Alpha-1 Flight
KPYM
Fall 2016
Week 1
September 6, 2016
Introduction, Manual, V Speeds CFR 61, 91
Week 2
September 13, 2016
Aerodynamics Part 1
Week 3
September 20, 2016
Aerodynamics Part 2
Week 4
September 27, 2016
Airport Markings, Sectional Charts, Airspace
Week 5
October 4, 2016
Airspace "A-B-C-D-E-G" "SUA"
Week 6
October 11, 2016
Cross country Procedures Part 1
Week 7
October 18, 2016
Cross country Procedures Part 2
Week 8
October 25, 2016
Radio Procedures, Flight Plans, ATC
Week 9
November 1, 2016
Weather Theory, Weather Products
Week 10
November 8, 2016
Weather Briefing
Week 11
November 15, 2016
Navigation, VORs, GPS,
Week 12
November 22, 2016
Aircraft Performance
Week 13
November 29, 2106
Aircraft Weight & Balance
Week 14
December 6, 2016
Week 15
December 13, 2016
Aircraft Systems Maintenance,
Week 16
December 20, 2016
Emergency Procedures, Flight Safety, Closing
Physiological Factors
Private Pilot Ground School Syllabus
Welcome to Alpha 1
Instructors:
Chris Hyldburg
Owner/Operator
John Greenlaw
Chief Pilot
Jill Hagler
Jeff Surro
Laurentino Gomes
Jennfier Coon
Matt Baker
Andrew Grinham
Francis MacDonald
www.alpha-1.com
www.flightschedulepro.com
Alpha One Flight School
Page 1
Category and Class
Definitions:
Category: As used with respect to the certification, ratings, privileges
and limitations of airmen, means a broad classification of aircraft.
Examples: Airplane, rotorcraft, glider, lighter-than-air
Class: As used with respect to the certification, ratings, privileges and
limitations of airmen, means a classification of aircraft within a
CATEGORY having similar operating characteristics.
Examples: Single Engine, multiengine, Land, water, gyroplane,
helicopter, airship and free balloon.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 2
Code of Federal Regulations
Also known as “CFRs”
These are rules for the operation of U.S. registered aircraft developed
by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and are divided up into
separate “parts”. Different parts apply to various aviation operations,
such as Mechanics, Doctors, Examiners, Engineers, Designators, ETC.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 3
Title 14 Aeronautics and Space
As a Private Pilot remember:
Part 1- Definitions
Part 61 – Certification of Pilots and Instructors
Part 91 – General Operating and Flight Rules.
NTSB 830
Aeronautical Information Manual
Alpha One Flight School
Page 4
Part 61
Some basic definitions:
1
SEL
2
MEL
3
SES
4
IFR
5
VFR
6
IMC
7
HIGH
PERFORMANCE
8
COMPLEX
9
PIC
10
DUAL
Alpha One Flight School
Page 5
11
SOLO
12
X-COUNTRY
13
COMMERCIAL
14
ATP
15
CFI
16
PTS
17
NIGHT
18
Cross Country
19
20
Alpha One Flight School
Page 6
What is a Medical?
A physical exam by a FAA Designated Examiner. Three Types,
called “Class”. (FAR Part 61.23)
First class medical
Second class medical
Third class medical
Alpha One Flight School
Page 7
Student Pilot License: 2016
Alpha One Flight School
Page 8
Documents required on board the airplane to make solo flights
Student Pilot
Documents
Student Certificate
Medical Certificate
Government Issued
Picture ID
Logbook (CFI Signed)
Aircraft
Expiration
24 months over 40
60 months under 40
Airworthiness
90 days
No expiration, unless
major change in usage of
aircraft.
Registration (FAA)
None, unless title
changes hands.
Operation Limitations
Updated
Weight & Balance
Updated
<Endorsement from your CFI>
1. Endorsement for pre-solo aeronautical knowledge
(First name, MI, last name) has satisfactorily completed a pre-solo written examination
demonstrating knowledge of the portions of Parts 61 and 91 applicable to student pilots, the
airspace rules and procedures for the (name of airport) airspace rules and procedures for the
airport where the solo flight will be performed, and the flight characteristics and operational
limitations for a (make and model aircraft).
S/S [date] CFI’s name 987654321 CFI Exp 12-31-99
2. Endorsement for pre-solo flight training
I have given (First name, MI, last name) the flight training required by 61.87(c) in a (make and model
aircraft). He/She has demonstrated proficiency in the applicable maneuvers and procedures listed
in 61.87(d) through (k), as appropriate and is proficient to make safe solo flights in (make and model
aircraft).
S/S [date] CFI’s name 987654321 CFI Exp 12-31-99
Alpha One Flight School
Page 9
Remember as “AROW”!!
A
Airworthiness
R
Registration (FAA)
O Operation Limitations
W Weight & Balance
Airworthiness
Registration
Alpha One Flight School
Page 10
Operation Limitation
N48990
N5097L
Weight & Balance
Sheet
Alpha One Flight School
Page 11
Glen P. Wass
All the documents must be on board the Aircraft. The operating
limitations can be found in the Aircraft Manual. Every aircraft has a
manual. After 1976, all manuals were divided into sections, and these
sections are the same in every manual for all types of aircraft. That
way the Emergency section will always be Section “3”. For Piper, Beech,
Cessna, Boeing, etc…… You should memorize these section titles only.
Section
Contents
1.
General – size, description of aircraft
2.
Limitations – Aircraft – Engines
3.
Emergency Procedures
4.
Normal Procedures
5.
Performance
6.
Weight & Balance
7.
Systems
8.
Servicing
9.
Supplemental Systems
Alpha One Flight School
Page 12
V SPEEDS
One particular FAR requires you to know your Airplane and the Airspeeds
associated with it. V = Velocity
VA
MANEUVERING SPEED
Every airplane is designed to withstand a certain structural load.
The load is normally measured in gravitational pull. 1 “G” –
(gravity) is normal weight acting on a plane. The more we pull up
on the elevator, the more G’s press on the wings elevator,
engine, radio’s and other components of the airplane. A high
rate of speed can make a normal, gentle control movement
excessive. More about this, later. Below maneuvering speed the
airplanes controls will not allow you to cause damages to the
aircraft from overloading. The control surfaces actually stall
first. This is also known as thunderstorm penetration speed.
VFE MAXIMUM FLAP EXTENDED SPEED
We can fly with flaps extended (locate this speed on AS
indicator - TOP of White ARC)
Alpha One Flight School
Page 13
VLE MXIMUM LANDING GEAR EXTENDED SPEED
The maximum calibrated airspeed at which the airplane can be
safely flown with the landing gear extended. This is a problem
involving stability and controllability.
VLO MAXIMUM LANDING GEAR OPERATING SPEED
The maximum calibrated airspeed at which the airplane can be
safely flown with the landing gear operating. This is a problem
involving stability and controllability.
VMC MINIMUM CONTROL AIRSPEED
Slowest airspeed that we can fly. (see Vso)
VNE NEVER EXCEED SPEED
This is the top of the yellow arc. Defined by a RED LINE, this
speed is the maximum allowed to insure structural integrity in
SMOOTH AIR ONLY.
VNO NORMAL OPERATION SPEED
In the airplane “NORMAL OPERATION“ range. (Top of GREEN
ARC on AS indicator) “SMOOTH AIR ONLY IN THE YELLOW
ARC“
Vr
ROTATION
Take Off Speed
VS
STALL
Stall speed with “Clean” Configuration.
Bottom of Green Arc
VSO STALL
Stall speed with Landing Configuration
(Flaps OUT, Gear OUT)
Bottom of White Arc
Alpha One Flight School
Page 14
Vx BEST ANGLE OF CLIMB
Speed gives us the most altitude in the shortest distance.
Vy
BEST RATE OF CLIMB
Gives you the MOST ALITITUDE in the shortest TIME.
1. Maximum angle of climb
2. Maximum rate of climb
VG
Best Glide
The best glide speed without engine.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 15
V-speed of your aircraft
Aircraft Type:
V-speed
Meaning
VSO
Stall in Landing condition
VS
Stall in “Clean” condition
VFE
Maximum Speed with Flaps
Extended
VNO
Maximum Speed in Normal
Operating Range
VNE
Never Exceed Speed
VA
Maneuvering Speed
Vr
Rotation Speed
VX
Best Angle of Climb
VY
Best Rate of Climb
VG
Best Glide Speed
Alpha One Flight School
Airspeed
(Kts)
Page 16
V-speed of your aircraft
Aircraft Type:
V-speed
Meaning
VSO
Stall in Landing condition
VS
Stall in “Clean” condition
VFE
Maximum Speed with Flap
Extended
VNO
Maximum Speed in Normal
Operating Range
VNE
Never Exceed Speed
VA
Maneuvering Speed
Vr
Rotation Speed
VX
Best Angle of Climb
VY
Best Rate of Climb
VG
Best Glide Speed
Airspeed
(Kts)
Landing final speed (Flap 40)
Max Crosswind Velocity
Alpha One Flight School
Page 17
Aerodynamics
Alpha One Flight School
Page 18
Alpha One Flight School
Page 19
Stalls
THE AIRCRAFT’S WINGS ENCOUNTER REDUCED AIRFLOW
Alpha One Flight School
Page 20
<Blank Page>
4 Forces
Alpha One Flight School
Page 21
<Blank Page>
Drag
Alpha One Flight School
Page 22
<Blank Page>
Ground Effect
Alpha One Flight School
Page 23
<Blank Page>
Alpha One Flight School
Page 24
Turning Tendencies
Alpha One Flight School
Page 25
Alpha One Flight School
Page 26
Alpha One Flight School
Page 27
Alpha One Flight School
Page 28
AIRPORT LIGHTING
Beacon
Green & White Flashing
 Land Civilian Airport

If there is a Beacon on during the day, the Airport is operating
under “Instrument“ Flight Rules. ( bad weather )
<Important>
The airport is not required to turn Beacon on, so do not assume
the weather is okay just because the beacon is off.
Green, Two White Flashes
 Military
Alpha One Flight School
Page 29
Runway
White Lights
 Some runways, the lights turn orange then red as you approach the
end.
Threshold
Green, (approach end)
Taxiway
Blue
Obstructions
Red or White Flashing Lights.
Vertical Approach Slope Indicator
 a series of lights located to one side of a runway that guides your
final approach height to the runway.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 30
Draw a runway & taxiway and label the lights;
Alpha One Flight School
Page 31
2-Bar VASI
PAPI : Precision Approach Path Indicator and Tri-color Visual Approach Slope Indicator
Alpha One Flight School
Page 32
AIRPORT MARKINGS
Instrument Runway
Non Instrument Runway
(VFR Runway)
Precision Approach Runway
Alpha One Flight School
Page 33
Displaced Threshed
This area can be used for takeoff and taxi,
but not landing.
Unusable paved areas
Closed Runway
Alpha One Flight School
Page 34
Alpha One Flight School
Page 35
The Sectional
The Sectional is a map that pilots use for navigation and pilotage
(referencing ground landmarks with those on the map). This sectional is published
by NOAA, two times per year.
STUDY THE LEGEND! Use the map; it’s the best way to learn.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 36
HOW DO WE IDENTIFY AN AIRPORT ON A SECTIONAL?
Circles
 Designates a NON –PAVED Airport
 PAVED “ UNCONTROLLED” Airport
- This line shows runway direction
RED
 PAVED “CONTROLLED” Airport
BLUE
 PAVED Airport with “services” (i.e. fuel, food, maintenance.)
ANY COLOR
 Sea Plane
 Restricted or Private
 Closed
 Rotating Beacon – Sunset to Sunrise.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 37
Diagrams
Airports that have at least one runway longer than 8,069 will look like an
overhead view of the runways.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 38
What information does the sectional tell us about each airport?
EX
Looking at the symbol:
1. Uncontrolled
2. Paved
3. Runways < 8069’
4. Services
5. Runway Direction
6. Number of Runways
7. Rotating beacon
Alpha One Flight School
Page 39
Printed Information
 Will be printed in same color of airport circle = ( Blue or Red )
Plymouth (PYM)
149 *L 35 123.0
NAME
Elevation above MSL
Lighted Airport
4300‘ Runway (longest)
ASOS Frequency
Traffic Advisory Frequency
Alpha One Company Frequency
PLYMOUTH
149
*
L
135.625
123.00 (VHF …Very High Frequency)
123.30
A Controlled Field ( Blue ) will also have :
NANTUCKET (ACK)
CT 118.3 *
ATIS 127.5
48 * L 63 122.95
Control Tower
Frequency
( * = part time tower )
Automated
Terminal
Information
Service
ATIS gives the approaching pilot recorded information concerning:
Airport Conditions, Weather, Notams, Special information
Alpha One Flight School
Page 40
We can find a great deal of information about airports from the Sectional Chart.
However, to be properly briefed about an airport, you should consult the AFD –
Airport/Facility Directory. Published every 56
days. (Green Book)
Alpha One Flight School
Page 41
Sectional Symbols
Label the following symbols:
1. Lake, Pond, River –
2. City, Populated Area –
3.
4.
5.
6.
7. Tower
2049
(1400)
What could you say about the difference of these two
numbers?
Alpha One Flight School
Page 42
Contour Lines
Contour lines show how sharply the topography changes.
indicate rapid changes in elevation.
Lines close together
Lines farther apart show shallow & moderate grades.
Color
As elevation increases, the color turns brown to indicate a higher elevation.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 43
Minimum Safe Altitudes / Contour Lines
Every sectional is divided by lines of longitude and latitude. These lines
form a Grid Work covering all sectionals.
Inside the Grid you will find a number in Blue. That is the minimum
safe altitude within that Grid.
EX:
24
16
07
1
13
09
This number is in thousands (large) and hundreds (smaller) of feet.
Above Mean Sea Level
Obstacles can be natural or man made.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 44
Restrictive Airspace
Restricted Area
Restricted
R – 4101 A(Blue)
You may not enter this area when active. Active times are located in the lower part
of the Sectional. Check with Flight Service in advance.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 45
Prohibited Area
P – 140(Blue)
No flight within airspace whatsoever.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 46
Military Operation Area – MOA
MOA (RED)
High volume of military air traffic. Okay to fly through, but be aware of military
traffic. Pilot should contact controlling agency for advisories.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 47
Alert Area
Same as MOA – but for civilian traffic. High training volume.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 48
Warning Area
Restricted Area operations in International Waters. FAA can’t restrict this
airspace because they are International Waters., but expect the same type of
traffic as a MOA or Restricted area.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 49
AIRSPACE
Controlled Airspace
Uncontrolled Airspace
 Airspace of defined
 ATC has neither the
dimensions within which air
authorization nor the
traffic control (ATC)
responsibility to exercise
service is provided to
control of air traffic in
controlled flights.
Uncont.
 Separate VFR and IFR
 rolled airspace.
Traffic.
Class G
Class A
Class B
Class C
Class D
Class E
Alpha One Flight School
Page 50
Alpha One Flight School
Page 51
Class A airspace
Airspace
Extending from 18,000 feet MSL up to and including 60,000 feet MSL
FL180 – FL600
Requirements
1. All pilots must be instrument rated.
2. All aircraft must be equipped for IFR, including transponder.
3. Operated under IFR only. (Controlled directory by ATC)
4. At or above 18000 feet MSL, altimeters must set to 29.92 in. Hg.
= Because aircraft in Class A airspace operate at such high speeds, it
would be impractical for the pilots to reset their altimeters every 100
NM.
5. Use of “FL”. (Flight Level)
Example :
35,000 feet = FL350.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 52
Class B airspace
Airspace has been designated to separate all arriving and departing traffic under
all condition.
Requirement
1. Entry Prerequisites = ATC Clearance
“Cleared” to enter Class B or permission to enter class B.
2. Two-way Radio communication capability
3. Transponder with Mode C.
Within 30 NM from airport
Surface to 10,000 feet MSL
4. VOR or TACAN (for IFR Operation only)
5. Pilot must have at least Private Pilot Certificate.
Exception: student pilot may be permitted by CFI
6. Authorization from ATC, before entering the Class B airspace.
7. Speed limit of 200 kts.
Altitude
Flight Visibility
3 SM
Class B
Distance from Clouds
Clear of Clouds
10000 MSL
7000AGL
30 NM
Alpha One Flight School
Page 53
Boston Class B Airspace…
Alpha One Flight School
Page 54
Class C airspace
Factors considered in designating controlled airspace include safety, users’ needs,
and the volume of air traffic.
Requirement
Entry Prerequisites =
1. Two way Radio communications
2. Transponder with encoding altimeter (Mode C)
Within Class C airspace
From the surface up to 10000 feet MSL
3. Airspeed 200 Kts or less.
When operating at or below 2500 feet above the surface within 4 NM
of the airport.
Altitude
Class C & D
Flight Visibility
3 SM
Distance from Clouds
500 feet below
1000 feet above
2000 feet horizontal
4000AGL
1200AGL
5 NM
10 NM
Alpha One Flight School
Page 55
Providence (PVD) and MacArthur (ISP) Class C Airspace…
Alpha One Flight School
Page 56
Class D airspace
To provide a smooth flow of aircraft landing and taking off from an airport with an
operating control tower.
Airspace
1. Airports which have operating control towers, but are not associated with
class B or C airspace.
2. Part-time control tower is designated as class D only when the tower is in
operation.
Requirement
1. Two way Radio Communication (prior to entering the Class D airspace)
2. Airspeed 200 Kts or less.
When at or below 2500 AGL within 4 NM of the airport.
Satellite Airport located within the airspace designated for the primary airport.
1. If the airport also has an operating control tower.
Contact with control tower
2. No control tower
Contact with the primary airport’s control tower.
When departing;
Contact the controlling tower as soon as practicable after takeoff.
Altitude
Class C & D
Flight Visibility
3 SM
Distance from Clouds
500 feet below
1000 feet above
2000 feet horizontal
2500AGL
5 SM
Alpha One Flight School
Page 57
New Bedford (EWB) Class D Airspace…
Alpha One Flight School
Page 58
Class E airspace
Purpose: To separate VFR and IFR traffic during conditions of marginal weather.
Controlled airspace outside of A,B,C, and D, where depicted on the Chart /
Sectional.
Continental Control area – all controlled airspace begins at 14,500 feet.
 Brown shaded areas on the sectional.
Transition area –
 Magenta shades areas – 700 feet AGL
 Blue (Class D) or magenta dashed lines – Surface.
Normal Base – 1200 feet AGL
* Base of all other controlled airspace not mentioned above.
Altitude
Class E
Less than 10000 feet
MSL
Above 10000 feet MSL
Alpha One Flight School
Flight Visibility
Distance from Clouds
3 SM
500 feet below
1000 feet above
2000 feet horizontal
5 SM
1000 feet below
1000 feet above
1 SM horizontal
Page 59
Class G airspace
Airspace
All uncontrolled airspace.
Vertical limits for this airspace
1. 700 feet AGL
2. 1200 feet AGL
3. 14500 feet AGL
From surface to the base of class E airspace is normally 700 or 1200 feet
AGL.
Altitude
Class G
1200 ft or less above
the surface
(regardless of MSL
altitude)
more than 1200 feet
above the surface, but
less than 10000 feet
MSL
Flight Visibility
Distance from Clouds
Day: 1 SM
Clear of Clouds
Night: 3 SM
500 feet below
1000 feet above
2000 feet horizontal
Day: 1 SM
Night: 3 SM
500 feet below
1000 feet above
2000 feet horizontal
Day and Night:
5 SM
1000 feet below
1000 feet above
1 SM horizontal
more than 1200 feet
above the surface and
at or above 10000 feet
MSL
Alpha One Flight School
Page 60
Special Use Airspace
Prohibited Areas
1. The flight of aircraft is not permitted.
Restricted Areas
1. The flight of aircraft, while not wholly prohibited, is subject to
restrictions.
2. You may fly through a restricted area only if permission is granted by the
controlling agency.
Warning Areas
1. A type of airspace that may contain hazards to nonparticipating aircraft
over international or coastal waters.
Military Operations Areas
1. MOAs (Military Operation Areas) are blocks of airspace in which military
training and other military maneuvers are conducted.
2. VFR Aircraft are not presented from flying through MOAs while they are
in operation, but it is wise to avoid them when possible.
3. If you must fly through an MOA when it is in operation, use extreme
caution.
Alert Areas
1. Unusual types of aerial activities or high concentrations of student pilot
training area.
2. All pilots flying in alert areas are responsible for collision avoidance,
without exception.
ADIZ (Air Defense Identification Zones)
1. All aircraft entering domestic U.S. airspace from outside must provide
identification prior to entry.
Controlled Firing Area (Terminated once an aircraft is spotted)
The distinguishing feature of a controlled firing area, compared to other
special use airspace, is that its activities are discontinued immediately when
a spotter aircraft, radar, or ground lookout personnel determine an aircraft
might be approaching the area. Since nonparticipating aircraft are not
Alpha One Flight School
Page 61
required to change their flight path, controlled firing areas are not depicted
on aeronautical chart.
Military Training Routes
1. Generally, MTRs (Military Training Routes) are established below 10,000
feet MSL for operations at speeds in excess of 250 knots.
2. Route at and below 1,500 feet AGL are designed to be flown under VFR.
3. Route above 1,500 feet AGL are developed primarily to be flown under
instrument flight rules (IFR).
4. Classified as “VR” where VFR operations apply.
5. Classified as “IR” where IFR operations apply.
Airport Advisory Area
1. Another type of airspace surrounding certain airports.
2. This airspace extends 10 SM from airports where there is a nonautomated Flight service station [FSS] located on the field and no
operating control tower.
3. Contact the FSS on the published CTAF frequency prior to entering the
airport advisory area. The FSS provides local airport advisory [LAA].
What is LAA?
This service includes advisories on wind direction and velocity, favored
runway, altimeter setting and reported traffic within the area.
Temporary Flight Restrictions
1. Apply to a specific hazard or condition.
2. When necessary, these restrictions are imposed by the FAA to protect
persons or property on the surface or in the air.
Parachute Jump Area
1. Parachute jumping sites are tabulated in the Airport/Facility Directory.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 62
Cross Country Planning
1. Plot (true) course on MAP. Draw a straight line from center of
Airport to center of Airport.
2. Check route for Airspaces (i.e. restricted areas, Class B, Class C,
Class D, Class E, etc)
3. Plot from Plymouth (KPYM) to Westerly (KWST)
Alpha One Flight School
Page 63
If we fly between 1300
MSL to 4100 MSL, we
will go through the
Class C airspace
Alpha One Flight School
Page 64
4. Determine ALT
1. Airspace requirements
2. Winds
3. Direction of flight (see below)
 000-179 Courses = Odd + 500 feet above 3000 feet
 180-359 Courses = Even + 500 feet above 3000 feet
5. Determine – True Course:
 Using plotter, lay center of plotter across True Course and “UP
and DOWN” lines of map.
What do we do if our course does not cross a line of latitude (up
and down lines)?
6. Variation – Difference between Magnetic North (what we fly by) and
True North, (Generated from Map).
 The way to compensate for True Course and Magnetic is to
locate the lines or variation on the map. They are purple
dashed lines ith degree’s labeled on them. (i.e., 16 W)
W = Westerly Variation – ADD that to your True Heading – (True
heading is after you have figured the winds.)
E = Easterly Variation – SUBTRACT from the heading.
Once True course has been converted to magnetic course, there
remains one important step into figuring out what heading we need to
fly to get to our destination…
Alpha One Flight School
Page 65
 “Since the weather report is in “TRUE”, we will keep our course
TRUE until we get the weather.”
7 Distance
Using plotter, measure line from center of airport to center of airport.
 Make sure you use the “Sectional” side of the plotter and read
in Nautical miles
8. Checkpoints:
First checkpoint should be NO more than 10 miles from departure
airport.
Good checkpoints are:
Ponds/Lakes
Cities
Highways
Rivers
Other Airports
Bridges
STOP!
!!11!!
9. Getting Weather
By using DUAT or a weather briefer at Flight Service, we will be
given the following wind forecast:
LOC
Alpha One Flight School
ALT
WIND
Page 66
BOS
3000’
6000’
9000’
340/13
310/22
320/41
Use the wind closest to your ALT, or interpolate
For example:
10.
Figure True Heading Using:
True Course –
True Airspeed 90 knots (C-152) / 100 (C-172/Warrior)
Winds –
Read True Heading & Ground Speed
Using your calculator:
11. ADD variation to get Magnetic heading – This is the heading you will
fly in the plane – (Circle or Highlight it)
12 Ground speed is read from computer. Use the ground speed and
distance to determine time required for the flight.
13.Use that time to determine total fuel required, and do not forget to
include FAR 91.151: “Fuel requirements for flight in VFR conditions”
30 min extra Daytime fuel required.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 67
45 min extra Nighttime fuel required.
Example
45 min flight
+ 30 min day reserve
75 min fuel required
14. Find time to fly between each checkpoint. Enter into the “elapsed
time” – (EST).
Alpha One Flight School
Page 68
X-COUNTRY HINTS:
- Always consult your Airport/Facility Directory.
- Know your airplane’s runway requirements.
- Use your checkpoints while flying. We have found that
pilots who don’t follow along with their checkpoints DO
get lost.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 69
X-COUNTRY PLANNING
Plan X-Country to _____________________________.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 70
Alpha One Flight School
Page 71
FLIGHT PLAN
1. Type
2. Aircraft
Identification
VFR
IFR
DVFR
8. Route of Flight
9.Destination
3. Aircraft / Type
Special Equipment
10. Estimated Time Enroute
Hours
Minutes
12. Fuel on board
Hours
Minutes
13. Alternate
Airport
5. Departure
Point
6.Departure Time
Proposed
Actual
(Z)
(Z)
7. Cruising
Altitude
11.Remarks
14. Pilot’s name, address, phone#, aircraft Home Base
16Color of aircraft
Special Equipment:
4. True
Airspeed
15. Number
aboard
17. destination Contact/telephone (optional)
NO DME /X – No transponder /T – Transponder with no Mode C
DME
/D – No transponder /B – Transponder with no Mode C
TACAN /M – No transponder /N – Transponder with no Mode C
RNAV (LORAN, VOR/DME, or INS)
/Y – No transponder /C – Transponder with no Mode C
/U – Transponder with Mode C
/A – Transponder with Mode C
/P – Transponder with Mode C
/I – Transponder with Mode C
ADVANCED RNAV WITH TRANSPONDER AND MODE C
/E – FMS with en route, terminal, and approach capability
/F – A single FMS with en route, en route, terminal, and approach capability
/G – Global Position System / Global Navigation Satellite System
/R – Required navigational Performance
/W – Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM)
Weather Report:
1-800-992-7433
Flight Precautions:
Briefer Press “1”
Present Condition
Forecast Conditions
Departure Point
Departure Point
Enroute
Enroute
Destination Airport
Destination Airport
Winds Aloft
3000-
Notams
60009000-
Alpha One Flight School
Page 72
Alpha One Flight School
Page 73
FLIGHT LOG
ALTITUDE
Cruise TAS:
HEADING
Winds
Direction
Speed
True
Course
WCA
+R –L
True
Heading
VAR
+W –E
Magnetic
Heading
Ground
Speed
T
M
From:
To:
From:
To:
From:
To:
Time Off:
Distance
Point to
Distance
Point
Remain
Check Points
Elapsed Time
Estimated
Actual
Arrival Time
Estimated
Actual
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
CLOSE YOUR FLIGHT PLAN!!
Alpha One Flight School
Page 74
Remarks
FLIGHT SERVICE
PURPOSE
 To brief pilots on weather conditions which affect any portion of their
flight.
 Follow pilots on VFR or IFR Cross Countries.
 Collect and disperse information on airports, navigational aids and other
pertinent information.
 Act as a liaison between Air Traffic Control and pilots in need of Air
Traffic Control services.
COMMUNICATIONS PROCEDURES
Telephone: 1-800-WX-BRIEF
Radio:
1-800-992-7433
RCO
DIRECT
VOR
Alpha One Flight School
Page 75
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS WITH FSS
[Establish contact first, then go ahead with your request]
You: Bridgeport radio, this is Cessna 5097L. Listening on frequency
___________.
Them: Cessna 5097L, Bridgeport (radio).
You:
Cessna 5097L is 15 miles West of Providence (Papa Victor Delta) en
route to Hartford. Altitude 4500 feet, looking for standard briefing.
Them:
When getting WX (weather) ………
Follow format on the back of your flight plan form.
Telephone call to FSS
Weather Report
1-800-992-7433
How to remember: 1-800-WX BRIEF
Say:
“ I am a student pilot flying N______ from __________ to _____________.
I will be departing in ___min. May I have a standard weather briefing?
Then give them the altitude you plan to fly at and that you’re flying under
“VFR”.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 76
(example)
“This is Cessna 5097L. I am a student pilot. VFR Flight from PYM (Plymouth) to
GON (Groton), at 1300Z time.
I would like to have a standard briefing, please.”


You do not have to use Zulu Time
They might want your altitude
Filing a Flight Plan
The same telephone number will be used for filing and closing flight plans.
Read flight plans slowly in the order that is presented on the back of your Flight
Log.
NOTES:

30 minutes after the time that the flight plan is supposed to be closed, the FSS
will start to search for you.
<How they begin search>
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Call You
Call Airport
Check Route
Call all radar facilities
Call state police
Call Air Force base to check ELT
Call Civil Air Patrol
Alpha One Flight School
Page 77
Alpha One Flight School
Page 78
RADIO COMMUNICATION
Quickly review the Requirements page of the Communication Airspace notes.
Local Radio procedures at uncontrolled field.

NOT Necessary
Use Common Traffic Advisory Frequency
Notes from the Video Tape *
Alpha One Flight School
Page 79
Alpha One Flight School
Page 80
Tower/ Controlled Field Operations
Inbound to a tower controlled field. Always begin with “ATIS” (Automated
Terminal Information System).
This is a prerecorded Broadcast that is played continuously on one specific
frequency. The ATIS begins by identifying the airport, then a “letter” to identify
the ATIS information itself. Example: Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, etc…… This is so the
controller and the pilot both know they have the most current ATIS.
Other items contained in the ATIS Broadcast:
-
weather at the airport
wind
altimeter setting
runway in use
NOTAMS
Any information that may be important to the Inbound or
Outbound flight of an Aircraft.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 81
Some Local Frequencies
Location
VHF Frequency
Bedford, MA
Beverly, MA
Boston, MA
Chatham, MA
Fitchburg, MA
Hyannis, MA
Lawrence, MA
Martha’s
Vineyard, MA
Nantucket, MA
124.600
118.7
135.0
135.875
135.175
123.8
126.75
126.25
(tel only)
126.6
(tel only)
126.85
(tel only)
134.775
119.95
(tel only)
135.675
135.375
135.625
132.675
127.1
126.55
New Bedford, MA
North Adams, MA
Norwood, MA
Orange, MA
Pittsfield, MA
Plymouth, MA
Taunton, MA
Westfield, MA
Worcester, MA
Alpha One Flight School
ATIS
ATIS
ATIS
ASOS
ASOS
ATIS
ATIS
ATIS
ASOS
ATIS
ASOS
ATIS
ASOS
ASOS
ATIS
ASOS
ASOS
ASOS
ASOS
ASOS
ATIS
ATIS
ASOS
Airport
Ident.
BED
BVY
BOS
CQX
FIT
HYA
LWM
MVY
ACK
EWB
2B6
OWD
ORE
PSF
PYM
TAN
BAF
ORH
Telephone#
781-274-6283
NO PHONE
617-567-0160
508-945-5034
508-343-9121
508-778-1143
NO PHONE
508-693-7685
508-696-6988
508-228-5375
508-325-6082
508-994-6277
508-992-0195
413-664-6658
781-769-3825
781-762-4314
978-544-6774
NOT INSTALLED
508-746-8003
508-824-5005
413-572-4561
508-757-0962
508-753-5060
Page 82
“THE TOWER”
WHO
WHO
WHERE
WHAT
2
U
U
U
(TO)
(YOU ARE)
(YOU ARE)
(YOU WANT)
WITH / ATIS
MUST CONTACT TOWER PRIOR TO 5 MILES OUT. (Usually 8 miles)
YOUR CALL:
“New Bedford Tower”
Cessna- 5097L
8 miles N.E.
Landing
With Alpha. (From ATIS Information)
HIS RETURN:
“Roger Cessna 97L
New Bedford Tower
Report 2 mile Left Base Runway 14……..”
YOUR CALL:
“2 miles Left Base Runway 14, Cessna 97L……..”
He EXPECTS you to:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 83
YOUR NEXT CALL
“New Bedford Tower
Cessna 97L
Left Base Runway 14
Landing”.
HIS RETURN:
“Roger Cessna 97L you are cleared to land Runway 14”
*YOU MUST HEAR THOSE WORDS OR RECEIVE SOME TYPE OF CLEARANCE TO
LAND BEFORE TOUCHING THE RUNWAY.
YOUR CALL:
“Roger, Clear to land, Cessna 97L.”
Alpha One Flight School
Page 84
About 8 miles N.E. from
airport
YOU: “New Bedford Tower, Cessna
5097L 8 Miles N.E. Landing with
Alpha”
TOWER: “Roger Cessna 5097L, New
Bedford Tower, Report 2 Mile Left Base
Runway 14…..”
YOU: “Roger, Report 2 miles Left Base
Runway 14, Cessna 97L”
About 2 miles
from Airport
YOU: “New Bedford Tower, Cessna 97L Left Base Runway 14”
TOWER: “Roger, Cessna 97L You are Clear to Land Runway 14”
YOU: “Roger, Clear to land, Cessna 97L”
Alpha One Flight School
Page 85
GROUND CONTROL
 After clearing the runway we have to contact Ground Control to taxi from the
runway to the parking area.
YOUR CALL
“New Bedford Ground
Cessna-5097L
Clear of Runway 14
Taxi to Ramp”
With progressives (if unfamiliar)
RETURN
“Roger 97L
Taxi to Ramp
Straight ahead then left towards tower.
Ramp parking is at Base of tower”.
YOUR CALL
“Roger 97L”.
Alpha One Flight School
ALWAYS ANSWER !!!
Page 86
OUTBOUND FROM A CONTROLLED FIELD
1. Check ATIS
- information is “C”harlie
2. Call Ground Control
YOUR CALL
“New Bedford Ground
Cessna 5097L
Ramp
Taxi to Active with Charlie”
3. Tower
 After completing Run Up, and when you are No. 1 for Takeoff, CALL
tower.
YOUR CALL
“New Bedford Tower
Cessna 5097L
Ready for Departure”.
CONTROLLER
“Cessna 97L Clear to take off Runway 14”
“Cessna 97L, position and hold…..”

You may request a Turn Out in the direction you wish to fly.
4. CALL when you are clear of Class D airspace.
YOUR CALL
“New Bedford Tower Cessna 5097L is clear of your
Area”
Alpha One Flight School
Page 87
TRANSITION THROUGH A CLASS “D” AIRSPACE:
YOUR CALL
“Norwood Tower
Cessna-5097L
8 miles SE
Transition class D to NW @ 2500”
CONTROLLER
“Cessna 5097L
This is Norwood Tower
Roger, Transition is approved
Altimeter 29.95”
NOTE:
You must receive permission (like Class B) to transition through
the class D airspace. If your RADIO is inoperative, you MUST
go around the Class D airspace.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 88
EMERGENCY LIGHT GUN SIGNALS:
Circle tower to the left, wave wings to initiate light gun signals.
Color and type
of signal
Steady Green
On the ground
In flight
Flashing Green
Steady Red
Flashing Red
Flashing White
Alternating Red
and Green
Alpha One Flight School
Page 89
WEATHER
WHAT CAUSES OUR WEATHER?
Heat Exchange (unequal
Heating)
Earth-
Heat Exchange causes
WIND
Wind
Example of
Global
Heat Exchange:
 Air sinks at the poles.
 Because of the spinning of the earth, the Air tends to circle, depending
on the direction of wind movement. This force is called “Coriolis”.
 “Pools” of pressure, High and Low, begin to from throughout the
atmosphere. The wind found in each pool is like current in water. As a
“High: pool flows into a lower pool, wind is generated. In the Northern
Hemisphere, the wind is deflected by the Coriolis force in the following
manner.
Low Pressure - - - Counter clockwise
High Pressure - - - Clockwise
Alpha One Flight School
Page 90
The Air Transfer
Mapping a High or a Low
 Lines of equal pressure – “Isobars”
 Find those stations with equal pressure readings
Alpha One Flight School
Page 91
Where isobars are close together, you can expect STRONG winds!!!!
Alpha One Flight School
Page 92
ATMOSPHERE
TROUGH
- Elongated area of low pressure…
RIDGE - Elongated area of high pressure…
COUPLET - Connects two ridges or troughs…
NOTE: These troughs and ridges are both found at the surface and up to the jet
stream level!!!
Jetstream
“River of Wind”
at least 50 knots
Winter - Moves southward and increases in speed.
Summer - Moves northward and becomes slower.
TEMPERATURE
Temp - Normal cooling rate of DRY AIR
- 2 C / 1000’ Alt.
1.5 F / 1000’
Temp Inversion - Warmer Above
- Freezing Rain
- Wind Shear
- Turbulence
Alpha One Flight School
Page 93
Moisture
 Moisture is water in the Air, whether it is in Vapor Form or in the Visible Form.
(Precipitation)
 Water Vapor makes air less dense.
HOW MOISTURE FORMS AND INTERACTS WITH TEMPERATURE IS VERY
IMPORTANT FOR YOU TO UNDERSTAND!!!
#1 Rule - Warm air holds more water vapor than cool air.
Relative Humidity
 is the amount of water vapor that is actually in the air compared to the amount
the air can hold.
Dew Point
 the temp the air must be cooled to reach 100% Relative Humidity. (Saturation)
Explanation of Relative Humidity & Dew Point.
Temperature
Size of the pail increases with temp, amount of water stays the same.
Pail of water is half full, RH = 50 %
Temp goes down, pail size shrinks.
H2O stays the same, RH = 99 % (almost full)
Alpha One Flight School
Page 94
FOG
Need to Form:
- High Relative Humidity
- Condensation Nuclei
- Stirring (slight movement)
1. Radiation Fog (Ground Fog)
2. Advection (Sea Fog)
- Night, Calm Winds, Humid.
- Warm, Moist Air, Moving (wind) cold ground.
3. Upslope Fog (Mount Fog)
- Moist air moving up a mountain.
4. Precipitation Fog (Rain Fog) - Adding rain to the air.
DEW FOG –
Alpha One Flight School
Page 95
CLOUDS
FOUR FAMILIES
Cloud Type
Low
Middle
High
Extensive vertical
development
Altitude
AGL to 6500 MSL
6500 to 23000
23000 to 45000
Extensive vertical
development
Prefix
Strato
Alto
Cirro
Towering
CLOUD TYPES
1. Cumulus
2. Puffy
3. Stratus – Gray, Flat, Layered
4. Nimbus – Rain Cloud
FRONTS
 Separates two unlike air masses.
 On a map, fronts are depicted as follows:

Warm
=
Cold
=
Occluded
=
Stationary =
Frontal passage always has a change in wind.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 96
Characteristic
Warm Front
Cold Front
Movement
Clouds
Visibility
Icing
Turbulence
Surface Wind
Wind Shear
Precipitation
Alpha One Flight School
Page 97
PILOT REPORT
UA
- Pirep
UAA - Urgent Pirep
/OV
- Over airport or VOR Navigation Aid
/TM - Time
/FL
- Altitude
/TP
- Type of Aircraft
/SK
- Sky Cover (bases & tops)
/WX - Weather (precipitation, visibility)
/TA
- Temp C
/WV - Wind & Velocity
/TB
- Turbulence (see chart)
/IC
- Icing (trace, light, moderate, severe)
/RM - Remarks
Alpha One Flight School
Page 98
Alpha One Flight School
Page 99
FORECAST WINDS and TEMPERATURES ALOFT NETWORK
Alpha One Flight School
Page 100
Alpha One Flight School
Page 101
Surface Analysis Chart:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 102
Low Level Significant Weather
Alpha One Flight School
Page 103
Area Forecast
Alpha One Flight School
Page 104
Alpha One Flight School
Page 105
Termial Forecasts and METARS
Alpha One Flight School
Page 106
THUNDERSTORMS
I.
Development
(a) Cumulus
(b) Mature
1) ALL UPDRAFTS
2) “Towering” Cloud
1) RAIN BEGINS
2) Downdraft signaled by rain
3) Anvil forms?
(c) Dissipating
1) ALL DOWNDRADFTS
2) Cloud collapses
II.
Types
a) Airmass
1) Summertime afternoon
2) “Thermals” are the trigger (lifting mechanism)
3) high-humidities; unstable air…
4) usually not severe and dissipate by evening
5) growth rate of 2,500’
6) never last into the night
7) remain isolated “cells” or small clusters
Alpha One Flight School
Page 107
b) Frontal (steady-state)
1) Any season, especially spring
2) Fast moving Fronts are the trigger
3) Cold fronts with sharp temperature contrasts force the
warmer air up and over the colder air.
4) Lifespan run day and night, for hours.
5) Frequently approach or exceed “severe limits”.
6) Forms in lines or bands.
c) Severe Storms (requirements)
1) 50 knots winds or more
2) ¾” hail or greater
3) tornado reported (formation)
The ingredients
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Humid “unstable” air
Strong vertical shear (increasing with height)
Jet Stream overhead (25,000’ – 35,000’)
“low-level” jet around 5,000’ in excess of 65 knots helpful
Winds at the surface greater than 25 knots helpful.
How to spot severe thunderstorms:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Tropical
V.I.P. level 5 or 6 on a radar screen
Mammatus clouds under the Anvil
Overshooting top (Pop the Tropopause)
Hail or tornados reported
d) “Other” Thunderstorms
1) From over water over 79°F frequently
2) Frequently associated by remnants or still developing
tropical depression, storm or hurricane.
3) Spiral bands allow the storm to be self-sustaining
4) Most development occurs just before dawn!
Lake/ Ocean effect squalls
Alpha One Flight School
Page 108
1) Very cold air blowing over warm water. The
difference must be 15C or greater, between the water
and the air.
2) The “Fetch” must be at least 50 miles and be at large
angles to the shore (perpendicular)
3) Air is warmed up and moisturized rapidly, cumulus
form then quickly mature.
4) The air flow hits the shore and is forced to rise even
more….
5) Snow Squall reaches maturity at low heights, but can
approach severe limits and DO contain ALL
thunderstorms hazards.
6) Low visibilities can be a sudden reality.
Squall-line
1) Lines of severe storms not directly associated with a
cold front.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 109
III. HAZARDS (thunderstorms)
A) Lightning
1) Opposite charges build between the top and bottom of the
cloud, due to friction of colliding water drops and ice
crystals.
2) “Stepped leader” of electrons flow down the path of least
resistance between the cloud and an area of opposite charge
on the ground.
3) A “return stroke” from the ground illuminates the channel
created by the leader stroke.
4) The cycle may repeat several times in the same bolt.
5) Blindness to the pilot is a significant hazard due to the
lightning.
6) Electrical failure may result from a light lightning strike.
B) HAIL
1) Water drops caught in updraft rise to the freezing layer and
form into a small chunk of ice.
2) The ice falls and collides with water drops. However, the
updraft is still too strong, so it moves up and refreezes.
3) The process of freezing then adding moisture and refreezing
continues until gravity can pull the hailstone down.
4) Severe structural damage may result from hail greater than
¾”.
5) Hail can be thrown more than 2 miles from the storm in clear
skies.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 110
C) ICING
1) The updrafts and downdrafts cause the freezing line to dive
thousands of feet lower than the surrounding area.
2) Water drops become “super-cooled” (below +32 F without
freezing) until they come into contact with aircraft wings.
3) “Clear” icing quickly accumulates on the wings;
increasing DRAG
reducing THRUST
increasing WEIGHT
decreasing LIFT
Thus increasing STALL SPEED
D) TURBULENCE
1) The cold air diving down creates “bumps” in the atmosphere
as warm air quickly rises to “feed” the storm. These winds
can switch so fast a plane may be snapped into pieces. The
area separating an updraft and a downdraft may be only a
few yards.
E) GUST FRONT
1) Downdraft strikes the ground and spreads out in all
directions.
2) Headed by a sharp wind direction change and gusts over 40
knots to as high as hurricane force.
3) Gust front may extend out over 540 miles ahead of the
storm and spark new storms.
F) WINDSHEAR
1) May be caused by sharp changes in wind speed in the
vertical.
2) Sharp changes in direction along the ground and above.
Caused by gust fronts, microbursts and up/down drafts.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 111
3) Both speed and direction changes that suddenly turn
tailwinds into headwinds or crosswinds in seconds, usually too
fast to adjust for, leaving the pilot with major loss of lift or
uncontrollable lift.
G) MICROBURST AND MACROBURSTS
1) A pocket of dense, cold, saturated air forms as a towering
cumulus cloud, becomes mature, less than 2.5 miles wide.
2) This pocket forms as rain evaporates into the air, cooling it.
3) The pocket falls, accelerating toward the ground due to
gravity. As the pocket moves downward colder air plunges
down from the top of the cloud.
4) The pocket hits the ground and spreads out possibly evolving
into a gust front.
5) There is no limit to the number of bursts from a single
storm.
6) A burst larger than 2.5 miles is a “ macroburst”.
7) Microbursts cause nearly instantaneous changes in wind
speed and direction.
8) Virga is an excellent indicator to identify the formation of
microbursts – even without the presence of a thunderstorm.
H) TORNADOS / WATERSPOUTS
1) Form when sharp wind shear strengthens in the vertical,
usually in the S.W. quadrant of a severe storm.
2) Air begins to rotate cyclonically in a small area.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 112
3) Pressure plunges and the funnel extends down to the ground.
4) Tornados become visible when dust and debris is picked up
by the tornado.
5) Waterspouts can form with or without thunderstorms.
Unstable air and a towering cumulus cloud frequently spawn
waterspouts in the Florida Keys.
I) SUPERCELLS
1) Severe thunderstorms “with a twist” have bases that
cyclonically rotate. This system of updrafts is selfsustaining and is thus one of the longer lasting storms.
2) Large hail and microbursts are frequent.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 113
ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION
V.O.R
VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNI DIRECTIONAL RECEIVER
Two separate signals are transmitted from a ground based unit to the VOR
receiver in the airplane.
The signals are timed by the on board equipment in the airplane to determine
the airplane’s present location in reference to the VOR Transmitter.
These positions are given in “Radials” FROM the VOR.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 114
Locating VOR’S on a Sectional:
- VOR
-
Sometimes these symbols are covered by the
airport symbol. In this case, look for the
frequency box (next page)
VOR / TACAN (military)
Alpha One Flight School
Page 115
-
VOR / DME
Alpha One Flight School
Page 116
Tuning in the VOR
 Frequency goes in the “NAV” side of the Radio
 Distance & Reception 80 miles approx
 After tuning the correct frequency, check the IDENT by turning up the
volume and listening for the MORSE CODE. IF a VOR BOX has a BLACK
BOX in the lower right hand corner, you will hear, on the IDENT, TWEBS.
This is recorded weather briefing for the VOR area.
EX. Providence
 Once positively identified, you can use the VOR for accurate navigation.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 117
Follow these steps for Position Location
“FROM” a VOR.
1) Tune & Identify
2) Reset DG
3) Center OBS Needle with a FROM indication.
4) Plot, on the Sectional, a line beginning from the VOR along the
RADIAL.
“TO” a VOR
1)
2)
3)
4)
Tune & Identify
Reset the DG
Center the CDI with a “TO” indication
Fly the OBS Heading
EXAMPLE:
 You are on the 180 Radial.
 You are flying “TO” the VOR, so
 You must fly opposite the RADIAL, 360 Hdg.
INBOUND =
OUTBOUND =
OPPOSITE
Fly the RADIAL Heading
Alpha One Flight School
Page 118
Correcting for WIND
“Follow the Needle”
1. Allow needle to deflect 2 DOTS from Wing.
2. TURN Heading 20 TOWARD Needle deflection
3. As needle centers, remove ½ the correction (10)
VOR HINTS
1. If you’re lost, cross two VOR’S, using from indications. Plot both lines on
map, your position will be where they cross.
2. Going to a VOR - “TO” indication only. Locations From a VOR – “FROM”
indication only.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 119
ADF
AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER
 Airplane receiver. The ADF is used in conjunction with an NDB.
NDB
NON DIRECTIONAL (radio) BEACON
 Ground Transmitter
This one is real easy:
“Needle Head Always Points To The Station”
However, the FAA tries to confuse us:
RB + MH = MB TO the station.
Relative Bearing, is the distance (in degree’s) the needle travels from
zero.
Magnetic Heading of your airplane.
Magnetic Bearing is the heading you must fly to go to the station.
Problems with an ADF:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 120
Alpha One Flight School
Page 121
GPS
Global Positioning System
 It is a satellite-based navigation system composed
of a network of satellites orbiting earth
 Operates in all weather, anywhere, 24 hours day
 Minimum of 3 satellites to calculate and track
movement (longitude and latitude)
 4 Satellites for latitude, longitude, and altitude
 The Receiver verifies the integrity of signals
received from the GPS Satellites with RAIM
(Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring)
 Used for VFR or IFR Navigation
 You may enter a Route of Flight (Flight Plan)
 You may proceed direct to a point-in-space or an
airport, VOR or NDB, or Lat Long
Alpha One Flight School
Page 122
 You may locate and navigate to the nearest airport
 Be careful not to rely on GPS to solve nav problems
 Only the PILOT can navigate the a/c; GPS is just
one of the tools available
 Do not use the a/c for a classroom while learning
the GPS
 www.navcen.uscg.gov Operational Status
 Also via NOTAMS (notice to airmen)
 World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84)
o –The official source of accuracy
o
Definitions:
CDI-Course Deviation Indicator, which indicates
Navigation from the GPS receiver or VOR. It MUST be
in the correct mode for the appropriate Navigation.
Data Base-The software collection of airports and
waypoints used for navigation
Alpha One Flight School
Page 123
Desired Track-the course as indicated by the GPS when
navigation to a waypoint “Magenta”
Direct-Navigating from one waypoint direct to another
waypoint.
ETE-Estimated time in enroute to your next waypoint
Flight Plan-A Navigation Log entered manually into the
GPS receiver for Navigation. It is a MAGNETIC Course.
GPS- Global Positioning System
Garmin/Avidyene-manufacturers of GPS receivers
Ground Speed-the aircraft’s speed over the ground
LAAS-Local Area Augmentation System; a system that
improves the accuracy of the system by determining
position error from the GPS satellites, then transmitting
the error, or corrective factors, to the GPS receiver.
Usually located a specific site/airport. Allows for lower
landing minimums.
RAIM-Receiver Autonomous Integrity System: system
used to verify the usability of the GPS signals and warns
the pilot of any malfunction in the system
Alpha One Flight School
Page 124
OBS-Omni Bearing Selector used for selecting a course or
“Track” to fly
Ring-Used to indicate the radius of the view measured in
NM
Waypoint-A location used for route definition or progressreporting purposes and is defined n terms of lat/long
coordinates
WAAS-Wide Area Augmentation System; a system that
improves the accuracy of the system by determining
position error from the GPS satellites, then transmitting
the error, or corrective factors, to the GPS receiver.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 125
RADAR
Radar Environment
Primary
- Radio Detection and Ranging
- very basic radar
Alpha One Flight School
Page 126

RADAR “ BEAM” sends out a SCAN, then reflects off the airplane. The RADAR
picks up the reflection, and plots this on the RADAR SCOPE.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 127
QuickTime™ and a
decompressor
are needed t o see t his picture.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 128
TRANSPONDER
- great improvement to the accuracy, reliability and operation of radar.
The transponder is a transceiver (transmitter / receiver) that receives only
radar “beams” upon receiving these beams, the transponder replies by
sending an adjustable code to the radar scope.
If the aircraft is equipped with “MODE-C”, the Altitude is read by the
“Encoder portion of the transponder, then sent to the radar scope in
hundreds of feet.
The Transponder should be on Altitude (MODE-“C”) whenever you are flying.
As pilots, we can adjust the codes sent to the radar scope. The following are
some basic codes.
1200
7700
7600
7500
There are 4096 codes we can set in the transponder. Their purpose; Radar
Identification.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 129
HOW CAN RADAR HELP US?
LOST
Remember the five “C”
Confess
Climb
Communicate
Conform
Conserve
COMMUNICATE
-
- TO who?
A radar controller using the CODES and IDENT function
can help you “find” yourself.
Flight Following
The radar controller will actually follow our x-country to make sure:
1. We get there (not getting off track)
2. We are being cleared through ALL the ARSA’S, TCA’S, TRSA’S and
ATA’S.
3. We won’t hit anything along the way.
Example:
Other airplanes
Buildings
Radio Towers
NOTE = It is still your responsibility to get CLEARANCE to enter Class B
airspace!
Alpha One Flight School
Page 130
AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE
What is performance?
How much runway will I need to take off?
How fast will I climb?
How much fuel will I burn?
How much room do I need to land?
In your training, these factors seem to be unimportant because the
Plymouth Airport has long runways and your load is usually just you and your
instructor. However, at some point ahead, your flying may take you to a
short, grass runway. Federal Aviation Regulations (91.103) require that the
pilot in command familiarize himself with the performance requirements of
his aircraft for each flight.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 131
FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE
WEIGHT
TYPE OF RUNWAY
RUNWAY SLOPE
WIND
TEMP, HUMIDITY, ALTITUDE
As Temp, ALT or Humidity increases, the molecules expand
 the air becomes less dense (fewer molecules, same parcel)
This reduces airplane performance in 3 ways.
1. Poor Thrust
2. Less Molecules of air over wings & Prop
3. Poor Fuel Mixture = Less Power
Alpha One Flight School
Page 132
When determining performance data for a given airplane, refer only to the POH for
that particular airplane. Performance data can vary significantly between similar
models or even from one model year to the next. The POH presents numerous
charts, which allow you to predict the airplane’s performance accurately. They
pertain to the takeoff, climb, cruise, descent and landing phases of flight. Some of
the typical charts found in the POH include:
Takeoff, Distance Chart - Provides the distance required for the airplane to
accelerate to takeoff speed and become airborne. These charts usually allow you
to determine the actual ground roll distance of the airplane, as well as the total
distance required to take off and climb to an altitude of 50 feet.
Maximum Rate of Climb Chart - Helps determine the maximum rate of climb for
the airplane under a given set of conditions. This chart is of particular importance
when obstructions, such as high terrain, are in the departure path immediately
after takeoff.
Time, Fuel, and Distance to Climb - Primarily used as a flight planning tool, this
chart allows you to calculate how long it will take the airplane to climb to a selected
cruise altitude. You may also determine the fuel required and distance traveled to
reach the desired altitude.
Cruise Performance - Provides the speed of the airplane, as well as fuel
consumption rate at various altitudes and power settings.
Range Profile - Allows you to determine the maximum distance the airplane can fly
at a given power setting. Since this chart typically assumes no wind, be sure to
consider its effect.
Endurance profile - Indicates the maximum length of time the airplane can remain
aloft based on the power setting you select. This chart is similar to the range
profile chart.
Landing Distance - Allows you to determine how much runway is required to land
the airplane safely. This chart, like the takeoff distance chart, usually provides
you with the ground roll distance, as well as the distance required to descend over
a 50-foot obstacle, land and bring the airplane to a full stop.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 133
Alpha One Flight School
Page 134
Alpha One Flight School
Page 135
Alpha One Flight School
Page 136
Alpha One Flight School
Page 137
Glide Range:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 138
Density Altitude Chart:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 139
Crosswind Component Chart:
PQ
WIND
GUST FACTOR
X-WIND COMP
1
2
3
4
7
14
21
21+
5
10
13
13+
5
10
15+
20+
Alpha One Flight School
Page 140
Airspeed System Calibration:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 141
Stall Speed:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 142
Normal Short Field Ground Roll Distance No Obstacle:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 143
Normal Short Field Take Off Distance No Obstacle:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 144
Obstacle Clearance Short Field Ground Roll Distance:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 145
Obstacle Clearance Short Field Take-Off Distance:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 146
Engine Performance:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 147
Climb Performance:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 148
Fuel, Time and Distance to Climb:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 149
Best Power Cruise Performance:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 150
Best Economy Cruise Performance:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 151
Best Power Mixture Range:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 152
Best Economy Mixture Range:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 153
Endurance:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 154
Fuel, Time and Distance to Descend:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 155
Glide Performance:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 156
Landing Performance:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 157
WEIGHT & BALANCE
After several weeks of “Hair Pulling” performance, we are moving on to a topic of
equal importance.
Weight & Balance is far more than the simple “Am I too heavy to take off”
question. Many other concerns affect the airplane when we load more weight
throughout the airplane. This means that before you strap your kids to the tail
surface, you should check the weight & balance tables to see if you’re SAFE to fly.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 158
SOME TERMS
Unusable Fuel ----------------------
Fuel that cannot be burned from the tanks.
Useful Load -------------------------
Weight that can be added to the airplane
without exceeding the MAX weight.
Example: Baggage, Passengers, useful fuel.
Basic Empty Weight --------------
Weight of airplane, excluding useful load.
(includes oil & unusable fuel)
Gross Take Off Weight -----------
Maximum weight airplane is allowed to take
off with.
Gross Ramp Weight ---------------
Usually more than take off weight allows for.
Maximum Landing Weight ------
The maximum weight for landing.
Zero Fuel Weight -----------------
Airplane loaded without usable fuel. (how
much fuel can I take with my passengers
too?)
Datum ------------------------------
A specific point of reference from where
ALL distances are measured from.
Arm ---------------------------------
The distance from the Datum to a specific
point where weight is located. In a fully
loaded airplane, the ARM IS the C.G.
Moment ----------------------------
Total Force weight is applying to airplane.
(WT x ARM = MOMENT)
Alpha One Flight School
Page 159
BALANCING A SCALE
Lighter kid sits furthest from middle.
Heavy kid sits close to the
middle
How the scale is balanced is very important as to how the airplane will fly. Aft
(rearward) loading has very different characteristics than Forward Loading.
Center of gravity is how we determine the “Balance Point”.
Because the nose is heavy, the airplane requires more elevator trim to hold up the
nose. This increases drag.
If the tail is heavy, very little nose UP pressure is needed, therefore reducing
drag.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 160
Characteristics of CG Location
Characteristic
Forward CG
Aft CG
Speed
Fuel Burn
Stability
Stall Recovery
Stall Speed
We have limits to keep us safe when we load our airplane. Balance keeps us within
those limits. How much weight and where to move it in order to keep us in balance
will be discussed next week.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 161
HOW TO FIGURE BALANCE…
WT x ARM = MOMENT (force)
WT = 50 lbs
100 lbs = WT
ARM = 2 ft (24”)
1 ft (12”) = ARM
50 x 24 = 1200” lbs -------------------------------------- 1200” lbs = 100 x 12
BALANCE!!!
In the following problems, you will add all your weights (WT) and ARMS to balance
the airplane against the engine (nose).
Follow closely!!!!
Alpha One Flight School
Page 162
Weight and Balance Practice:
Weight & Balance
ITEM
WEIGHT
(pounds)
ARM
(inches)
MOMENT
(pound-inches)
Basic Empty Weight
Fuel
Pilot & Passenger
Rear Passenger
Baggage
TOTAL
CG =
Inches
Weight & Balance
ITEM
WEIGHT
(pounds)
ARM
(inches)
MOMENT
(pound-inches)
Basic Empty Weight
Fuel
Pilot & Passenger
Rear Passenger
Baggage
TOTAL
CG =
Alpha One Flight School
Inches
Page 163
Piper Loading Graph:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 164
Piper CG Envelope:
Alpha One Flight School
Page 165
PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS
Vision at Night
Cones - perceive color
Concentrated near center
Rods - Dim Light Receptors
Not much near center
Hints:




Take up to 30-45 minutes to fully adapt to night vision.
Close one eye to bright light.
Red light.
Good scan.
+
6
Visual Illusions
Autokinesis - Staring at a single bright light for more than a few seconds.
Night Myopia - With nothing for your eye to focus on, your eye automatically
focuses 3-6 feet.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 166
Approach Illusions
Slope - 6,000’ runway, with a 3 degree grade means 180’ elevation change from UP
Slope / Down Slope.
Haze Shoreline
-
Spatial Disorientation
Vision - 1st
Vestibule
- 2nd
Hypoxic Hypoxia >
Symptoms
3. An increase in breathing rate.
4. Light headed or dizzy sensation.
5. Headache.
6. Sweating.
7. Tingling or warm sensations.
8. Blue fingernails & lips.
9. Reduced visual field.
10. Sleepiness or frequent yawning.
11. Impaired judgment.
12. A slowing of decision-making processes.
13. A feeling of euphoria.
14. Changes in personality traits.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 167
Carbon Monoxide >
Carbon monoxide poisoning can result from a faulty aircraft heater.
If you suspect carbon monoxide poisoning, you should turn the heater off
immediately, open the fresh air vents or windows, and use supplemental
oxygen if it is available.
Blood Donation>
Another type of anemic hypoxia can be caused by the loss of blood that occurs
during a blood donation. Your blood can take several weeks to return to normal
following a donation. Although the effects of the blood loss are slight at ground
level, there are risks when flying during this time. Therefore, you are advised not
to give blood prior to flying.
Hyperventilation >
Rapid or extra deep breathing can cause hyperventilation.
It can occur even while breathing supplemental oxygen.
Hyperventilation is most likely to result when you are experiencing emotional
tension, anxiety or fear.
Symptoms >
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Dizziness.
Tingling of the fingers and toes.
Muscle spasms.
Coolness.
Drowsiness.
Weakness or numbness.
Rapid heart rate.
Apprehension & Mental confusion.
Finally, loss of consciousness.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 168
DRUGS
Depressants >
Effects
1. Lower blood pressure.
2. Reduced mental procession.
3. Slow motor and reaction responses.
Alcohol >
Effects
1. Dulling of the senses.
2. Decrease in good judgment.
3. Reduced sense of responsibility.
4. Begin to feel less fatigue.
5. May experience a feeling of emotional & physical well being.
6. Sensory perception is diminished as well as slowed responses, intellectual
functioning, memory & vision.
Tranquilizers >
Effects
1. Greatly reduces motor responses.
2. Reduced coordination, attentiveness & judgment.
3. Decision making is inhibited to a point where risks & information are not
appropriately weighed.
4. The effects increase as altitude increases.
Motion Sickness Medication >
Effects
1. Causes drowsiness.
2. Decreases alertness.
Stomach Medication >
Effects
1. Causes blurred vision.
2. Reduces your ability to respond and function in a fully alert state.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 169
Decongestants and Antihistamines >
Effects
1. Causes drowsiness.
2. Slowed motor responses.
Stimulants >
Effects
1. Produce anxiety.
2. Drastic mood swings.
Amphetamines >
Effects
1. Nervousness
2. Sleep disturbances.
3. Increased mental fatigue.
4. Muscle tremors.
5. Occasional stomach irritation.
Nicotine >
Effects
1. Stimulates the nervous system.
2. Can cause a sensation of lessened fatigue & euphoria in some people.
3. Feeling of fatigue & slowing down.
4. Irritability.
5. Aggression.
6. Hostility.
Analgesics >
Flying usually is not restricted when you take these drugs.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 170
I
“I’M SAFE”
M
S
A
F
E
Alpha One Flight School
Page 171
SYSTEMS_________________
Normal “T” panel of Instruments.
Three separate Systems
1. Vacuum
2. Pitot – Static
3. Electrical
Four Cycle Engine
Alpha One Flight School
Page 172
Carburetor
Alpha One Flight School
Page 173
PITOT / STATIC SYSTEM
Altimeter
Aneroid wafer - expands and contracts with increase / decrease of air pressure.
Vertical Speed Indicator
Aneroid wafer with a calibrated “leak” so eventually returns to zero.
Airspeed
Instrument measures the difference between RAM pressure & outside AIR
pressure.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 174
Vacuum System
Alpha One Flight School
Page 175
Electrical System
Alpha One Flight School
Page 176
Fuel System
Alpha One Flight School
Page 177
Indicators
1. Attitude Indicator
2. Heading Indicator
3. Turn Coordinator
Alpha One Flight School
Page 178
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE
Inspections
100 hour
Who
When
Air taxi, Flight
School
Annual
Pilot/Static
ELT
ELT Battery
Transponder
AD
(Airworthiness
Directive)
Service Bulletin
Advisory type. Highly
recommended. Come
out before AD
Alpha One Flight School
Page 179
Airworthiness Directive Record
Alpha One Flight School
Page 180
Weight & Balance
Alpha One Flight School
Page 181
Aircraft Log
Alpha One Flight School
Page 182
Engine Log
Alpha One Flight School
Page 183
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
ELT: (Emergency Locator Transmitter)
Transponder:
LOST:
Five “C’s”
C – Confess
C – Concern
C – Climb
C – Communicate
C – Comply
Alpha One Flight School
Page 184
CALL FOR HELP
Who?
FREQUENCY?
Flight Service
______________________
Approach Control
______________________
Tower
______________________
Anybody
______________________
Getting lost can result in a more serious situation.
DON’T BE AFRAID TO CALL SOMEONE!!!!!!
Alpha One Flight School
Page 185
RELY on VOR’S for Orientation:
DOUBLE VOR CHECK
1.
2.
3.
4.
Turn & ID (Ident)
Center needle with “FROM” Indication
Draw line from VOR center through radial.
Repeat for 2nd VOR
Clouds - VFR into IFR Conditions
1. Turn around using Instruments.
180 degree level turn.
2. CALL for HELP.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 186
Alpha One Flight School
Page 187
ENGINE OUT
Airspeed is most important 1st Action.
Take off –
Low ALT –
High ALT –
Three things required to keep an engine running:
1. FIRE
2. AIR
3. FUEL
Follow your Emergency checklist - - - If time permits.
MAYDAY SHOULD INCLUDE:
Location (approx)
# on board
Color of aircraft
Type of problem
Alpha One Flight School
Page 188
CHOOSING AN EMERGENCY LANDING LOCATION:
LOCATION
WATCH FOR:
1. Field – open
cows, power lines, trees, rocks
2. Field – Plowed
land with the furrows, if possible.
3. Trees -
DO not stall, fly airplane, (as slow as
possible), into trees.
4. Beach -
Watch for people, land in water if necessary.
5. Water -
Swells. Land with swells unless wind is over
15 knots then LAND into the wind. Approach
into swells.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 189
FIRE
ENGINE FIRE:
BAD
 Shut down engine, fuel, electrical. 100 mph to help blow out engine. Land as
soon as possible.
UNKNOWN
 Shut down electrical. Land as soon as possible.
WING FIRE:
 Slip airplane to prevent fire from burning toward fuel tanks, fuselage.
 Attempt best airspeed to land as soon as possible.
Alpha One Flight School
Page 190