Table of Contents from
Eric K. Yamamoto, Margaret Chon, Carol L. Izumi, Jerry Kang,
& Frank H. Wu, Race, Rights and Reparation: Law and the Japanese
American Internment (2d. ed. 2013).
Contents
CONTENTS
Preface to the Second Edition ....................................................................................... xxv
PART I: CONTEXT
..........................................................................1 C h a p t e r 1 . ..........................................................................................................3 Prologue: Willed Concealing, Forgetting, Remembering and
Repairing A. Introduction .............................................................................................................3 B. Overview ...................................................................................................................7 C. Conclusion ..............................................................................................................18 Note: Terminology ................................................................................................19 C h a p t e r 2 . ........................................................................................................23 History A. Asians in North America: An Overview .........................................................23 B. Unopen Door ..........................................................................................................24 1. Immigration .......................................................................................................24 Note: A Brief History of Asian Immigration to the U.S. ......................24 Note: Chinese Exclusion ................................................................................27 Chae Chan Ping v. United States ................................................................28 Fong Yue Ting v. United States ...................................................................35 2. Citizenship ..........................................................................................................44 a. Naturalization ..............................................................................................44 Note: Race as a Social Construction ...........................................................44 Ozawa v. United States ...............................................................................49 United States v. Thind ................................................................................52 b. Citizenship via Birth ...................................................................................58 United States v. Wong Kim Ark ................................................................59 C. Second Class Status ..............................................................................................69 1. Work ....................................................................................................................69 Yick Wo v. Hopkins ........................................................................................70 xvii
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2. Property ..............................................................................................................74 Terrace v. Thompson .......................................................................................75 PART II: INTERNMENT
....................................................83 C h a p t e r 3 . ........................................................................................................85 The Internment Cases A. From Pearl Harbor to the Incarceration Camps: An Overview ...............85 1. Before Pearl Harbor..........................................................................................85 2. December 7, 1941 ..............................................................................................86 3. Military, Executive and Congressional Action .............................................88 4. The Legal Challenges .......................................................................................90 B. Opening the Door: The Curfew Cases .............................................................91 1. Hirabayashi v. United States ..........................................................................91 a. Background...................................................................................................91 Note: Equal Protection and the Level of Judicial
Scrutiny .........................................................................................................95 b. The Case ........................................................................................................96 Hirabayashi v. United States ....................................................................98 2. Yasui v. United States.....................................................................................114 a. Background.................................................................................................114 b. The Case ......................................................................................................116 Yasui v. United States ..............................................................................118 C. National Security Restrictions of Civil Liberties: The Exclusion
Case ........................................................................................................................120 Note: The Role of Courts in Reviewing National Security Claims .......120 3. Korematsu v. United States ...........................................................................124 a. Background.................................................................................................124 b. The Case ......................................................................................................125 Korematsu v. United States .....................................................................126 D. Politics and Legal Process: The Detention Case .........................................150 1. Background ......................................................................................................150 2. The Case ...........................................................................................................152 Ex parte Endo ................................................................................................152 E. Recasting Internment History .........................................................................160 Note: A Recent Debate about the Basis for Internment ...........................160 Contents
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C h a p t e r 4 . ......................................................................................................167 Incarceration: Effects and Consequences A. From the Assembly Centers to Resettlement: An Overview ...................167 1. Movement Into and Out of the Camps ........................................................168 2. The Assembly Centers ....................................................................................172 3. Camp Life .........................................................................................................173 a. Housing and Facilities ..............................................................................173 b. Employment and Education ....................................................................174 c. Tensions Within the Camps .....................................................................175 4. Japanese Outside the Mainland United States ...........................................176 a. U.S. Territories: Alaska and Hawai‘i .....................................................176 b. Canada.........................................................................................................176 c. Latin America .............................................................................................177 d. Japan ............................................................................................................177 B. Aliens or Citizens? ..............................................................................................178 1. Economic Factors and Leave ........................................................................178 2. Leave for Military Service .............................................................................179 3. Loyalty Review Program ...............................................................................181 4. Resistance in the Camps ................................................................................185 a. The Heart Mountain Draft Resisters ......................................................187 b. The Tule Lake Segregants........................................................................188 c. The Renunciants ........................................................................................189 5. Governmental Regret? Citizenship Status and Constitutional
Rights ................................................................................................................192 a. The End of Detention and the Beginning of Resettlement .................192 b. Consequences and Early Reparation Efforts ........................................197 C. Postscript: Demographic and Cultural Shifts in Asian America
after World War II .............................................................................................200 1. Introduction .....................................................................................................200 2. Post-World War II Immigration Reform .....................................................201 3. Japanese America After the War ..................................................................203 a. The Emergence of the Nisei Middle Class and the Post-War
Sansei Generation ......................................................................................203 b. Changing Stereotypes and Emerging Identities....................................205 i. The Model Minority: Reality or Myth? ..............................................205 ii. The Asian American Movement and Pan-Asian
Ethnicity ...............................................................................................207 xx
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I M A G E S O F I N T E R N M E N T A N D R E D R E S S ..................211 PART III: REDRESS
..................................................................219 C h a p t e r 5 . ......................................................................................................221 The Coram Nobis Litigation A. Redress and the Judicial Declaration of Injustice: An Overview ..........221 B. The Coram Nobis Litigation: Newly Discovered Evidence .....................223 1. The Suppressed Version of DeWitt’s Final Report ....................................223 2. Exculpatory Intelligence Reports .................................................................230 3. The Revised Footnote in the Korematsu Brief ...........................................235 C. Political Lawyering ............................................................................................247 1. The Lawyers ....................................................................................................247 2. Preparing for the Litigation ...........................................................................248 3. Key Communications .....................................................................................250 a. Courts as Instruments of Justice: Conflicting Views............................251 b. Public Education and the Linkage to Political Movements................252 c. Practical Lawyering Skills ........................................................................253 d. Internal Legal Team Dynamics ...............................................................255 D. Korematsu’s Coram Nobis Petition and the Government’s
Response ................................................................................................................257 1. The Petition ......................................................................................................257 2. Government’s Response to Korematsu’s Petition ......................................262 E. The U.S. District Court Proceedings .............................................................265 1. Korematsu ........................................................................................................265 Korematsu v. United States ........................................................................267 2. Yasui ..................................................................................................................279 3. Hirabayashi ......................................................................................................280 F. The Ninth Circuit Opinion ..............................................................................286 Hirabayashi v. United States ..........................................................................286 Note: Impact of the Coram Nobis Litigation ...............................................295 G. Ethics and Justice—The Lawyers: War Department Officials and
Justice Department Attorneys .........................................................................301 1. War Department Influence Over the Justice Department ........................301 2. The Solicitor General’s Misrepresentations ................................................303 a. Chief Justice Stone and “No Person in Any Responsible Position
Has Ever Taken a Contrary Position”....................................................303 Contents
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b. Justice Jackson and the Absence of Evidence of Military
Necessity......................................................................................................304 c. Acting Solicitor General Katyal’s 2011 Acknowledgment of the
1944 Ethical Breach ..................................................................................304 Note: Recent Judicial Treatment of Korematsu and Hirabayashi .........307 C h a p t e r 6 . ......................................................................................................311 Executive and Congressional Action A. Three Branches of Redress: An Overview ...................................................311 B. Executive Action .................................................................................................313 1. Repeal of Executive Order 9066 by President Gerald R. Ford ................313 2. President George H.W. Bush’s Apology to Japanese Americans ............315 C. Congressional Action .........................................................................................315 1. The Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of
Civilians ............................................................................................................315 2. Civil Liberties Act of 1988 .............................................................................318 a. Impact of Coram Nobis Litigation ..........................................................318 b. President Ronald Reagan Signs the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 ........319 D. Reactions ...............................................................................................................323 1. The Personal: “Freed My Soul” .....................................................................323 2. The Intra-Group: Exacerbating and Then Beginning to Heal Old
Wounds .............................................................................................................324 3. The Public Educational: Fresh Research and Analysis ............................324 4. The Political: Why Them and Not Me? ......................................................325 PART IV: LEGACY
.......................................................................329 C h a p t e r 7 . ......................................................................................................331 Global Implications of Internment Redress A. Redress and Social Justice for Other Groups: An Overview ...................331 B. Emerging Redress Practice and Theory........................................................332 1. Suggested Frameworks ..................................................................................332 Note: Generations of Redress Theory ......................................................334 2. Today’s Reparation Theories: Back to Repair and Toward
Reconciliation ..................................................................................................337 a. The Fourth Generation and Beyond ......................................................337 xxii
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b. Recasting Redress Through a Framework of Social Healing
Through Justice ..........................................................................................339 c. Toward a Legacy of Japanese American Redress ................................340 3. Human Rights and Democratic Legitimacy ...............................................342 C. Japanese Latin American Redress ..................................................................343 1. Background ......................................................................................................343 Note: World War II Abduction and Internment of Japanese
Latin Americans ............................................................................................344 2. The Limitations of the 1988 Civil Liberties Act and the Mochizuki
Settlement .........................................................................................................345 a. The Exclusion from the Civil Liberties Act...........................................345 b. The Mochizuki Settlement .......................................................................346 i. JLA Responses ......................................................................................346 ii. The Shortcomings of the Mochizuki Settlement ................................346 3. The Redress Struggle Continues ...................................................................346 D. African American Reparations ........................................................................350 1. Redressing the Wounds of Slavery and Jim Crow Segregation ...............350 Note: A Brief History of Slavery and Jim Crow Segregation .................352 2. The Proposed Conyers Study Commission and Japanese American
Internment Redress .........................................................................................354 3. Modern African American Reparations Initiatives ...................................356 a. Lawsuits ......................................................................................................356 b. State and Local Legislative Movements ................................................357 c. Opposition to the Redress Effort .............................................................358 d. Next Steps ...................................................................................................360 E. Native Hawaiian Reconciliation ....................................................................363 1. U.S.-Native Hawaiian Reconciliation: Progress and Backsliding...........363 Note: “An Act of War” .......................................................................................364 a. Political and Cultural Renaissance .........................................................366 b. Commitment to Reconciliation ................................................................366 2. United Church of Christ and Asian American Churches
Reconciliation Initiatives ...............................................................................367 3. Redress Linkages .............................................................................................369 F. “Sex Slaves” Reparations ..................................................................................371 1. The Context of World War II Sex Slaves.....................................................371 Note: Military Coercion of Women and Girls into Sexual Slavery ........372 2. Reparations Efforts in Japan.........................................................................372 a. Breaking the Silence: Former Sex Slaves Sue in Japan’s Courts .......372 b. Japan’s Actions: Steps Toward Acknowledgment? .............................373 Contents
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3. Justice in Other Fora?.....................................................................................374 a. U.S. Courts ..................................................................................................374 b. U.S. Congress ..............................................................................................374 c. International Pressure ...............................................................................375 C h a p t e r 8 . ......................................................................................................379 Epilogue: Watchful Care over the Loaded Weapon A. Civil Liberties and National Security in Times of Conflict and
War: An Overview ..............................................................................................379 B. Pre-9/11 Racial Profiling of Asian Americans .............................................381 1. The Wen Ho Lee Prosecution........................................................................381 Note: Overview of the Wen Ho Lee Prosecution ..................................381 2. Case Closed—Or Is It? Korematsu Revisited .............................................385 C. Post-9/11 Racial Profiling and the “War on Terror” .................................389 1. An Internment Framework for Post-9/11 Profiling ...................................389 Note: The Post-9/11 Expansion of Executive Power ...........................390 2. Profiling: Ethnicity and Predicting Terroristic Behavior..........................393 3. Presumption of Disloyalty: A Contemplated Post-9/11 Internment........396 D. Post-9/11 Balance Between National Security and Civil Liberties .......401 1. Recalibrating the Balance After 9/11 ...........................................................401 Note: Enemy Combatants ...........................................................................401 2. One Judicial Challenge to Enemy Combatant Detention: Rasul v.
Bush...................................................................................................................403 a. Fred Korematsu’s Rasul Amicus Brief ...................................................404 b. The Significance of Rasul v. Bush...........................................................405 E. Into the Future: The Lessons of Japanese American Internment ..........407 1. Insights into Post-9/11 National Security and Civil Liberties? ................408 a. Perceived Religious and Racial Difference ............................................408 b. Executive Branch Deceptions ..................................................................409 c. Judicial Deference ......................................................................................410 d. Damage to Democratic Principles and Processes .................................410 2. Role of the Judiciary: A Proposed Heightened Standard of Review .......411 Endnotes ...............................................................................................................................421
Acknowledgments ...............................................................................................................473
Index .....................................................................................................................................483