Personality: Lecture 4 Psychoanaly4c alterna4ves to Freud: Adler and Jung – towards a transpersonal psychology Overview •  1. The rela%on between the key personality dynamics in Adler’s theory, i.e., –  Sense of inferiority –  Striving for superiority –  Finalism –  Social feeling •  2. Jung’s account of the psychological factors determining behaviour. •  3. The applica4on of Jung’s theory to explain behaviour •  4. The relevance of the theories to contemporary research in psychology and their implica4ons for personal growth and applied psychology. 1 Adler’s theory of personality •  Sense of inferiority –  a person’s percep4on of his/her weakness rela4ve to the environment to which he/she must adapt, a percep4on which is highlighted during the period of childhood. •  In Adler’s view, the “sense of inferiority” gives rise to the “striving for superiority”. •  The striving for superiority –  the fundamental human desire to compensate for one’s own perceived inferiori4es –  The striving for superiority manifests as a goal of assuring superiority. •  “… early in life, in the first four or five years, a goal is set for the need and drive of psychical development, a goal toward which all its currents flow. Such a goal has not only the func4on of determining a direc4on, of promising security, power, perfec4on, but it is also of its essence and of the essence of the mind that this portentous goal should awaken feelings and emo4ons through that which it promises them. Thus the individual mi4gates its sense of weakness in the an4cipa4on of its redemp4on” (Adler 1930, p. 75) –  Adler uses the term “final aim” to refer to this goal of assuring superiority. •  Finalism –  the term used by Adler to denote the psychological importance of the person’s final aim 2 –  If a person is to be healthy, his/her final aim must involve the proper degree of social feeling. •  Social feeling (or “social interest”) –  a posi4ve aXtude toward society, characterised by coopera4on, friendship and love. •  Summary of interrela4ons –  The sense of inferiority gives rise to the striving for superiority –  This in turn manifests as finalism, i.e., the formula4on of a final aim which gives meaning to the person’s existence –  If the person’s finalism involves the proper degree of social feeling, then he/
she will minimise neuro4c symptoms. Jung’s theory of personality •  “Among the psychological factors determining human behaviour, the ins4ncts are the chief mo4va4ng forces of psychic events.” (Jung 1936, p. 114-­‐5) –  Jung claims that five main groups of ins4nc4ve factors can be dis4nguished: hunger, sexuality, ac4vity, reflec4on, and crea4vity. •  The drive to ac4vity –  Starts func4oning when the other more basic drives (e.g., hunger, sexuality) are sa4sfied. •  The reflec4ve ins4nct –  Enables a person to reflect on ins4nctual impulses such that, rather than being compelled to act, he/she has a degree of freedom. •  The crea4ve ins4nct –  The basis for the human being’s “dis4nc4ve power of crea4ng something new in the real sense of the word.” (Jung 1936, p. 118) –  Jung’s account of these dynamic factors clearly indicates that he rejects the psychological reduc4onism and determinism that characterises Freud’s theory, and commits instead to the no4on of free-­‐will. 3 •  Extraversion and introversion –  “…a.tude types, dis4nguished by the direc4on of their interest, or of the movement of libido.” •  “The extravert… has a posi4ve rela4on to the object. He affirms its importance to such an extent that his subjec4ve aXtude is constantly related to and oriented by the object.” •  The introvert’s aXtude is an abstrac4ng one; at boaom, he is always intent on withdrawing libido from the object, as though he had to prevent the object from gaining power over him.” –  “Everyone knows those reserved, inscrutable, rather shy people who form the strongest possible contrast to the open, sociable, jovial, or at least friendly and approachable characters who are on good terms with everybody, or quarrel with everybody, but always relate to them in some way and in turn are affected by them.” (1920, p. 330) •  The 4 orien4ng func4ons of consciousness –  Thinking •  interprets what is perceived. –  Feeling •  establishes the value of the object. –  Sensa4on •  establishes the fact that something is there. –  Intui4on •  Percep4on by way of the unconscious –  4 func%on-­‐types: i.e., more special types whose peculiari4es are due to the fact that the individual adapts and orients himself chiefly by means of his most differen4ated func4on. •  Jung considers these func4ons of consciousness to belong to the ectopsychic sphere 4 –  The endopsychic func4ons of consciousness: •  1. Memory –  The func4on of memory, or reproduc4on, links us up with things that have faded out of consciousness, things that became subliminal or were cast away or repressed. •  2. Subjec4ve components of func4ons –  The shadow-­‐world of the ego; a sort of disposi4on to react in a certain way •  3. Affects –  A condi4on in which the inner side of man takes hold of him, he cannot prevent it. He can clench his fists, he can keep quiet, but it has him nevertheless. •  4. Invasions –  “Here the shadow-­‐side, the unconscious side, has full control so that it can break into the conscious condi4on… it is really an extraordinary condi4on in which a man is seized upon by his unconscious and when anything may come out of him. One can lose one’s mind in a more or less normal way.” (1935, p. 24) 5 •  The conscious and the unconscious –  The importance of harmonizing conscious and unconscious processes. •  Focusing on conscious processes produces a “one-­‐sidedness” that must be compensated by the unconscious: –  The compensatory role of the unconscious is central to the development of so-­‐called “higher” states of consciousness. •  On the personal level, unconscious counter-­‐tendencies promote self-­‐knowledge via insight into the personal unconscious. •  The diminishment of the personal unconscious increases openness to the collec4ve unconsciousness and thus extends the range of self-­‐knowledge. •  Spirit and maaer •  “Since psyche and maaer are contained in one and the same world, and moreover are in con4nuous contact with one another and ul4mately rest on irrepresentable, transcendental factors, it is not only possible but fairly probable, even, that psyche and maaer are two different aspects of one and the same thing. The synchronicity phenomena point, it seems to me, in this direc4on, for they show that the nonpsychic can behave like the psychic, and vice versa, without there being any causal connec4on between them. Our present knowledge does not allow us to do much more than compare the rela4on of the psychic to the material world with two cones, whose apices, mee4ng in a point without extension – a real zero-­‐
point – touch and do not touch.” (Jung 1954, p. 215) 6 •  “Just as the “psychic infra-­‐red”, the biological ins4nctual psyche, gradually passes over into the physiology of the organism and thus merges with its chemical and physical condi4ons, so the “psychic ultra-­‐violet”, the archetype, describes a field which exhibits none of the peculiari4es of the physiological and yet, in the last analysis, can no longer be regarded as psychic, although it manifests itself psychically… Although there is no form of existence that is not mediated to us psychically and only psychically, it would hardly do to say that everything is merely psychic. We must apply this argument logically to the archetypes as well. Since their essen4al being is unconscious to us, and s4ll they are experienced as spontaneous agencies, there is probably no alterna4ve now but to describe their nature, in accordance with their chiefest effect, as “spirit”… If so, the posi4on of the archetype would be located beyond the psychic sphere, analogous to the posi4on of physiological ins4nct, which is immediately rooted in the stuff of the organism and, with its psychoid nature, forms the bridge to maaer in general… Maaer and spirit both appear in the psychic realm as dis4nc4ve quali4es of conscious contents. The ul4mate nature of both is transcendental, that is, irrepresentable, since the psyche and its contents are the only reality which is given to us without a medium.” (1954, pp. 215-­‐6) –  Implica4on: one can, via a journey inward into the dark recesses of the psyche, get in touch with the transcendental – that which is the origin of everything, and thus connects one to everything. –  The ideal of transpersonal psychology: expanding consciousness to the point of realising that “the microcosm IS the macrocosm”. 7 Applica4on of Jung’s theory •  The ins4ncts –  The drive to ac4vity –  The crea4ve ins4nct •  The extraversion/introversion aXtude types •  Because he is an introvert, e.g., in playing violin, he withdraws into his inner world (?) –  OR •  Because he is an extrovert, e.g., in playing violin, he relates to the audience he performs to (?) –  Jung’s psychological typology is largely descrip4ve rather than explanatory. •  The endopsychic func4ons of consciousness –  Affects –  Invasions •  The conscious/unconscious modality –  The compensatory role of the unconscious •  “numinous experiences” which facilitate individua4on. •  The spirit/maaer modality –  Teleological approach to the spiritual realm –  A progressive approach •  Psychological phenomena such as dream symbolism are viewed as pointers forward to spiritual progression. 8 Conclusion •  Both Adler and Jung represent a significant break from Freud’s psychoanaly4c approach. –  Both an4cipated the humanis4c and existen4alist approaches to personality by emphasising goal-­‐direc4on, freedom of will, and the search for meaning. •  Both Adler’s theory and Jung’s theory con4nue to have an impact on contemporary research in psychology. –  Journals devoted to Adler’s theory include: Journal of Individual Psychology: The Journal of Adlerian Theory, Research and Prac4ce. –  Journals devoted to Jung’s theory include: Interna4onal Journal of Jungian Studies; Journal of Analy4cal Psychology •  The Myers-­‐Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): a personality assessment inventory based on Jung’s personality typology. •  Both theories also con4nue to influence the prac4ce of psychology. –  There are numerous training ins4tu4ons worldwide both for Adler’s Individual Psychotherapy and Jung’s Analy4c Psychotherapy. •  Implica4ons for psychological growth. –  Adlerian psychotherapy promotes psychological growth by helping the pa4ent to become aware of his lack of coopera4ve power (i.e., social interest), and to help him to understand the origin of this lack in early childhood maladjustments. –  Jungian psychotherapy promotes psychological growth via the harmoniza4on of the life of consciousness and the life of the unconscious. 9 References •  Adler, A. (1930). Individual psychology. In G. Lindzey, C. S. Hall, and M. Manosevitz (Eds.) Theories of Personality: Primary Sources and Research. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Pp. 74-­‐81. •  Jung, C. G. (1920). Psychological types. The Collected Works of C. G. Jung, vol. 6. Princeton: Princeton University Press. •  Jung, C. G. (1935). The Tavistock lectures. The Collected Works of C. G. Jung, vol. 18. London: Routledge. •  Jung, C. G. (1936). Psychological factors determining human behaviour. The Collected Works of C. G. Jung, vol. 8. London: Routledge. •  Jung, C. G. (1938). The rela4ons between the ego and the unconscious. The Collected Works of C. G. Jung, vol. 7. Princeton: Princeton University Press.. •  Jung, C. G. (1954). On the nature of the psyche. The Collected Works of C. G. Jung, vol. 8. London: Routledge. 10