Schlesinger, in 1973, validated a concept the USAF had been
pursuing for years. The total force concept was a major reversal of policy
whereby the reserve components became the initial source of augmentation of
the active force rather than the draft. The total force policy integrated the active,
guard, and reserve forces into a homogeneous whole. Consequently, reserve
units had to meet the same readiness standards as the active force and the
2-25
services had to assure—through equipment, facilities, training and manning
policies—that they could.
Re-equipped as the active force’s manning decreased, the Air Force Reserve
(AFRES) acquired new missions with nontraditional training; many were directed
and regula5rly scheduled. For example, Air Force reservists rotated EC-12’s to
Iceland to conduct the airborne early warning and control missions there. Other
missions included the Panama Canal rotation, aerial spray forest fire retardation,
aerial refueling, and weather reconnaissance. All of these missions had to be
conducted as needed, versus when the reservists could conveniently train.
Meanwhile, the airlift and rescue missions continued.
Unrelated to Southeast Asia, another international crisis drew the AFRES into its
vortex. From October to November 1973, AFRES aircrew members in the six
associate wings participated in C-141 and aC-5 flights carrying supplies to
embattled Israel during the new Arab-Israeli war. Of 650 reservists who
volunteered, 286 aircrew members actually flew into the Middle East. Meanwhile,
1,495 reservists flew routine MAC missions.
USAF sociological events
On 30 June 1974, the Air Force successfully concluded its first full year in the allvolunteer era. One hundred percent of its procurement goals were met by
recruiting 75,000 enlisted and 9,100 officers. Also in 1974, the President signed
Public Law 93-525 ending the requirement that only pilots could command flying
units of the USAF. Under the new law, any line officer was eligible to command
flying units.
The Air Force’s overseas tactical airlift resources were consolidated and
transferred to MAC Headquarters at Scott AFB, Illinois, in 1975. This transfer
also included the aeromedical evacuation resources in Europe and the Pacific.
The change was the second major step toward consolidation of all USAF airlift—
tactical and strategic—under MAC. The first step had been the consolidation of
all continental US (CONUS) tactical airlift in December 1974. Meanwhile, rescue
units had evolved into a composite force equipped with the fixed wing HC-130s
and the HH-1H, HH-3, and UH-1N helicopters.
President Ford signed a bill authorizing women to attend the military academies
in October 1975. By January 1976, the US Air Force Academy (USAFA)
Preparatory School had begun admitting women students. The first female
cadets entered the USAFA in June 1976. These 157 women, along with 1,438
men, formed the Class of 1980. The Air Force assigned 15 female air training
officers (ATOs) to serve as “upper classmen” for the women cadets. The ATOs
were junior officers who had undergone training in the ways of the Academy so
they could assist the female cadets in their new environment.
2-26
A month later, the USAF undertook the responsibility of aerial navigator training
for all branches of the armed services. The consolidation was expected to save
more than $800,000 annually. The aircraft used in the consolidated program was
the Air Force T-43 jet navigator trainer.
Ten women pilot candidates began training at the Officer Training School (OTS)
at Lackland AFB, Texas, in August 1976. The program consisted of 16 days of
intensive academic work at Lackland training annex and flying training at Hondo
Municipal Airport in the T-41 single engine aircraft. Department of Defense
regulations required women to meet the same medical and physical standards as
their male counterparts, but public law (Title 10) restricted women to duty in noncombat aircraft and assignments. Also at Lackland, 60 women began training in
a test program at the Air Force Security Police Academy. This test program was
designed to determine how well women handle security specialist duties. As a
result of this successful program, all duty assignments in the security police field
are now open to women.
Senator John C. Stennis, Chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee,
reintroduced a bill prohibiting military unions. This version contained language
that specifically permitted associations such as the Air Force Association to
operate. On this issue, the US Chamber of Commerce publicly stated its
opposition to any “attempts to organize the US armed forces,” and the Air Force
Association reiterated its unequivocal rejection of military unionization.
Senator Barry M. Goldwater sponsored a bill to recognize the accomplishments
of the Women Air Service Pilots (WASP) in World War II and to extend veterans
benefits to these women. The WASP, all civilian volunteers, flew more than
60,000,000 miles between September 1942 and December 1944. Thirty-eight of
them lost their lives in either training or operations and fewer than 1,000 of them
ere still alive in 1977.
USAF technological advances
The Air Force was fortunate to be able to continue research and development for
producing new weapon systems while it was heavily engaged in combat in
Vietnam. By practicing rigid economy, the USAF made funds available for new
aircraft and weapons after the war ended. The first example of these
technological advances is the first air-launched missile. The feasibility of air
launching an ICBM (Minuteman I) was proven on 24 October 1974. On that date
a C-5 air-dropped the missile; it ignited and performed successfully.
SR-71 spy plane
The SR-71 aircraft set a new speed record of 1 hour, 55 minutes, 42 seconds in
a transatlantic flight from New York to London in September 1974. The aircraft
covered 3,490 statute miles with an average sped of 1,817 miles per hour. The
flight broke a pervious record that was set by a British Royal Navy F-4K in 1969.
Later that month, the SR-71 set a new speed record on the return flight from
2-27
London to Los Angeles by covering a distance of 5,645 miles in 3 hours and 47
minutes. Between the next two years, six new world speed and altitude records
were set by the USAF’s SR-71. An SR-71 flown by Majors Adolphus H. Bledsoe
and John L. Fuller set world-absolute and world-class records for a closed circuit
by streaking to 2,088 miles per hour. During the same period, an SR-71 set the
record for altitude in horizontal flight, flying to 85,100 feet.
B-1 Bomber
The B-1 bomber officially rolled out of the Rockwell International plant in 1976. A
variable geometry (swing wing) bomber, the B-1 was originally scheduled to
become the replacement for the aging B-52. The B-1 made its first flight on 23
December 1976. After takeoff, the crew flew the bomber to 90,000 feet,
configured the wings to a 25-degree sweep, and accelerated to mach 1.05
(approximately 775 m.p.h.) for its first flight faster than the speed of sound. By
April 1975 it had flown six times, logging 19 hours and 32 minutes flight time. Six
months later, the second prototype B-1 strategic bomber was rolled out at
Palmdale, California. This was the first B-1 with a complete avionics system,
including an offensive operator’s station. This prototype was designed to
evaluate the B-1’s offensive capability.
In May 1977, General David C. Jones, Air Force Chief of Staff, accepted the
prestigious Robert J. Collier Trophy of 1976. The Collier Trophy is presented
annually for “the greatest achievement in aeronautics or astronautics in America”
during the previous year. The trophy was awarded to the Air Force for its role in
designing and developing the B-1 bomber. Also in that month, Secretary of the
Air Force John C. Stetson stated his belief the US must maintain the critical
balance of power then existing between the US and USSR. The major factors in
maintaining this balance, he said, would be the B-1 bomber, the Airborne
Warning and Control System (AWACS), and the modernization of the ICBM
force. In June, however, President Carter cancelled the B-1 after his
administration had earlier reduced the fiscal year 1978 request for B-1s from
eight to five.
Fighters
The Air Force announced the procurement of the F-5E Tiger II fighter aircraft for
its own inventory. Originally developed for foreign military sales, the Tiger II was
a highly maneuverable, supersonic aircraft designed primarily for air superiority
with an effective ground support capability.
Meanwhile, the first F-15 was delivered to TAC and accepted at Luke AFB,
Arizona, by President Gerald R. Ford. The first F-15 Eagle assigned to an
operational Air Force unit arrived at Langley AFB, Virginia, in January 1976. The
F-15 was designed to ensure America’s ability to maintain air superiority through
the 1980’s with approximately 749 in the active inventory. An additional 20 F-15’s
were planned for research use.
2-28
General Dynamics Corporation’s YF-16 was selected for full-scale engineering
development as the Air Force’s new lightweight combat fighter in 1975.
Designated the F-16, 650 of the new fighters were planned to be in the USAF
inventory by the early 1980s. On 20 October 1976,the USAF unveiled this new,
light-weight supersonic fighter aircraft, the Fighting Falcon. Capable of flying at
twice the speed of sound, Western European nations would also acquire the F16.
Command and control
In March 1977, the 552nd Airborne Warning and Control Wing at Tinker AFB,
Oklahoma, received the first production E-3A Sentry aircraft. The E-3A AWACS
was a plane with the capability to “look down” and distinguish targets from
ground clutter. The E-3A antenna has a range of more than 250 miles. Another
aircraft modified for electronic warfare made its debut in March 1977 when the
EF-111A made its maiden flight. The first of two prototypes, this tactical jamming
system aircraft was capable of operating at mach 2.1 at an altitude of 50,000
feet, or at mach 1.4 just above ground level.
011. The Air Force from 1978 to present
During the two decades following the Vietnam War, the Air Force continued to
mature and evolve as an organization and fighting force.
The organization
Late in 1978, the USAF Chief of Staff noted the AFRES was no longer “partners”
with the Air Force; instead it was symbolically “part” of the USAF. Both AFRES
and the Air Reserve Personnel Center earned the Air Force Organizational
Excellence Award for “exceptionally meritorious service” in 1977 and 1978.
On 12 April 1978 the Air Force announced a reorganization of the Office of the
Secretary of the Air Force and of the Sir Staff. The change involved the
establishment of seven new separate operating agencies. Today, the USAF has
37 operating agencies.
By the end of January 1980, women comprised 10 percent of the active duty Air
Force. Of the 553,376 people on active duty, there were 7,600 women officers
and 48,000 enlisted women. accordingly, only these four combat-related enlisted
specialties remained closed to women:
•
•
•
Security specialist.
Aerial gunner.
Pararescue/recovery specialist.
Ratio operator/maintenance driver on forward combat control teams.
2-29
Further reorganization of the USAF continued in the summer of 1979. The
Aerospace Defense Command was inactivated and its responsibilities transferred
to various commands. Management of active USAF interceptor planes, and
ground-based air defense radars and control centers, was transferred to TAC.
Space surveillance and missile warning field resources were transferred to SAC.
However, the operational control of strategic air defense, space surveillance, and
missile warning assets remained with the Commander-in-Chief of NORAD
(CINCNORAD). Additionally, management of communication resources was
transferred to the Air Force Communications Command (AFCCF).
The force became more available in December 1980 when President Jimmy
Carter signed Public Law 96-584. This law gave the chief executive more
flexibility in ordering reservists to active duty. Specifically, the law raised the total
recall from 50,000 to 100,000 for a 90-day period without a declaration of war or
proclamation of a national emergency.
The Air Force Space Command (AFSPACECOM) was established in September
1982 to control military space systems as they progress from developmental to
operational systems. It was also designed to meet the Soviet threat from space.
The Soviets were launching four to five times as many satellites as the
Americans, with over 70 percent considered military. Today, AFSPACECOM
operates four missile launch facilities, over 20 worldwide space communication
and missile warning units, two space launch facilities, and one command and
control facility. Key operational units in AFSPACECOM include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Headquarters, Air Force Space Command, Peterson AFB, Colorado
14th Air Force, Vandenberg AFB, California
20th Air Force, Francis E. Warreen AFB, Wyoming
21st Space Wing, Peterson AFB, Colorado
30th Space Wing, Vandenburg AFB, California
45th Space Wing, Patrick AFB, Florida
50th Space Wing, Falcon AFB, Colorado
90th Missile Wing, Francis E. Warren AFB, Wyoming
91st Missile Wing, Minot AFB, North Dakota
321st Missile Wing, Grand Forks, North Dakota
341st Missile Wing, Malmstron AFB, Montana
Space Warfighting Center, Falcon AFB, Colorado
Sharpening the tip of the sword—aeronautical achievements
Major Robert Summers and Captain Thomas Vanderheyden flew two F-15
Eagles for 14 continuous hours on a 6,200-mile course in February 1980. The
flight required six aerial refuelings and demonstrated that both pilots and aircraft
could endure sustained performance conditions. Now there were very few places
in the world that could not be reached in a 14-hour flight.
2-30
In late March 1980, the USAF announced that Boeing would be the prime
contractor for the air launched cruise missile (ALCM) program. This decision
came after a year of competitive flight trials of Boeing’s and General Dynamics’
versions of the missile. Plans called for Boeing to produce about 3,400 of these
missiles over the following six or seven years. The missiles have a range of
1,500 miles.
The reserve rescue and recovery squadrons demonstrated their commitment to
lifesaving from 1980 through 1983 by saving 291 lives while flying almost 1200
sorties. Three squadrons saved 61 lives following the eruption of Mount Sint
Helens in May 1980. One squadron supported the 1980 Winter Olympics in New
York state. In 1982 and 1983, all the rescue squadrons, along with the 919th
Special Operations Group, supported NASA’s space shuttle launches.
Beginning in March 1981, A-10 Thunderbolt II’s began arriving at Suwon AB,
South Korea. The A-10 was specifically designed to better support ground forces
and meet the USAF mission of close air support (CAS). Part of the 25th Tactical
Fighter Squadron, these aircraft significantly enhanced the tank-killing capability
of US forces in the area. In the same month, the USAF accepted its first KC-10
Extender from the McDonnell Douglas Corporation. The KC-10 is a military
version of the DC-10 designed to serve as a tanker and cargo carrier.
Three months later, five Air Force fighter wings, assorted Air National Guard
units, and an airborne warning and control wing were selected as part of the
planned 200,000-member Rapid Deployment Joint Task Force. The units
included the 97th, 49th, 347th, 354th, and 366th Tactical Fighter
Wings; the 150th and 188th Tactical Fighter Groups; and the 552nd Airborne
Warning and Control Wing. In addition, SAC supplied B-52s to the force.
On 26 June 1981, the first F-16 Fighting Falcons to be based overseas arrived at
Kusan AB, Korea. There, they became part of the 8th Tactical Fighter Squadron.
The F-16s replaced the squadron’s F-4 Phantoms. In July 1981, the Air
Force announced that its newest reconnaissance aircraft, the TR-1, was
assigned to the 4099th Strategic Reconnaissance Training Squadron for pilot
training. The first operational squadron using the TR-1 was based at RAF
Alconbury, England, in 1983.
Condor Redoubt ’81, the most comprehensive readiness exercise of the Air
Force Reserve ever attempted was conducted during the last three weeks of
August. Reservists from all over the country participated in a successful test of
readiness planning, mobilization, and force deployment. Also exercised were
long-range assault tactics and deployment to bases in Western Europe, Central
America, and Canada. Three thousand reservists were deployed to forward
operating locations of the gaining commands.
2-31
Also in August 1981, the Air Force began dispatching air traffic controllers to
Federal Aviations Administration (FAA) control towers and radar-approach
facilities to replace striking (later dismissed) members of the Professional Air
Traffic Controllers Association. This turned out to be a long-term assignment
while the FAA was replacing the fired civilian controllers.
Two months later, the Reagan Administration announced plans to deploy the MX
missile system in fixed silos, thus apparently abandoning the controversial Carter
plan for a mobile system. At the same time, plans were announced for
developing and deploying both the B-1 bomber and the advanced technology
“stealth” bomber and for upgrading North American air defenses.
Bright Star ’82, the second exercise of the US Rapid Deployment Force in the
Mideast, was held during November and December of 1981. During this complex
and successful exercise, US military forces from around the world deployed to
Egypt and the Sudan. Once assembled, these forces conducted maneuvers with
each other and with Egyptian and Sudanese military forces. The exercise was
conducted under the supervision of Lieutenant General Robert Kingston, US
Army, commander of the Rapid Deployment Joint Task Force (JTF).
As part of the deployment, MAC transports carried a battalion task force of the
24th Infantry Division (Mechanized) from its US base on a 14-hour nonstop flight
to a drop zone in Egypt. Strategic Air Command B-52s flew nonstop practice
bombing missions from Minot and Grand Forks AFBs in North Dakota, while
tactical air power was provided ty TAC A-10s from Shaw AFB, South Carolina.
Strategic Air Command tankers supported these movements with aerial refueling.
Space achievements
In late February 1978, the first prototype satellite in DoD’s planned NAVSTAR
Global Positioning System (GPS), was orbited from Vandenberg AFB, California.
Planned uses for GPS included precision weapons delivery, en route navigation,
air traffic control, and common grid targeting today, the uses of GPS run from
standard navigation in civilian aircraft to movement of mission-essential
equipment for Army ground units.
In late February 1980, Martin Marietta Corporation delivered to the Air Force the
principal elements of the newest space booster, the Titan 34D. The 34D was
scheduled to serve as the Air Force’s main launch vehicle until the space shuttle
began operational flights in the mid-1980s.
With John W. Young as commander and Robert L. Crippen as pilot, the space
shuttle was launched from pad 39A at Cape Kennedy, Florida, for the first time
on 12 April 1981. The first of four shakedown flights lasted 54 hours and ended
successfully on 14 April as the orbiter touched down at Edwards AFB, California.
During the flight, the crew (the first Americans in space since 1975) tested the
Columbia’s flight worthiness, cargo doors, and internal systems.
2-32
Also during November, the space shuttle flew its second mission. The trip as cut
short on the 36th orbit by a defective fuel cell but was still deemed a success.
Crew members Joe H. Engle and Richard H. Truly managed to test the Remote
Manipulator System (a remote control robot arm used to load and unload the
cargo area of the Columbia while in space) and to conduct most of a planned
series of scientific experiments before the finish of their two-day flight.
The third launch of the space shuttle took place on 22 March 1982. Despite
suffering from motion sickness, astronauts Jack R. Lousma and C. Gordon
Fullerton carried out 14 scientific experiments, fired the Columbia’s engines to
change orbit configuration, more fully tested the Remote Manipulator System,
and tested the ship’s resistance to the temperature extremes of space. By the
scheduled time for the Columbia’s return on 29 March, the crew had completed
its tasks and NASA officials were happy with the results. Still, the flight had to be
extended. Heavy rains had flooded the landing strip at Edwards and the backup
site at White Sands, New Mexico, was being swept by a desert windstorm. Other
backup sites were considered, but a lull in the high winds at White Sands allowed
a safe landing the next day. Weather continues to concern NASA safety officers.
The tragic space shuttle Challenger accident occurred 28 January 1986. Cold
weather acted on a worn part (O ring) to cause this fatal accident killing all crew
members, including the first school teacher accepted for a space mission. This
accident had such an impact that many people know where they were when the
news arrived. It brought “emphasis” to a program many Americans “take for
granted.” Many successful missions have occurred since this tragedy. In fact,
shuttle launches continue to provide access to space with a rate of over seven a
year.
Shuttle Transport System (STS)-74 marked the first time astronauts from the
European Space Agency, Canada, Russia, and the United States were in space
on the same complex at one time.
The mission of STS-76 in March 1996, included the first spacewalk by US
astronauts while the shuttle Atlantis was attached to the Russian Space Station
Mir. Additionally, the first American woman to serve as a Mir station researcher
highlighted NASA’s third shuttle mission of 1996. Mission STS-76 is the third of
nine planned space shuttle-Mir link ups between 1995 and 1998, including
rendezvous, docking and crew transfers, which will pave the way toward
assembly of the International Space Station beginning in November 1997. The
STS-76 mission is the 16th flight of Atlantis and the 76th for the space shuttle
program.
Air Force role in joint operations
Military operations involving more than one service are considered joint
operations. With diminishing defense budgets, the effective focus on joint
2-33
operations and training ensures limited duplication of effort and the best forces to
fight tomorrow’s wars. Recent examples of USAF involvement in joint operations
serve as a reminder air power has a critical role in meeting the US strategic
objectives.
Operation URGENT FURY and the Beirut bombing, 1983
Some of the special operations conducted by AFRES aircrews in 1983
foreshadowed the essence of the reserve component’s mission—wartime
augmentation of the active force. These included the evacuation of Grenada and
the airlift of wounded US Marines from Lebanon. An Air Force reserve C-141
crew brought back the first US evacuees from Grenda to Charleston AFB, South
Carolina. Other reserve crews and augmentees flying with active duty MAC
crews completed the airlift, returning 709 US and foreign students. The force
received a more grim reminder of its reason for existence in October when
associate aircrews and aeromedical teams flew six strategic airlift missions
evacuating wounded US Marines after the destruction of their Beirut
headquarters.
Operation DESERT STORM, 1991
After several years of participating in low-intensity operations, such as those in
Grenada, Beirut and panama, the Air Force was ready to shine in the hightempo, high-intensity combat environment of Southwest Asia in 1991.
Using a combination of highly trained aircrews wedded to highly advanced
combat systems, the Air Force soundly defeated the Iraqi military in just a few
weeks. Air power had firmly set the stage for attainment of four national
objectives:
•
•
•
•
Eject Iraqi military from Kuwait.
Restore the legitimate Kuwati government to power.
Eliminate Iraq’s weapons of mass destruction.
Eliminate Iraq’s military threat to the region.
A 100-hour ground war followed during which Iraq capitulated. Central to the Air
Force’s success was the employment of technology. The F-117A stealth fighter
was used in the first wave of the air attack, crippling Iraqi radar and SAM sites,
allowing following aircraft such as F-15s, F-16s and EF 111s to fly to their targets
virtually unhindered. Using precision-guided weapons, command and control
facilities, hardened aircraft shelters, and other vital strategic and operational
targets were destroyed. In fact, the ability of some of these conventional
weapons to destroy targets hardened against nuclear attack, with little if any
collateral damage, may provide the impetus for future war planners to reexamine the role of nuclear weapons in the future.
Operation RESTORE HOPE, 1993
2-34
This JTF mission included establishing a secure environment for humanitarian
relief organizations to provide famine relief in Somalia. Sequencing forces and
supplies into theater became mission-critical as the US prioritized the force flow
to meet military objectives.
Operation SUPPORT HOPE, 1994
In 1994, Rwanda was the sight of a raging civil war, a cholera outbreak, and
extensive starvation and dehydration among refugees. The mission of the JTF
included airlift of supplies to provide a support infrastructure for help to over 4
million refugees and displaced persons as a result of Rwanda’s civil war.
Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of
this unit.
001. Before World War I
1. Where and when did the first successful manned heavier-than-air flight take
place and by whom?
2. What were the test requirements for the first military airplane?
002. World War I
1. Who was the US air observer in Spain when the United States entered the
war?
2. Who were the first two US aces?
003. Between the world wars
1. Name three important developments in aircraft production in the early 1930s.
2. Name the plan that served as the basis for air actions throughout World War II.
004. World War II
1. Who led the first attack on the Japanese homeland?
2. After the invasion of Normandy in 1944, what was the foundation of practically
all Allied successes?
2-35
005. After World War II
1. Who was known as the architect of US air power?
2. What was the US Air Force’s first “battle” of the Cold War in 1948?
006. The Korean War ara
1. Against the Soviet-build MiG, the F-86 Sabre jet had what kill ratio?
2. How were helicopters used in Korea that resulted in the full acceptance of the
helicopter by US military forces?
007. Evolution of the Air Force in the atomic age
1. What was the Air Force’s first supersonic bomber?
2. Who was the first Air Force officer to serve as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of
Staff?
008. Emergence of a new aerospace concept
1. An F-104 piloted by Major Howard C. Johnson set a record for what in 1958?
2. Who was the first astronaut to travel in suborbital space?
009. War in Vietnam
1. What aircraft and rockets were used against the North Vietnam SAM sites?
2. What air campaign helped convince the North Vietnamese to sign the ceasefire agreement?
2-36
010. The early post-Vietnam years
1. What organization took over the responsibilities of thee USAF’s Southern
Command in 1975?
2. What lightweight fighter capable of flying twice the speed of sound did the Air
Force unveil in 1978?
011. The Air Force from 1978 to present
1. What DoD satellite system is used for weapons guidance, air traffic control,
and navigation aids?
2. What stealth fighter was unveiled during Operation DESERT STORM?
1-2. Vision and Mission
Many professional organizations develop and communicate vision and mission
statements to help guide daily activities and lead future planning. The Air Force is
no exception. In this section, we’ll look at the vision and mission of the Air Force.
012. Vision and mission of the Air Force
The Air Force vision and mission statements provide a coherent, unified sense of
direction and purpose for the United States Air Force.
Air Force vision
Air Force people building the world’s most respected air and space force—global
power and reach for America. In a more common shortened version the Air Force
has adopted for a vision is simply “Global power, global reach.”
Air Force mission
The mission of the USAF is to defend the United States through control and
exploitation of air and space.
Teamed with the Army, Navy and Marine Corps, the Air Force is prepared to
fight and win any war if deterrence fails. The Air Force is responsible for
providing:
•
•
Aircraft and missile forces necessary to prevent or fight a general war.
Land-based air forces needed to establish air superiority, interdict the enemy
and provide air support of ground forces in combat.
2-37
•
•
•
The primary aerospace forces for the defense of the United States against air
and missile attack; the primary airlift capability for use by all of the nation’s
military services.
Major space research and development support for the Department of
Defense.
Assistance to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration to conduct
this nations’ space program.
Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of
this unit.
012. Vision and mission of the Air Force
1. What is the Air Force vision?
2. The mission of the US Air Force is to defend the United States through what?
1-3. Organization
A need for clear understanding as to the exact role and mission of each service
was met when the National Security Act was amended in 1949. The result redesignated the National Military Establishment as the Department of Defense.
The Departments of Air Force, Army, and Navy, each headed by a civilian
secretary, were placed under the new Department of Defense. In this lesion we’ll
present a brief overview of how the Air Force is organized.
013. Organization of the Air Force
The Secretary of the Air Force, appointed by the President of thee United
States, has a military-civilian staff to assist with planning and to advise in such
areas as:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Research and development.
Installations and logistics.
Financial management.
Personnel and reserve forces.
Administration.
Legal matters (nonmilitary).
Legislative liaison.
Public information.
2-38
Headquarters USAF
Directly subordinate to the Secretary of the Air Force is the Chief of Staff who
presides over the Air Staff. The chief of staff is appointed by the President, with
consent of the Senate, from among Air Force general officers—normally a fouryear term. The Air Staff is made up of special officers headed by Air Force
general officers. The plans and recommendations formulated by the Air Staff are
submitted to the Chief of Staff who reviews and transmits them to the Secretary
of the Air Force. After review by the Secretary of the Air Force, the Chief of Staff
takes appropriate action.
The Vice Chief of Staff is the immediate assistant to the Chief of Staff. The
Assistant Vice Chief of Staff holds the third position on the Air Staff and assists in
reviewing the plans formulated by the other staff members. He or she is also
responsible for general supervision over the organization and administration of
the Air Staff. Duties of other officers on the Air Staff are to gather information for
planning in such areas as:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Intelligence.
Reserve forces.
Inspection.
Legal matters (military justice).
Health care.
Religion.
Science.
Administration.
Personnel.
Field organization
The eight major commands, 37 field operating agencies, three direct reporting
units, and their subordinate elements constitute the field organization that carries
out the Air Force mission. In addition, there are two reserve components, the Air
Force Reserve, and the Air National Guard.
Major commands (MAJCOMs) are organized on a functional basis in the United
States and a geographic basis overseas. They accomplish designated phases of
Air Force worldwide activities and report to the Chief of Staff. Also, MAJCOMs
organize, administer, equip, and train their subordinate elements for the
accomplishment of assigned missions. The MAJCOM most closely associated
with the CAP activities is Air Education and ‘Training Command. This MAJCOM’s
subordinate unit, Air University, with its broad educational mission in support of
the Air Force, assists CAP in fulfilling its role as the auxiliary of the Air Force.
Below is a list of all Air Force MAJCOMs.
•
•
Air Combat Command (ACC), Langly AFB, Virginia
Air Education and Training Command, (AETC), Randolph AFB, Texas
2-39
•
•
•
•
•
•
Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC), Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio
Air Force Space Command (AFSPACECOM), Peterson AFB, Colorado
Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC), Hurlburt Field, Florida
Air Mobility Command (AMC), Scott AFB, Illinois
Pacific Air Forces (PACAF), Hickam AFB, Hawaii
United States Air Forces in Europe (USAFE), Ramstein AB, Germany
Major commands are generally assigned specific responsibilities based on
functions. In descending order of command, elements of major commands
include numbered air forces, wings, groups, squadrons, and flights. The basic
unit for generating and employing combat capability is the wing, which has
always been the Air Force’s prime war fighting instrument. Composite wings
operate more than one kind of aircraft and may be configured as self-contained
units designated for quick air intervention anywhere in the world. Other wings
continue to operate a single aircraft type ready to join air campaigns anywhere
they’re needed. Air base and specialized mission wings such as training,
intelligence, and test also support the Air Force mission. Within ghe wing,
operations, logistics, support, and medical groups are the cornerstones of the
organization.
Field operating agencies and direct reporting units are other Air Force
subdivisions and report directly to Headquarters USAF. They’re assigned a
specialized mission that’s restricted in scope when compared to the mission of a
major command. Field operating agencies carry out field activities under the
operational control of a Headquarters USAF functional manager. However, direct
reporting units aren’t under the operation control of a Headquarters USAF
functional manager because of a unique mission, legal, requirements, or other
factors. The direct reporting units are as follows:
•
•
•
11th Wing, Bolling AFB, Washington DC (Air Force One)
Air Force Operational Test and Evaluation Center (AFOTEC), Kirtland AFB ,
New Mexico
United States Air Force Academy (USAFA), Colorado Springs, Colorado
014. The total force
The total force structure is a foundation element in understanding US total force
policy and the role of the reserve component in joint planning considerations, the
mobilization process, and the solidification of national will. The total force policy
is the fundamental premise upon which the joint military force structure is built.
The total force policy
The US military’s total force policy can be described as the totality of
organizations, units, and manpower that comprise DoD resources for meeting the
National Military Strategy.
2-40
US military forces fulfill their role in maintaining US national security by preparing
for and, if necessary, mobilizing joint forces. Those forces include the active
military, reserve military, civil service personnel, contractor staff, and host nation
personnel.
Mobilization
Mobilization is the process of preparing for war or other emergencies by
assembling and organizing personnel and material for active duty military forces,
activating and federalizing the reserve component, extending terms of service,
mobilizing the industrial base, and bringing the US Armed Forces to a state of
readiness for war or other national emergency.
Sources of mobilization
With the end of the draft in 1973, then Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird said,
“Members of the National ‘Guard and reserve, instead of draftees, will be the
initial and primary source of augmentation of the active forces in any future
emergency.” Sources of military mobilization manpower include members of the
Reserve component. This includes the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Army National Guard
Army Reserve
Naval Reserve
Marine Corps Reserve
Air National Guard
Air Force Reserve
Coast Guard Reserve
Reserve categories
There are three reserve categories.
•
•
•
Ready reserve
Stand-by reserve
Retired reserve
The Ready Reserve
Military members of the Reserve and National Guard liable for recall to active
duty comprise the Ready Reserve. The Ready Reserve consists of the Selected
Reserve and the Individual Ready Reserve. There were nearly 1.9 million Ready
Reservists available for recall at the beginning of Fiscal year 1995.
The Stand-by Reserve
The stand-by reserve consists of personnel who maintain their military affiliation
without being in the Ready Reserve. These individuals aren’t required to perform
training and aren’t part of units.
2-41
The Retired Reserve
All reserve members who receive retirement pay on the basis of their active duty
and/or reserve service that haven’t yet reach age 60.
Pros and cons of the total force structure
Having a large reserve manpower pool has several advantages. One advantage
is the availability of well-trained former active duty personnel, as well as
functional experts working in the civilian community. Another is the cost-benefit
advantage; that is, the reserve force costs just a fraction of the cost of
maintaining a similar size active force. Also, by maintaining a cost-effective
reserve structure, the more coastal active force can be smaller. These
advantages come at a cost, however. One such cost is the difficulty reservists
face with employers during continued high operations tempo, and the stress on
the reservist’s family even in a peacetime training environment this high
operations tempo is likely to continue into the foreseeable future. Another
difficulty is the limitation placed on the mobilization of reservists by law. For
example, the President can mobilize only 200,000 troops for up to 270 days in an
emergency. Mobilizing more reservists or extending the duration requires
approval of the Congress, which the President may or may not get.
At the beginning of Fiscal Year 1995, total authorized military manpower was 5.1
million, of which only 32 percent was on active duty. If the active duty forces are
the skeleton of the total force structure, then the reserves are the flesh and
blood; the reserve forces are, therefore, a major and vital part of the total force
structure. General John Shalikashvili, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff,
summed it up, “…every American man and woman in uniform—whether active
duty, a Guard member, or a reservist—has a critical role to play in the edefense
of our nation, our friends, and our ideals.”
Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of
the unit.
013. Organization of the Air Force
1. What is the Air Force’s basic unit?
2. Which MAJCOM is most closely associated with CAP activities?
014. The Total Force
1. How many reserve categories does the Air Force have?
2-42
2. How many troops can the President mobilize for up to 270 days in an
emergency?
Answers to Self-Test Questions
001.
1. At Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on 17 December 1903 by Orville Wright.
2. The airplane was to carry two men in continuous lift for one hour at a speed of
not less than 40 miles per hour.
002.
1. Major William “Billly” Mitchell.
2. Captains Eddie Rickenbackerand Doublas Campbell.
003.
1. The advent of the monoplane, a growing use of all-metal construction, and the
use of retractable landing gear.
2. ‘Air War Plans Division-1.
004.
1. Lieutenant Colonel James H. “Jimmy” Doolittle.
2. Air superiority.
005.
1. General Carl A. “Tooey” Spaatz.
2. Berlin Airlift.
006.
1. A 14 to 1 kill ratio.
2. As gunships.
007.
1. Convair B-58 Hustler.
2. General Nathan F. Twining.
008.
1. Altitude.
2. Commander Alan B. Shepard, Jr., USN
009.
1. EF-4 and Strike rockets.
2. LINEBACKER II.
2-43
010.
1. Tactical Air Command.
2. F-16 Fighting Falcon.
011.
1. Global Positioning System.
2. F-117A.
012.
1. Global power, global reach.
2. Control and exploitation of air and space.
013.
1. Wing.
2. Air Education and Training Command (AETC).
014.
1. Three.
2. 200,000.
2-44
Unit Review Exercises
Note to Student: Consider all choices carefully, select the best answer to each
question, and circle the corresponding letter.
1. (001) The first piloted heavier-than-air flight took place on
a. January 10, 1903.
b. December 17, 1903.
c. September 10, 1907.
d. December 17, 1909.
2. (001) The first piloted heavier-than-air flight was made at
a. Dayton, Ohio.
b. Paris, France.
c. Mazwell Field, Alabama.
d. Ketty Hawk, North Carolina.
3. (002) When the US entered WW I, who was the US air observer in Spain?
a. William Kenly.
b. Billy Mitchell.
c. Frank Andrews.
d. Charles Lindbergh.
4. (002) The first two US aces in WW I wre Captains Douglas Campbell and
a. Glenn Curtiss.
b. Orville Wright.
c. Samuel Pl Langley.
d. Eddie Rickenbacker.
5. (003) Which individual led the fight for an independent Air Force?
a. John Ryan.
b. Billy Mitchell.
c. Mason M. Patrick.
d. Charles A. Lindbergh.
6. (003) The first all-metal bomber introduced in 1931 was called the
a. B-25.
b. B-12.
c. B-10.
d. B-9.
2-45
7. (004) During WW II the first air attack launched against the Japanese was
made with B-25 bombers. This attack was known as
a. Operation OVERLORD.
b. The atomic bomb raid.
c. The Doolittle Raid.
d. The Tokyo Attack.
8. (004) Air power was officially recognized as being equal to land power
during the
a. Burma Campaign.
b. Normandy invasion.
c. Philippine invasion.
d. North African Campaign.
9. (005) The three Air Force operational commands established in 1946 were
a. ADC, MATS, and SAC.
b. ADC, MATS, and TAC.
c. ADC, SAC, and TAC.
d. ADC, SAC, and ATC.
10. (006)Who was credited with the first aerial “kill” of the Korean War?
a. Lieutenant Jacob E. Fickel.
b. Major Howard C. Johnson.
c. Lieutenant Harry Halverson.
d. Lieutenant William G. Hudson.
11. (007) In 1957 a joint US-Canadian defense organization was established.
This organization was called
a. TAC.
b. ADCOM.
c. NORAD.
d. UNCANCOM.
12. (007) The Air Force’s first supersonic medium bomber was the
a. B-47.
b. B-50.
c. B-52.
d. B-58.
13. (008) The first United States astronaut to fly a suborbital flight was
a. Virgil I. Grissom.
b. Robert M. White.
c. John H. Glenn.
d. Alan B. Shepard, Jr.
2-46
14. (008) In October 1962, the US flew U-2 reconnaissance planes in support
of the
a. X-15 flights.
b. First ICBM launch.
c. Cuban Missile Crisis.
d. Project Mercury space launch.
15. (009) To help convince the North Vietnamese to sign the 1972 cease fire
agreement, the US launched
a. Linebacker I
b. Linebacker II
c. Rolling Thunder I
d. Rolling Thunder II
16. (009) Which Air Force rocket was used effectively against the Soviet-built
surface-to-air missile sites during the Vietnam war?
a. Falcon.
b. Shrike.
c. Maverick.
d. Wild Weasel.
17. (010) In 1976 the Air Force unveiled a lightweight fighter capable of flying
twice the speed of sound. This fighter was the
a. F-4.
b. F-15.
c. F-16.
d. F-111
18. (010) In July 1976, the Air Force assumed responsibility for training all of
the military’s
a. Women pilots.
b. Aerial navigators.
c. Rescue personnel.
d. Computer specialists.
19. (011) The fatal space launch in January 1986 involved the space shuttle
a. Mir.
b. Atlantis.
c. Columbia.
d. Challenger.
2-47
20. (011) The F-111A stealth fighter was used to cripple enemy radar and
SAM sites in Operation
a. DESERT STORM.
b. RESTORE HOPE.
c. SUPPORT HOPE.
d. URGENT FURY.
21. (012) The vision of the USAF is stated as building the world’s most
respected air and space force for global power and the
a. Unity of America.
b. Reach of America.
c. Strength of America.
d. Teamwork of America.
22. (012) The mission of the USAF is to defend the United States through
control and exploitation of
a. The world.
b. The CONUS.
c. Air and space.
d. North America.
23. (013) The USAF basic unit for generating and employing combat
capability is the
a. Wing.
b. Squadron.
c. Air Staff.
d. MAJCOM.
24. (013) Which Air Force MAJCOM is most closely associated with CAP?
a. Air Combat Command (ACC).
b. Air Force Space Command (AFSPACECOM).
c. Air Education and Training Command (AETC).
d. Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC).
25. (014) How many USAF reserve categories are there?
a. Three.
b. Four.
c. Five.
d. Six.
26. (014) How many reserve troops can the President mobilize for up to 270
days in an emergency?
a. 50,000.
b. 100,000.
c. 200,000.
d. 250,000.
2-48
Unit 2. Civil Air Patrol History, Mission, and
Organization
Understanding the Air Force’s history, mission, and organization emphasizes the
compatibility between the USAF and the Civil Air Patrol (CAP). In this unit we’ll
describe the CAP’s dedicated history, diverse missions, and corporate
organization.
2-1. History
The present-day CAP is the product of the tense international situation prior to
World War II. At that time, axis forces—those of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and
Imperial Japan—were taking over much of the world, and some people believed
the Axis powers had designs on the territories of the United States. In every
country the Axis powers had designs on the territories of the United States. In
every country the Axis forces conquered, civil aircraft flight was eliminated. In
those countries not yet feeling the bite of Axis power, civil aircraft flight was either
drastically curtailed or eliminated as authorities realized the need to better control
air traffic. The US wasn’t an exception.
015. The need for a Civil Air Patrol
During the period 1938-1941, United States civilian aircraft pilots, aviation
mechanics, and others—all of whom we might call “aviation enthusiasts”—
became increasingly concerned about the international situation. Accurately
aware of at the possible confrontation between the United States and the Axis
powers, these air-minded men and women of vision realized two things:
•
•
The nation’s air power had to be strengthened for such a confrontation.
Civil aircraft flights in the United States might be eliminated for the duration of
the ensuing conflict.
They looked upon the latter with particular disfavor since they felt civil air strength
could be used in any war effort to great advantage. All of these aviation
enthusiasts had essentially one thought in common: “How can I serve my country
in this time of need?” Many of them got a head start by joining the British Royal
Air Force, Royal Canadian Air Force, or one of the US armed services. Those
who couldn’t get into a military service because of age, physical condition, or
some other reason, still had the desire to “get in there and help.”
G. Robb Wilson made what was probably the first concentrated effort to
effectively organize a civil air “patrol.” Wilson was an aviation writer in 1938 when
he took a trip to Germany on reportorial assignment. What he saw there further
confirmed suspicions held by many.
2-49
The New Jersey Civil Air Defense Services
Upon return of his home state of New Jersey, Wilson reported his findings to
Governor Edison and pleaded for New Jersey to organize and use its civil air
fleet as an augmentative force in the coming war. With Governor Edison’s
approval, Wilson organized what became the New Jersey Civil Air Defense
Services. This plan, backed by General Arnold and the Civil Aeronautics
Authority, called for the use of small planes for liaison work and for patrolling
uninhibited stretches of coastline and vital installations such as dams, aqueducts,
and pipelines to guard against sabotage. In addition, security measures, such as
policing the airports and fingerprinting everyone connected with light aviation,
were to be performed by Civil Air Defense Services personnel.
Other states join in
Other states followed the pioneering efforts of New Jersey. In Ohio, the Civil Air
Guard was started. Soon, Colorado and Missouri had state air squadrons; Florida
formed the Florida Defense Force. Soon thereafter, Alabama, Kentucky, and
Texas followed suit with statewide organizations. Of all the various organizations
established, it was New Jersey’s Civil Air Defense Services that was the blueprint
for the coming Civil Air Patrol. Additionally, the Airplane Owners and Pilots
Association (a national organization) had its Civil Air Guard units in several
metropolitan cities across the nation.
The concept takes hold
The first step taken in the plan to use national civil air strength, supported by the
US Army Air Corps and the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA), was to
institute a civilian pilot instructor refresher course and a civil pilot training
program. These two activities made provision only for military use of those
trained, with the objective of boosting the existing reservoir of civilian airmen who
could be placed in military service when needed. There still remained many
civilian pilots and ground crewmen who weren’t acceptable for this step.
The second step pertained to the civil air strength in being. After all, there were
25,000 light aircraft; 128,000 certified pilots; and more than 14,000 aircraft
mechanics in the nation at that time. In addition, there were hundreds of aviation
workers who had the same interest. The program’s objective was to organize
civilian aviation personnel toward the potential war effort.
As with any program of such magnitude, there were divergent opinions. Some
lightly responsible men encouraged the military to use available civilian aviation
“know-how.” Others, equally responsible, wanted to curtail civil aviation in time of
war, as in Europe. Differing viewpoints concerning control arose even among
those who supported military use of civilian aircraft. One group advocated
unifying light-plane aviation interests under a national system. The other group
argued for control at the state level. From these opinions emerged the CAP.
2-50
016. The realization of a national Civil Air Patrol
The advocates of a nationwide CAP made numerous contacts in their effort to
establish their proposed organization as an element of the nation’s defense.
However, Federal Government approval and direction had to solve the problem
of how best to use the proposed CAP for military missions. Thomas H. Beck,
Chairman of the Board of Crowell Collier Publishing Company, prepared and
presented to President Roosevelt on 22 April 1941 a plan for the mobilization of
the nation’s civil air strength. Beck discussed his plan with Guy P. Gannet, owner
of a New ‘England newspaper chain.
CAP organized under the Office of Civilian Defense
On 20 May 1941, the Office of Civilian Defense (OCD) was established as an
agency of the Federal Government, with former New York Mayor Fiorello H.
LaGuardia as its director. The National CAP advocates, including Beck, Ganet,
and Wilson, presented their plan for a National CAP to LaGuardia. LaGuardia, a
former WW I pilot, recognized the merit of the plan and expressed his
enthusiasm, but he also recognized its success would depend upon the support
of the US Army Air Corps. LaGuardia appointed beck, Gannet, and Wilson to a
special aviation committee, with instructions to “blueprint” the organization of civil
aviation resources on a national front. By June 1941, the plan for the proposed
organization was drafted with many details left for discussion.
Wilson took on this task, assisted by Reed Landis, a WW I ace, aeronautical
expert, and the OCD aviation consultant. Wilson and Landis had the advice and
assistance of some of the country’s leading airmen, as they worked to finalize the
plan. By early October the plan was complete, except for a few administrative
details (i.e. preparation of application blanks). To take care of these remaining
details and the important job of selecting wing commanders (one for each state),
Wilson left his New York office and went to Washington, DC.
The military reviews the final plan
To solidify the plan under the approval of the military establishment, General
Arnold—who had encouraged the project from the beginning—set up a board of
military officers to review the final plan presented by Wilson and his colleagues.
General George E. Stratemeyer was appointed presiding officer of the board,
which included Colonel Harry H. Blee (recalled to active duty during WW II),
Major Lucius P. Ordway, Jr., and Major A.B. McMullen. General Arnold asked the
board to determine the potentialities of the CAP plan and to evaluate the role of
the War Department in making CA an agency of the new Office of Civilian
Defense. The board approved the plan with a recommendation that Army Air
Forces (AAF) officers help set up and administer the CAP organization. As a
result of the board’s approval, the Director of Civilian Defense (LaGuardia)
signed a formal order creating the CAP on 1 December 1941.
2-51
Administrative Order 9—the first CAP charter
On 8 December 1941, the day after the attack on Pearl Harbor by Imperial
Japanese Naval Air Forces, Director LaGuardia published Administrative Order
9. This order outlined the proposed organization of the CAP and designated as
its commander Major General John F. Curry, US Army Air Corps. Wilson officially
became the first executive officer. Appointed as the Operations Officer of the
fledgling organization was Colonel Harry H. Blee. CAP was fortunate to have
Colonel Blee assigned to head its technical and administrative operations. His
administrative ability in overseeing the myriad details involved in both the
establishment and the smooth running of CAP throughout the war years was
without peer. Under the wise leadership of these men and others like them, CAP
began a period of tremendous growth and development in the service of our
nation.
Civil flying restricted
The day after the attack on Pearl Harbor all civil aircraft, except for scheduled
commercial airlines, were grounded. However, this restriction lasted only a few
days. The pendulum soon swung the other way, and except for the West Coast
area, the “puddle jumpers” were given little attention as they flitted in and out of
airports across the nation. The US maintained restrictions on civilian flights in the
West Coast area to protect against potential Japanese activity.
Earl L. Johnson, one of the founders and later Commander of CAP, envisioned
the great potential of light aircraft as a tool in the hads of saboteurs to wreak
havoc ith the nation’s industrial complexes. No doubt, saboteurs would have to
make a concerted and “all-out” effort to have the crippling effect; after the first
attempt, the US would respond with drastic security measures. At eleven o’clock
one evening, Johnson took off in his plane from his farm airstrip near Cleveland,
Ohio, to prove the industry’s vulnerability. He took three small sandbags and
headed toward a cluster of war plants on Cleveland’s outskirts. Flying at 500 feet,
Johnson dropped the sandbags on the roofs of three plants and returned to his
airstrip—apparently no one detected him; if they did, no attention other than
curiosity was given the dark silhouette of his airplane. The next morning Mr.
Johnson notified the plant owners they had been “bombed.” The CAA reacted as
Johnson planned by again halting all civilian flying to ensure establishment of
adequate security measures. This meant guarding airports. Pilots had to prove
they were loyal citizens of the US, and all flights must be for official business only
and accomplished under approved flight plans.
The membership grows
The grounding of all civilian light aircraft by the CAA certainly helped increase the
ranks of the newly created CAP. In fact, flying with CAP was the only way
“weekend pilots” could get in flight time. These pilots were of all ages and both
sexes. The oldest pilot was Lieutenant A.J. Martin of Montour Falls, New York,
who had reached the enviable age of 81. Among the ladies, Second Lieutenant
2-52
Maude Rufus from Ann Arbor, Michigan, came into CAP as the oldest female
pilot. Her exact age at the time is somewhat of a mystery, but it’s known she
soloed at age 65 and had nearly 1,000 hours to her credit. Along with the pilots
came thousands of other patriotic citizens. Some possessed special skills; they
included mechanics, radio operators, physicians, and nurses. Those who had no
special skills had ample opportunity to help as messengers, guards, drivers, and
staff to ensure the proper function of their CAP unit.
017. CAP World War II activities
Many of the other wartime missions conducted by the CAP were just as
important and equally dramatic as those flights made by the coastal patrol. To
fulfill its other missions, CAP flew approximately 500,000 hours and lost 30 pilots
in accidents.
Many other pilots lost their aircraft and sustained injuries. Both men and women
took part in nearly all wartime activities (women were excluded from combatrelated coastal patrol flights). Many joined CAP for periods of 30 days to the
duration of the war and flew the missions for subsistence pay only. Although they
were reimbursed for expenses incurred while on assigned missions, the $8 or $5
per day didn’t contribute much to their support, nor to the support of their families
back home. Many of these people also flew without pay on unassigned but
necessary missions. They spent thousands of dollars out of their own pockets to
complete these missions for a good cause—service to their country.
CAP leaders urged the War Department to give their newly organized force a
chance to help combat the submarine menace. Again, the patriotic and eager
CAP met opposition. Skeptics argued their proposal couldn’t be accepted
because of the impracticability of sending a young organization with undisciplined
members on critical and dangerous missions. Meanwhile, the Navy was spread
so thinly along the 1,200-mile sea frontier of the eastern and southeastern
coasts, it couldn’t effectively combat the raiding enemy submarines. The nation’s
air forces hadn’t had time to build up their number of aircraft to a point where
they could cope with their regular missions as well as the submarine threat.
Consequently, the German submarines continued their activities at an alarming
rate, sinking 200 vessels. They were sinking ships practically at will. Oil, debris,
and bodies were being washed ashore all along the eastern and southeastern
coastlines. This type of destruction not only seriously affected the supply of war
materials to allied forces fighting in Europe and Africa, but also cut inot the
nation’s petroleum supplies.
Coastal patrol authorized—the experiment begins
The worsening submarine menace convinced military authorities to use the CAP
to help combat the German U-boats. Captain Earle L. Johnson, US Army Air
Corps, succeeded Wilson as CAP’s executive officer and concentrated on the
tremendous task of organizing a coastal patrol program within CAP. This
2-53
preparation culminated in March 1942, when the CAP was authorized to conduct
a 90-day experimental coastal patrol operation at two locations on the eastern
seaboard. This gave the brave volunteers a scant 90 days to prove themselves
worthy. Thus, the destiny of the entire CAP rested on the shoulders of these first
coastal patrol pilots. Before the 90-day period was over testimony to their
success was evidenced by an authorization for expanded operations.
Interestingly, this successful operation contributed to the decision to replace the
National Commander, General Curry, with the aforementioned Captain Johnson.
He was subsequently promoted to colonel and served as CAP’s National
Commander until his death. In recognition of his role as the wartime leader of
CAP, Johnson was posthumously promoted to brigadier general.
Bases established and patrols begin
CAP established its first three bases soon after the CAP coastal patrol
experiment started. These revolutionary bases were located at Atlantic City, New
Jersey; Rehobeth, Maryland; and Lantana, Florida. Soon pilots began arriving at
the coastal patrol installations, and the program expanded rapidly until there
were 21 bases. Honors for the first combat flight by civilian pilots go to those of
Coastal Patrol Base 2 at Rehoboth, Delaware—their 5 Mach 1942 patrol was
less than a week after the activation of the base.
Life wasn’t easy at any of the coastal patrol bases and was extremely difficult at
some. For instance, at Paraksley, Virginia, a farmer’s house and a chicken coop
were converted into a headquarters and barracks. At this same location, the CAP
members had to cut down a grove of trees to make room for a runway, and then
the trees had to be paid for—by CAP members, with their own money. At the
Manteo base, in North Carolina, mosquitoes were so numerous all CAP
personnel had to wear special head nets to protect themselves. The coastal
patrol members stationed at Grand Isle, Louisiana, had the dubious honor of
living in an old, ramshackle resort hotel with a rather large rat colony.
Even though all CAP pilots were receiving only $8 per day and ground personnel
$5, people with the desire to do something in defense of the country kept
volunteering for CAP duty. These people were from virtually every profession—
teachers, doctors, plumbers, salesmen, and a few millionaire brokers. Their
fraternalism was love of country and love of flying.
The light aircraft flown by CAP coastal patrol units were initially used for
reconnaissance. They were crewed by a pilot and an observer who were in
constant radio contact with shore bases. Their mission was to spot enemy
submarines and summon the destructive power of the thinly spread Army and
Navy bomber forces. Naturally, the CAP crews wanted to do more than just spot
targets—they also wanted to destroy them.
2-54
The perfect target
Late one afternoon in May 1942, crewmen “Doc” Rinker and Tom Manning were
flying a patrol mission just off Cape Canaveral when they spotted an enemy
submarine. In turn, the enemy sighted the CAP patrol aircraft. Not knowing the
aircraft to be unarmed, the submarine made a desperate effort to get away. In its
haste or panic, the submarine became struck on a sandbar, making at a perfect
target. Dutifully, the patrol reported the situation and began circling the
submarine, awaiting the bombers. For more than 30 minutes, the patrol
continued circling and frantically reporting the situation. By the time the bombers
arrived, the sub had dislodged itself and returned to deep waters. The loss of this
“perfect target” further justified the coastal patrol’s plea to carry bombs and use
them whenever possible.
Arming the coastal patrol planes
Soon thereafter, the CAP planes were carrying demolition bombs and ranging as
far out to sea as 150 miles. The smaller airplanes could carry only one 100pound bomb, and in many instances crews had to remove the bomb’s fins to
keep them from scraping the runway as the plane took off. Even by modifying the
bombs for takeoff, the smaller palnes had difficulty flying the additional load. Of
course, the larger planes could be more heavily armed, and a few carried 325pound depth charges. One of these larger planes, armed with depth charges,
was credited with the first CAP “kill.”
Captain Johnny Haggins and Major Wynant Farr, flying out of Atlantic City, had
just become airborne in a German Widgeon (an amphibian airplane) when they
received a message from another CAP patrol—“contact” had been made about
25 miles off the coast. The other CAP patrol was low on fuel and had to return to
base, so Captain Haggins and Major Farr sped to the area, flying about 300 feet
above the ocean. When the Haggins-Farr patrol reached the area, no sub was in
sight. However, Farr spotted the shadowy form of a German submarine as it
cruised below the surface. After radioing to shore, and knowing they couldn’t
accurately estimate the depth of the sub, the two men decided to follow the sub
until (they hoped) it surfaced to periscope depth. Then their depth charges could
be put to the most effective use.
For over three hours they tracked their quarry and were getting low on fuel. Just
before they had to turn back the sub came up to periscope depth, Captain
Haggins swung the plane around quickly and aligned it with the sub. He then
started a gentle dive to 100 feet where he leveled off behind the sub’s periscope
wake, Major Farr pulled the cable release and the first depth charge plummeted
into the water just off the sub’s bow. Seconds later, a large water and oil geyser
erupted, blowing the sub’s forward portion out of the water. Shock waves from
the blast rocked the patrol plane. As the sub sank below the surface, it left a
huge oil slick as the target for the second run. On the second run, the remaining
depth charge was dropped squarely in the middle of the oil slick. After the second
2-55
geyser had settled, pieces of debris floated slowly to the surface. The CAP
coastal patrol’s first kill was confirmed!
Experimental period ends successfully
As a result of its effectiveness, the CAP coastal patrol passed its trial, or
experimental period, with “flying colors,” and went on to serve its country for
almost 18 months—ending 31 August 1943. Flying in good weather and bad and
from dawn to dusk, the 18-month record chalked up by the coastal patrol is rather
impressive. CAP sighted 173 submarines, sank two, and dropped a total of 83
bombs and depth charges upon 57 of these—with several other “possible” kills.
CAP flew 86,685 missions over coastal waters for a total of 244,600 hours—
which approximates 24 million miles! The patrol summoned help for 91 ships in
distress and for 363 survivors of submarine attacks. It sighted and reported 17
floating mines; and, at te request of the Navy, it flew 5,684 special convoy
missions.
These impressive feats also brought official recognition to many of the Patrol’s
members. They were winners of Air Medals and War Department Awards for
“Exceptional Civilian Service.” These were tokens of high esteem bestowed by a
government representing a nation of grateful people. The CAP coastal patrol’s
impressive record, however, wasn’t without the sacrifice of lives. Twenty-six
brave CAP pilots or observers were killed, and seven were seriously injured.
Besides the loss of life and injuries sustained, CAP also lost 90aircraft.
Cooperation with Mexico
Not every “scrape” CAP had was with submarines; humor managed to creep into
some missions, although at the time the humor probably escaped those involved.
The Brownsville, Texas CAP escort patrols flew with incoming and outgoing
shipping. One morning, Ben McGlashan, a base commander, and Henry King,
assistant base commander (and director of 20th Century Studios), flew escort for
a convoy in the Gulf of Mexico. In civilian clothes and flying out over the Gulf, the
two ran into strong headwinds consuming more fuel than anticipated. Realizing
that their fuel level prevented a return flight to Brownsville, they decided to set
down in Mexico. Into the Mexican Gulf coast area they descended. Immediately,
upon landing, they were surrounded by Mexican authorities and promptly
arrested. Of course, they protested loudly; but the fact that they were in civilian
clothes didn’t help convince the Mexican authorities they weren’t spies of some
sort. It was only after lengthy hand-waving communications between themselves
and the authorities, and with the help of three Mexican pilots they had
encountered while flying their mission, they were permitted to refuel and return to
Texas—without creating a diplomatic or military situation. Soon after this incident,
Mexico formally granted permission for CAP planes to land in its country.
2-56
018. Other wartime missions
Discontinuance of coastal patrols on 31 August 1943 didn’t mean any loss of
confidence in the CAP. CAP had accomplished the mission and regular air forces
were now available to assume CAP’s coastal patrol mission. New, CAP was able
to continue pursuing other wartime missions, accomplished concurrently with the
coastal patrols.
Search and rescue
Between 1942 and 1946, CAP flew 24,000 hours of assigned search and rescue
(SAR) missions. During the same period, CAP pilots and crews voluntarily flew
thousands of additional SAR hours without pay. Although no accurate record was
kept of the number of aircraft and survivors found, one week during February
1945 was probably the highlight of the SAR missions. In this one week, CAP
SAR, pilots found seven missing Army and Navy planes.
The CAP search and rescue pilots had three advantages over the AAF search
and rescue pilots:
•
•
•
CAP aircraft were capable of flying lower and slower than the AAF planes.
CAP pilots were more familiar with the terrain in their search sectors and
could spot wreckage concealed from pilots flying over for the first time.
CAP ground and search teams were ready to speed to wreckage sites using
motor vehicles, on foot, or by other means.
Because of these advantages, CAP had a greater percentage of “finds.”
In Nevada, the ground search teams adopted horses as their mode of
transportation over the rough mountainous terrain. This type of operation led the
ever resourceful CAP into the development of a very distinctive uniform for its
cavalry. The Nevada unit rigged litters to special pack horses and brought back
to civilization many injured and dead. Members sometimes ran out of water on
long treks over arid countryside—again CAP ingenuity and teamwork prevailed.
Instead of sending back to their base for water, CAP pilots would parachute
sacks of ice to them. Simply placing at he ice in containers and waiting for it to
melt provided an ample water supply.
In Florida, Zack Mosely was a CAP wing commander and famous cartoonist and
creator of “Smiling Jack.” His wing used special vehicles known as “glade
buggies” as instruments for ground rescue missions. The glade buggy was a
shallow-draft innovation with a flat-bottomed hull, above which was mounted an
aircraft power plant and propeller for propulsion. Able to traverse almost any type
of surface found in the Everglades of Florida, the glade buggies were (and still
are) used very successfully to rescue downed pilots and passengers in areas
where no other type of vehicle can operate.
2-57
Ground rescue teams in the northern “snow country” formed winter dki units by
skiing, the teams were able to cover more area in a much shorter time than by
any other method. In the state of Washington, CAP created a unit of parachutists
to be dropped into otherwise inaccessible areas. Although the parachutists were
never used, the Washington group had the foresight and ingenuity to be
prepared for any eventuality.
Cargo and courier services
Cargo and courier flying was another important CAP mission during the war
years. From 1942 to early 1944, CAP pilots moved over 3.5 million pounds of
mail and cargo for the armed forces and transported hundreds of military
passengers throughout the US to points of embarkation. As wartime industrial
production grew, the commercial and military transportation facilities became
taxed to the limit of their capabilities. They simply couldn’t transport all of the war
materials stacking up like mountains in the warehouses and supply depot yards.
At least a stop-gap solution to the transportation bottleneck had to be found, the
CAP again provided the solution. In the spring of 1942, a 30-day experiment
included pilots of the Pennsylvania Wing transporting cargo. With only five light
planes at their disposal, they transported Army cargo successfully over a large
area, flying in to AAF bases as far south as Georgia—much to the delight of AFF
supply officers. Soon, industry and Army officials were convinced of the plan’s
merit, and CAP was given to go-ahead. Shortly thereafter, CAP set up regularly
scheduled cargo flights and courier flights all over the nation. As a result of its
services, reduced air transportation costs were realized, and many military
aircraft were eventually released for more direct employment in the war effort.
Border Patrol
CAP was also active in helping patrol the border between Brownsville, Texas,
and Douglas, Arizona. The CAP Southern Liaison Patrol flew approximately
30,000 hours, patrolling from dawn to dusk the 1,000 miles of rough, rocky, and
barren terrain. The CAP planes were looking for out-of-the-ordinary activities that
might be indicative of spies or saboteurs entering or leaving the country. Pilotobservers often flew their craft low enough to read the license plates on
suspicious automobiles. In fact, one patrol aircraft flew so low in pursuit of a
“suspicious” automobile; the observer was able to report an accurate description
of the car’s occupants—down to the color of their shirts and ties. The car was
stopped at the Mexican border whereupon the individuals were found to be
enemy agents. In another case, a patrol noticed car tracks leading to and from a
supposedly abandoned building. Investigation by ground units revealed an
enemy radio station.
From its beginning, in July 1942 to its discontinuance in April 1944, the CAP
“Border Patrol” had reported almost 7,000 out-of-the-ordinary activities on the
ground within its patrol area and had radioed to the AAF the direction of flight and
2-58
description of 176 suspicious aircraft. Considering its many hours of hazardous
operations, the loss of two patrol members was an exceptional safety record.
Antiaircraft gunnery and searchlight practice
In March 1942, CAP units began towing targets for air-to-air gunnery practice by
fighter aircraft and antiaircraft batteries. The units would fly antiaircraft machine
gun runs, simulating a strafing attack, trailing targets as little as 1,000 feet behind
them. Then, they would climb to high altitudes trailing targets as little as 1,000
feet behind them. Then, they would climb to high altitudes trailing two targets at
distances of up to 5,000 feet. Heavy antiaircraft guns practiced on these targets
in tow. Occasionally the antiaircraft gunners took a little too much lead, and the
CAP aircraft would land with holes intended for the target. One of the pilots is
reported to have found a shell fragment embedded in his parachute seat pack!
One of the other notable services CAP rendered to the people manning
antiaircraft batteries was flying night missions to afford tracking practice for the
crews of searchlight and radar units. Although the CAP pilots weren’t under fire,
the missions were dangerous. There was always the possibility that a pilot would
inadvertently look into the glare of the searchlight, be blinded, and crash to his
death. This is evidently what happened to Captain Raoul Souliere, and
experienced pilot from Biddeford, Maine.
On one ink-black night, off the coast of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, Captain
Souliere began his searchlight run in the normal manner. Suddenly the
searchlights came on and seemed to pin his little Waco against the velvety
background of the night sky, as a butterfly would be pinned in a display case. For
a few minutes the airplane maintained an even keel, but soon it went into evasive
maneuvers. No matter what tactic the pilot used, the efficient searchlight operator
kept him in clear beans. For several more minutes the battle of wits went on
between the pilot and searchlight crews, until the little Waco went into a dive from
which there was no apparent effort to recover. Witnesses surmised Captain
Souliere had accidentally looked into the intense searchlight beams while
performing the evasive maneuvers and became so disoriented he didn’t know his
plane was in a dive.
For three ears CAP flew these hazardous missions, helping increase the
efficiency of Army units preparing for combat. A total of 20,593 towing and
tracking missions—46,000 hours were flown on live ammunition and searchlight
missions. But a price was paid for such dangerous work. Seven CAP members
were killed, five seriously injured, and 23 airplanes were lost.
The wolf patrol
At the same time, other CAP pilots and crews were flying missions that assisted
the war effort either directly or indirectly. Among these were the following:
2-59
•
•
•
•
•
Flying blood bank mercy missions for the American Red Cross and other
civilian agencies.
Cruising over forests, detecting fires and reporting suspected arsonists.
Flying mock air raids to test blackout practices and air raid warning systems.
Supporting bond drives.
Assisting in salvage collection drives.
CAP pilots were even pressed into service as “wolf patrol.” The populations of
wolves had increased to dangerous proportions in the southwest. By the winter of
1944, ranchers in the Texas Panhandle called upon their governor to enlist the
aid of the CAP to help control the menace. One rancher alone had lost over
1,000 cattle to marauding wolves the year before—beef denied to the nation in
an era of meat rationing. Again, CAP did its duty. Army with various types of
firearms, the CAP pilots and observers took to the air and helped bring the wolf
population back under control.
Not all of CAP’s wartime activities were in the air: its personnel guarded airfields
and other installations and patrolled power lines and waterways, Guarding
against saboteurs. When national disasters occurred, CAP personnel were there
helping the Red Cross and others to evacuate people and administer aid to those
affected.
Pilot training
Throughout the world, CAP was carrying on another most important mission—
pilot training. In early 1942 CAP set up a program to recruit and train cadets to
assist with tasks at the operational level. At the same time, CAP provided
indoctrination and training toward the cadets becoming licensed pilots for service
in the CAP or military pilot training. CAP was organized along military lines.
Members wore uniforms, operated in a military manner, and performed defense
functions. As a result, none of CAP’s physically-fit members were exempt from
military service. The early recruitment and training offered the CAP cadet
provided knowledge of military life and aviation’s challenge national importance
ensured CAP cadets had an advantage over other youths, an advantage proudly
continued today.
The pilot training program built a reserve of air-minded citizens from which the
military air forces could draw needed personnel, particularly from CAP members
who had completed private pilot training each man in the CAP was permitted to
sponsor a boy, and each woman could sponsor a girl. The youths, in the age
bracket of 15-17 years, had to be physically fit, in the last two ears of high school,
maintaining satisfactory grades, and be native-born of parents who had been
citizens of the US for at least 10 years. Indeed, these restrictions seemed rather
severe, but they were purposely imposed to hold down membership in the
program until a solid foundation could b e established.
2-60
Restrictions notwithstanding, American youth aggressively responded to the
opportunity. Within six months of the program’s onset, CAP had over 20,000
cadets attending weekly meetings and studying in groups, on their own, or sideby-side with senior members. The youths spent many or all of their weekends at
local airports learning, instead of engaging in less informative activities.
Recruiting these 20,000 plus CAP cadets cost the Office of Civilian Defense
slightly less than $200. this amount was spent by CAP National Headquarters on
its directives pertaining to the cadet programs, cadet applications, and cadet
membership cards.
019. Change in command jurisdiction
The cadet program and exceptional execution of all other CAP missions led the
War Department to make CAP an auxiliary of the AAF. On 29 April 1943, the
command jurisdiction was transferred from the Office of Civilian Defense to the
War Department. This date is considered a red-letter day on the CAP calendar.
Shortly thereafter, the War Department issued a memorandum assigning to the
AAF the responsibility for supervising and directing CAP operations. The impact
on the CAP’s cadet recruiting mission—Army aviation cadets, is a significant
outcome of this transfer of command jurisdiction.
In December 1943, the AAF placed 288 L-4 aircraft (civilian designation, “Piper
Grasshopper”) on loan to CAP for use in the aviation cadet recruiting program.
CAP “took to the air,” and during 1944 flew 78,000 aviation cadets and
prospective recruits a total of 41,000 flying hours. Before the end of 1944, CAP
had recruited an oversupply of cadets and had taken over the responsibilities of
administering cadet medical screening tests and operating centers where cadets
received preliminary medical checkups.
By the end of 1944, CAP had built up its membership to about 75,000 men and
women, located in over 1,000 communities throughout the nation. Moreover, the
early wartime practice of training CAP members for operational missions had
established an effective training corps ready to assume a larger Army aviation
cadet training mission. The record established by CAP during the war years
impressed the nation. Here are a few of the notable accomplishments:
•
•
•
•
•
CAP flew 500,000 hours of missions in support of the war effort.
Sank at least two submarines.
Saved countless numb ers of aircraft crash survivors and survivors of
disasters at sea by guiding rescue forces to them.
CAP members spent their own money in support of wartime missions and
volunteered thousands of hours of non-flying mission time to train or
indoctrinate cadets.
CAP members built their own airfields and “pitched in” to help when natural
disasters occurred.
2-61
No sacrifice was too great for these patriots—and to prove it, many gave their
lives.
020. The future of postwar CAP uncertain
The CAP was still serving as an auxiliary of the Army Air Forces at the cessation
of hostilities in 1945, but this means, established by Executive Order, had no
foundation by statute. Its usefulness had been proved during wartime through all
of the aforementioned feats of service. But now peace had come and the scope
of CAP activities had narrowed because the AAF had assumed many of the
tasks assigned to CAP during the war. In short, the future of CAP was uncertain,
but CAP remained ever professional.
CAP hosted a congressional dinner on 1 March 1946 honoring President
Truman, the 79th Congress, and General Arnold. CAP thanked the honorees for
their direct actions allowing CAP to serve the nation in WW ii. However, the AAF
withdrew its monetary support of CAP after 31 March 1946 in response to AAF
budget cuts. In view of these circumstances, General Arnold called a conference
of CAP wing commanders. In January 1946, the conference convened and
discussed the feasibility of a postwar CAP. From this conference, a plan to
incorporate grew.
021. Incorporation of Civil Air Patrol
On 1 July 1946 Public Law 476 incorporated the CAP and authorized the
incorporators to adopt a constitution, bylaws, and regulations and to select
officers. Under this federal charter, the CAP Corporation planned to undertake a
very ambitious program—without the help of the AAF. Specifically, the corporate
purpose was “solely of a benevolent character” with three key missions:
•
•
•
Prove an organization to encourage and aid American citizens in the
contribution of their efforts, services and resources in the development of
aviation and in the maintenance of air supremacy, and to encourage and
develop by example the voluntary contribution of private citizens to the public
welfare.
Provide aviation (aerospace today) education and training, especially to its
senior and cadet members.
Encourage and foster civil aviation in local communities and to provide an
organization of private citizens with adequate facilities to assist in meeting
local and national emergencies.
Corporation objectives
With missions established by law, CAP leadership in 1946 delegated these
specific objectives throughout the organization:
•
Inform the general public about aviation and its impacts.
2-62
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Provide its senior officers and cadets ground and preflight aviation education
and training.
Provide air service under emergency conditions.
Establish a radio network covering all parts of the US for both training and
emergency use.
Encourage the establishment of flying clubs for its membership.
Provide selected cadets a two-week encampment at air bases.
Provide selected cadets flight scholarships.
Encourage model airplane building and flying.
Assist veterans to find employment.
Contribute services to special projects such as airport development, the
survey and marking of emergency landing areas, and survey of dangerous
flying areas in mountainous regions.
In addition to implementing the objectives of the first program, the newly
chartered CAP undertook other official and unofficial tasks requested by the AAF.
These included helping prepare an address list of all former AAF personnel,
convincing the public of the merits of an independent air force, assisting in the air
marking program, identifying downed aircraft debris to avoid its being mistaken
as a new crash, and conducting AAF-CAP air shows.
Obviously, many of CAP’s objectives couldn’t have been attained without support
from the AAF. However, since no official basis for such support existed, review of
the true AAF-CAP relationship was necessary. After the United States Air Force
was established in 1947, study of this relationship began.
022. Permanent status as USAF auxiliary
In October 1947, a CAP board was set up to meet with USAF officials and plan
the establishment of CAP as a USAF auxiliary. After several meetings between
CAP and USAF officials, certain agreements were reached concerning CAP and
USAF objectives, and a plan was adopted to legalize USAF assistance to CAP.
Shortly thereafter, a bill was introduced in the House of Representatives to
permanently establish CAP as a USAF auxiliary and authorize the Secretary of
the Air Force to extend aid to the CAP. Following subcommittee hearings, the
Senate passed the ill on 26 May 1948, Public Law 537 (10 USC 9441)—CAP
became an auxiliary of the new USAF.
On 1 January 1959, CAP was transferred from Headquarters Air Force to
Continental Air Command (CAC). This transfer placed the USAF officers, airmen,
and civilian employees attached to CAP within the jurisdiction of CAD; but the
corporate entity and the administration of CAP remained unchanged. The
responsibilities of CAC in supporting the Air Force reserve program were related
to many of the missions and aims of CAP; thus, the CAP-CAC alliance provided
closer coordination with Air Force units and activities to aid the CAP in realizing
its potential and to establish a firmer CAP-USAF relationship. Continental Air
2-63
Command continued its outstanding support to the CAP until 1 July 1968 when
the command was abolished. CAP then transferred to Headquarters Command,
USAF.
Another Air Force organizational change took place in 1976, and CAP was
placed under the Air Training Command’s Air University at Maxwell Air Force
Base, Alabama, where it remains today. As the USAF reorganizes occasionally
to adapt to changing times and missions, such changes may be expected.
However, each change has continued to perpetuate the concept CAP will be
supported by a major Air Force command (currently Air Education and Training
Command), and the strong CAP-USAF relationship will continue as it has for so
may years.
Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of
the unit.
015. Early events leading to the need for a Civil Air Patrol
1. In what year was CAP created?
2. Who was the first commander of the CAP?
016. The realization of a national Civil Air Patrol
1. How did Earle L. Johnson demonstrate the vulnerability of civil aerodromes?
2. What military organization helped setup and administer the CAP organization?
017. CAP World War II activities
1. CAP was called upon to help combat what threat during WW II?
2. What was the first “kill” accredited to a CAP mission?
018. Other wartime missions
1. The WW II border patrol mission for CAP involved looking for what activity?
2. How did CAP help with antiaircraft gunnery training?
2-64
019. Change in command jurisdiction
1. On 24 April 1943, CAP was made an auxiliary of whaqt military organization?
2. How many hours had CAP flown of missions in support of WW II effort?
020. The future of postwar CAP uncertain
1. What event did CAP use to thank President Truman, Congress, and General
Arnold for allowing CAP to serve in WW II.
2. In 1946, why did the AAF withdraw its monetary support of CAP?
121. Incorporation of Civil Air Patrol
1. Name three of the original objectives of corfporate CAP.
2. In 1946, what document formally incorporated CAP?
022. Permanent status of USAF auxiliary
1. In what year did CAP become an USAF auxiliary?
2. CAP functions under what USAF major command?
2-2. Organization and Mission
Organization and mission are also important to understanding and leading and
organization. In this section, we’ll address the organizational structures and
varied missions of the CAP. We’ll conclude with a discussion of the USAF and
CAP relationship.
023. The organization of Civil Air Patrol
The CAP, the official auxiliary of the Air Force, is a volunteer, nonprofit
organization with its National Headquarters at Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama.
CAP is a civilian corporation made up of volunteers who pay dues for the
privilege of membership and rendering a service to the nation. Membership
consists of approximately 19,000 cadets and 34,000 adults volunteers. They
wear an adaptation of the Air Force uniform with distinctive CAP emblems and
insignia. Members operate more than 5,000 privately owned aircraft and 530
2-65
CAP aircraft, and more than 950 CAP vehicles in support of the organization[s
programs.
Although CAP members wear an adaptation of the Air Force uniform, have an
organization patterned after the Air Force, and perform duties in a military
manner, they’re still civilians. CAP is organized into eight geographic regions.
These eight regions are subdivided by the states which fallwithin their
boundaries, and each state is classified as a wing. Additionally, the District of
Columbia—referred to in CAP terminology as the National Capital—and the
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico are each designated as wings. This gives a total
of 52 wings. Each wing is then subdivided into groups and squadrons and may
be assigned flights according to organizational need. There are approximately
1,700 individual units. In this lesion we’ll discuss each of these organizational
structures starting “at the top” and working though the chain of command. As we
do, we’ll provide the function of each structure in that chain of command.
The National Board
The highest governing body of the CAP is the National Board, chaired by a
member of the CAP Corporation whose title is National Commander. Since the
CAP isn’t purely a civilian organization at every level, one member of the
National Board is the senior Air Force advisor, who is an active duty Air Force
officer. All other members of the National Board hold CAP grade and include the
eight CAP region commanders and the 52 CAP wing commanders. At least once
annually, the National Board convenes the conduct CAP corporate business and
to elect officers. The members of the National Board and how they achieve their
positions are as follows:
•
•
•
•
National Commander (elected by the National Board).
National Vice Commander (elected by the National Board).
Executive Director (hired by the corporation, non-voting).
National Chief of Staff (nominated by the national commander and elected by
the National Executive Committee (NEC).
The senior Air Force advisor services two functions:
•
•
Performs in a corporate capacity.
Commands the headquarters staff of USAF personnel and DoD civilians
assigned to Headquarters, Civil Air Patrol-United States Air Force (CAPUSAF).
Other members of the National Board are as follows:
•
National Finance Officer (nominated by the national commander and elected
by the NEC).
2-66
•
•
•
National Legal Officer (nominated by the national commander and elected by
the NEC).
Region Commanders (appointed by the national commander)
Wing Commanders (appointed by the region commanders and elected by the
NEC).
The National Executive Committee
Since the National board usually convenes only once each year, it needs a
subordinate governing body to maintain continuity. The National Executive
Committee serves this purpose. The NEC is comprised of the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
National Commander.
National Vice Commander.
Executive Director.
National Chief of Staff.
National Finance Officer.
National Legal Officer.
National Controller.
Commanders of the eight regions.
The NEC convenes at least twice annually and might be considered the “work
horse” command element. It is responsibilities such as reviewing reports,
appropriating funds, raising funds, supervising the corporation’s investments,
establishing trusts and appointing trustees, negotiating contracts, approving
budgets, and accounting for expenditures.
The NEC, in addition to electing certain corporate officers, also elects the
national controller. The national controller assists in the financial management of
the corporation and is a member of the National Board or the National Executive
Committee.
The Executive Director
The Executive Director is the executive officer of CAP. As specified in the
constitution and bylaws, “The Executive Director shall administer the programs of
the CAP in accordance with the resolutions of the National Board and the
National Executive Committee. He or she is authorized to issue such rules,
regulations, and other directives as approved by the National Board and the
National Executive Committee for the conduct of the affairs of the CAP.”
The senior Air Force advisor and Headquarters, CAP-USAF
National Headquarters, CAP-USAF at Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, is
staffed by military and civilian personnel, as authorized by the Secretary of the
Air Force. HQ CAP-USAF personnel also functions as part of the full-time staff of
National Headquarters, Civil Air Patrol.
2-67
The senior Air Force advisor “wears two hats” acting daily in a corporate liaison
capacity and also as the military commander of a headquarters staff of USAF
personnel and DoD civilians assigned to Headquartrs, CAP-USAF . the senior
Air Force advisor is responsible to the commander of Air University for those
actions pertaining to USAF business and to the NEC or National Board for
actions that pertain to the CAP Corporation. As the commander of HQ CAPUSAF , the senior Air Force advisor is responsible for a field organization of eight
liaison offices which advises and assists the CAP regions and wings.
The CAP field organization
You can compare the field organization of CAP to the USAF. Each has a mission
to accomplish and certain territorial areas to maintain. However, while the USAF
has broken its field organization into major commands that are designed to
perform specific missions, CAP field organization units all have equal
responsibility for carrying out the CAP mission. The field organizations do this
within certain territorial boundaries, first by groups of states—regions—and then
by individual states.
Regions
The eight separate CAP regions are the first level of command in the CAP field
organization structure. This involves the 50 states, the Commonwealth of Puerto
Rico, and the District of Columbia. The regions are as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Northeast
Middle East
Great Lakes
Southeast
North Central
Southwest
Rocky Mountain
Pacific
Commanding each region is a CAP officer, usually in the grade of colonel; each
region commander is appointed by the national commander. The region
commander may then appoint a vice commander and a staff for assistance. The
region vice commander and staff may perform those administrative duties
peculiar to region level, but the region commander retains command
responsibility for all CAP activities within the region.
As a field extension of the advisory service provided by HQ CAP-USAF, the Air
Force liaison region commander and his staff advise the CAP region commander
in the areas of organization, administration, operations, training, aerospace
education, supply, and similar activities. Also, the Air Force liaison offices
2-68
maintain an interchange of information between HQ CAP-USAF, the CAP wing
liaison offices, and the CAP wings within their region.
Wings
The CAP wng is the command level assigned to each state, the District of
Columbia, and Puerto Rico. Wing commanders are elecgted by the NEC and
hold the grade of CAP colonel. Like the region commanders, wing commanders
may appoint a staff to assist them wth their duties. Also helping the wing
commanders are the CAP wing liaison offices. The CAP wing liaison office
serves the same purpose to the wing as does the USAF-CAP region liaison office
to the region, but is staffed by retired USAF officers and NCO’s hired by the CAP
Corporation. Below wing level there’s no USAF liaison office. However, each Air
Force base commander appoints a permanent project officer on the base to
coordinate with USAF-CAP liaison personnel to assist units needing or seeking
support. The CAP wing commanders appoint the group commanders and the
squadron commanders within their respective wings. The last three
organizational levels in CAP are the group, squadron, and flight.
Groups
Groups are established by wing commanders when they determine a need for
them. This need arises when there’s a large geographic area or a large number
of subordinate units that can’t be managed by a single office. There must be a
minimum of five squadrons within each group formed.
Squadrons
The squadron is the very heart of the CAP. It’s the CAP operational unit that
actually carries out all of the plans and programs formulated and directed by the
higher echelons. Squadrons are trained and furnish assistance to the
communities, states, and nation in times of national disasters, aircraft accidents,
national emergencies, and war. Squadrons recruit new members into CAP, they
provide the instruction of aerospace education for CAP cadets. Squadrons are
the program!
Flights
Flights, as separate organizational elements, are established only if a need
exists. This usually occurs in sparsely populated areas where there’s an
insufficient number of members to form a squadron. A flight may be composed of
up to 14 CAP members, but there are definite restrictions as to its minimum
personnel staffing. Where there are eight senior members, a flight may be
formed, but if the flight includes cadets it must have at least three senior
members. The flight, according to its remoteness, may report directly to either a
squadron, a group, or its wing, as the wing commander may direct. Each flight
should increase its membership to become a squadron as soon as possible.
2-69
Civil Air Patrol charters
The regions and wings have permanent charters, established in the Constitution
and Bylaws of the corporation. Below wing level, each organizational unit must b
e individually chartered. If there’s a new organizational unit established within a
wing—whether a group, squadron, or flight—the wing commander requests a
charter from National Headquarters CAP. Such charters are effective for one
year and must be renewed each year thereafter.
024. The mission of Civil Air Patrol
The CAP performs a three-part dedicated mission for the nation. This mission
provides the direction for every wing. These mission parts are:
•
•
•
Emergency services.
Aerospace education.
Cadet training.
Emergency Services
CAP’s emergency services include air search and rescue, disaster relief, and civil
defense. Its members fly 80 percent of the search and rescue mission hours
directed by the Air Force Rescue and Coordination Center at Langly Air Force
Base, Virginia. In 1993, Aircrew members flew more than 34,600 hours in
support of federally funded programs to include search and rescue, disaster relief
and counterdrug operations. CAP was credited with saving 86 lives in 1995.
In November 1985, CAP agreed to assist the US Customs Service is its
counterdrug efforts by flying air reconnaissance missions along US boundaries.
In early 1989, similar agreements were made with the Drug Enforcement
Administration and the US Forrest Service. CAP participation only involves
reconnaissance, transportation, and communications support. Members don’t
carry firearms, make arrests, nor give chase to suspected drug traffickers.
Aerospace education
The CAP’s Aerospace education Program provides academic instruction and
textbooks about aviation and space activities to cadets, sponsors, and the
educational community. Each year the CAP supports about 200 aerospace
education workshops for teachers at 150 colleges and universities around the
country, preparing approximately 7,000 teachers to teach aerospace-related
subjects in their classrooms. The organization also develops curricula and
publishes aerospace educational materials for use in the nation’s schools. CAP
sponsors the National Congress on Air and space Education, the premier annual
aerospace education event for aerospace educators, CAP members, and others
interested in air and space activities and issues.
2-70
Cadet training
The purpose of the Cadet Program is to inspire the country’s youth to become
leaders and good citizens through interest in aerospace. It’s open to US citizens
and legal residents of the United States, its territories and possessions. Potential
cadets must be presently attending the sixth grade. CAP cadets average
between the ages of 12-18.
Through studies and other activities, cadets progress through achievements
which include:
•
•
•
•
•
Special activities
Aerospace education
Leadership programs
Moral leadership
Physical fitness
As cadets progress, they earn increased rank, awards, or certificates. They may
become eligible for CAP national or international special activities and compete
for academic and flying scholarships. Upon completion of their initial training
phase, cadets receive the General Billy Mithcell Award, which entitles them to
enter the Air Force as an Airman First Class, should they chose to enlist.
025. The USAF-CAP relationship
The CAP and the United States Air Force maintain a civilian-military relationship
that’s based upon the CAP’s status as the USAF auxiliary. As such, the CAP’s
services to the nation and the USAF are threefold:
•
•
•
Voluntary
Benevolent
Noncombatant
These services are employed both in times of peace and war.
Air Force support to CAP
The United States Air Force provides technical information and advice to those
CAP members who organize, train, and direct CAP personnel and who develop
CAP resources. In addition to technical information and advice, the Air Force also
make available certain services and facilities required by CAP to carry out its
mission. Such assistance, however, is restricted to specific areas by acts of
Congress and can’t interfere or conflict with the performance of the Air Force
mission. Nonetheless, the Air Force has made tremendous contributions to CAP.
In the area of materials, USAF has donated excess aircraft, motor vehicles,
communications equipment, spare parts, rescue and safety equipment, and
office eq2uipment. Based on the availability of aircraft, flight crews, and travel
funds, the Air Force provides airlift services for various CAP programs, such as
2-71
the CAP National Board National Congress on Air and Space Education,
National Cadet Competition, summer encampments, and aerospace education
workshops. Of course, highly restricted peacetime funding limits this availability.
If space is available, Air Force base commanders may provide meeting places
for local CAP units, provide parking spaces for CAP aircraft, and furnish
guidance and additional training literature to enrich the CAP training program.
Each summer, CAP cadets participate in summer encampments held at military
installations throughout the nation. Again, the Air Force actively supports these
training functions. It not only furnishes quarters and office space but also
provides advisors, instructors, and training aids. When cadets attend an
encampment, the Air Force ensures the youths have medical services and get
adequate nutrition by eating at a military dining facility. In addition, cadets have
access to the base theater, bowling alleys, swimming pools, and other
recreational facilities.
When senior training programs, primarily leadership schools, SAR, schools, and
staff colleges are held on military bases, they receive base support in the same
manner. The Air Force encourages its reserve components to contribute their
services to the CAP as instructors and advisors. By dong so, reservists earn
credit toward retirement. CAP’s overall Aerospace Education program is helped
greatly by those Air Force reservists who are professional educators, for they
serve as consultants, assistants, and guest lecturers at aerospace education
workshops that are held at colleges and universities throughout the nation.
CAP support to the Air Force
Thus far, one might believe the Air Force does everything for CAP and CAP does
nothing for the Air Force in return. Quite the contrary; CAP also renders a great
service to its “guiding hand” through these three major activities:
•
•
•
Emergency services.
Aerospace education.
Cadet training.
Emergency services
CAP’s personnel and aircraft are in the air each year flying search and rescue
missions, mercy flights, and disaster relief assistance. In addition, CAP is
constantly ready to perform civil defense and other missions, such as crashed
aircraft spotting and marking, route surveys, courier service, light transportation
duty, post attack recovery duty, drug surveillance flights, and similar activities
within the capabilities of CAP light aircraft and other equipment. The CAP also
maintains a nationwide radio network, that’s used for training communications
personnel and for domestic or military emergencies.
2-72
Aerospace education
Valuable assistance is given the Air Force (and other Federal agencies) through
the CAP Aerospace Education Program. Through this “internal” program,
together with “external” aerospace education workshops conduced by colleges
and school systems, the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for living
successfully in the aerospace age are imparted to CAP cadets and senior
members; to teachers, administrators, and students in the nation’s schools; and
to the general public. To help present and carry through the Aerospace
Education program, CAP develops and makes available printed materials on
various aerospace subjects. Through a program provided to aerospace
education workshop participants, guided tours can be arranged to airports,
missile centers, and aerospace manufacturing firms.
Cadet training
Another example of CAP’s reciprocal service to the Air Force is found in the
number of CAP cadets and senior members who eventually become members of
the United States Air Force. Every year, CAP cadets and former cadets enter the
Air Force Academy, other service academies, Reserve Officer Corps programs at
colleges and universities across the nation, and basic training programs of all
services.
Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of
the unit.
023. The organization of the Civil Air Patrol
1. Where are the National Headquarters of CAP and Headquarters CAP-USAF
located?
2. How many separate CAP regions are there?
024. The mission of the Civil Air Patrol
1. What are the three missions CAP performs under emergency services?
2. What is the purpose of the cadet program?
025. The USAF-CAP relationship
1. What are the three services the missions of the CAP provides to the USAF
and the nation?
2-73
2. As a part of the Air Force’s support for CAP, the Air Force hosts cadets each
summer at different military installations. What is this program called?
2-74
Answers to Self-Test Questions
015
1. 1941.
2. Major General John Curry.
016
1. Dropping sandbags (simulated bombs) on war plants.
2. Army Air Forces (AAF).
017
1. German submarines off the US coast.
2. 325-pound depth charge.
018.
1. Out-of-ordinary activities that might be indicative of spies or saboteurs
entering or leaving the country.
2. Flying night missions to afford tracking practice for crews of searchlight
and radar units.
019.
1. AAF.
2. 500,000.
020.
1. Dinner
2. AFF budget cuts.
021.
1. Provide its seniors and cadets ground and preflight aviation education
and training, provide air service under emergency conditions; establish a
radio network covering all parts of the United States for both training and
emergency use.
2. Public Law 476.
022.
1. 1948.
2. Air Education and Training Command.
023.
1. Maxwell AFB, Alabama
2. Eight.
2-75
024.
1. Air search and rescue, disaster relief, and civil defense.
2. Inspire the country’s youth to become leaders and be good citizens
through their interest in aerospace.
025.
1. Voluntary, benevolent, and noncombatant.
2. Summer encampment.
2-76
Unit Review Exercises
Note to Student: Consider all choices carefully, select the best answer to each
question, and circle the corresponding letter.
27. (015) In what year was the Civil Air Patrol created?
a. 1940.
b. 1941.
c. 1942.
d. 1943.
28. (015) Who was the first commander of the Civil Air Patrol?
a. General Colin Powell.
b. General “Hap” Arnold.
c. General Curtis LeMay.
d. Major General John Curry.
29. (016) Earle L. Johnson, one of the CAP founders, demonstrated the
vulnerability of civil aerodromes by
a. Lighting one on fire.
b. Kidnapping the Cleveland aerodrome administrator.
c. Dropping sandbags (simulated bombs) on war plants.
d. Lobbying to Congress, explaining the vulnerability.
30. (016) In 1941, what military organization helped set up and administer the
CAP?
a. Army Air Force (AAF).
b. Office of Civilian Defense (OCD).
c. Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA).
d. Air Education and Training Command (AETC).
31. (017) The first three bases established to support CAP’s coastal patrol
mission were located in Florida, Maryland, and
a. Virginia.
b. New York.
c. New Jersey.
d. North Carolina.
32. (018) What CAP wartime mission involved looking for spies and
saboteurs?
a. Wolf patrol.
b. Border patrol.
c. Courier service.
d. Search and rescue.
2-77
33. (018) The CAP helped with antiaircraft gunnery training during WW II by
a. Flying mock air raids.
b. Flying night missions.
c. Guarding training installations.
d. Airlifting crews to training installations.
34. (019) On 29 April 1943, the War Department transferred the CAP into an
AAF
a. Wing.
b. MAJCOM.
c. Reserve unit.
d. Auxiliary unit.
35. (019) At the close of WW II, how many hours had CAP flown in support of
the war effort?
a. 200,000.
b. 300,000.
c. 400,000.
d. 500,000.
36. (020) To thank President Truman, congress and General Arnold for
allowing CAP to serve in WW II, the CAP hosted a
a. Dinner.
b. Fund raiser.
c. Conference.
d. Meeting with General Patton.
37. (020) In 1946, the AAF withdrew its monetary support of CAP. This action
was taken as a result of
a. Congressional direction.
b. A change in command jurisdiction.
c. Army Air Force (AAF) budget cuts.
d. The fact that Civil Air Patrol lacked a postwar mission.
38. (021) In 1946, Public Law 476 was passed. This law
a. Incorporated CAP.
b. Regulated CAP membership size.
c. Narrowed CAP peacetime missions.
d. Designated CAP as an USAF auxiliary.
39. (022) The Civil Air Patrol functions under the
a. Air Combat Command (ACC).
b. Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC).
c. Air Force Logistics Command (AFLC).
d. Air Education and Training Command (AETC).
2-78
40. (022) In 1947, Public Law 557 was passed. This law
a. Incorporated CAP.
b. Regulated CAP membership size.
c. Narrowed CAP peacetime missions.
d. Designated CAP as an USAF auxiliary.
41. (023) Both the National Headquarters of CAP and Headquarters CAPUSAF are located at
a. Andrews AFB.
b. Maxwell AFB .
c. Barksdale AFB.
d. Wright-Patterson AFB.
42. (023) How many separate CAP regions are there?
a. Six.
b. Seven.
c. Eight.
d. Nine.
43. (024) Which is not a CAP mission under emergency services?
a. Counterdrug operations.
b. Air search and rescue.
c. Disaster relief.
d. Civil defense.
44. (025) The CAP’s services to the nation and the USAF are: voluntary,
benevolent, and
a. Donated.
b. Expensive.
c. Tax deductible.
d. Noncombatant.
45. (025) CAP members who organize, train, and direct CAP personnel and
who develop CAP resources receive United States Air Force
a. Money and people.
b. Planes and resources.
c. Trucks and buildings.
d. Technical information and advice.
G-1
Glossary
8 AF
9 AF
AAF
ACC
AETC
AMC
AFSOC
MAJCOM
PACAF
USAFE
ADC
ADCOM
AFB
AFESC
AFMC
AFMPC
AFRES
AFSPACECOM
ALCM
ATO
AWACS
CAA
CAC
CAP
CAS
CINCNORAD
CJCS
CONUS
WW I
WW II
8th Air Force
9th Air Force
Army Air Force
Air Combat Command
Air Education and Training Command
Air Mobility Command
Air Force Special Operations Command
Major Command
Pacific Air Forces
United States Air Forces in Europe
Air Defense Command
Aerospace Defense Command
Air Force Base
Air Forces Electronic Security Command
Air Force Material Command
Air Force Military Personnel Center
Air Force Reserve
Air Force Space Command
Air-Launched cruise missile
Air Tasking Order
Airborne Warning and Control System
Civil Aeronautics Administration
Continental Air Command
Civil Air Patrol
Close air support
Commander-in-Chief, North American Aerospace
Defense Command
Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff
Continental United Sates
World War I
World War II
B-1
Bibliography
Department of Defense Publications
History of US Air Power (Course 50). Maxwell Air Force Base-Gunter Annex,
Alabama: Extension Course Institute, 1985.
Introduction to Civil Air Patrol (CAPM 50-1). Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama:
National Headquarters Civil Air Patrol, 1990.
USAFR Officer Preparatory Correspondence Course (Course 17), Maxwell Air
Force Base-Gunter Annex, Alabama: Extension Course Institute, 1989.
Internet Sources
“Missions of Civil Air Patrol” at http://www.cap.af.mil/missions.html, 5 March
1996.
“Organization of the United States Air Force” at
http://www.dtic.mil/airforcelink/pa/factsheets/organization_of_the_United_
States_Air_Force.html, October 1995.
“STS-76 Homepage” at http://shuttle.nasa.gov/sts-76/, 23 March 1996.
1
URE/VRE Answer Key as of 11 Mar 02
Answer Key
URE/VRE: 00013-01-9608 Edition: 03
NOTE: An answer of ‘*’ indicates a deleted question.
QUES
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
06.
07.
08.
09.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
ANS
B
D
B
D
B
D
C
D
C
D
C
D
D
C
B
B
C
B
D
A
B
C
A
C
A
QUES ANS
26.
C
27.
B
28.
D
29.
C
30.
A
31.
C
32.
B
33.
B
34.
D
35.
D
36.
A
37.
C
38.
A
39.
D
40.
D
41.
B
42.
C
43.
A
44.
D
45.
D
LAST ITEM
QUES ANS
QUES ANS