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Although research on the basic anatomy of pinniped
reproductive systems is reasonably well-understood, variation within and between species is less well-documented.
Further, recent years have seen advances in reproductive
biology that enable a more in-depth knowledge to be
gained. Chapter 12 begins with a summary of the reproductive cycles of the seven Antarctic and sub-Antarctic
species, and goes on to describe recent developments in
DNA fingerprinting that enable a pup's parents to be
identified. These data will allow the genetic structure of a
population to be determined. Similarly, enzyme
immunoassays are now readily available, and diagnostic
kits are produced that allow accurate and simple measurement of hormones in the field. Other recent research has
suggested that there are several relatively discrete
populations within some species of seal, which is important to bear in mind when devising strategies for the
effective management and conservation of Antarctic
pinnipeds. Various methods available to assess the genetics of populations are listed in chapter 9, including
electrophoresis of proteins, amino-acid sequencing, and
immunochemical comparisons.
The study of the bioenergetics of a species can enable
quantification of many aspects of its life history. Methods
available include assessing changes in the weight and
structure of the body over time, changes in the rate at which
substances are turned over within the body, and the amount
of oxygen used and carbon dioxide produced by aerobic
metabolism. Pinniped bioenergetics is a fairly new field,
but can provide answers to a variety of questions pertaining to their basic biology: what is the resting metabolism
of animals of different ages? what are the costs of reproduction for males and females in terms of energy used to
defend beaches and harems or in lactation? what is the
level of parental investment? how much energy is used for
feeding and foraging? do these change with seasons?
Different methods and techniques that are available to
answer these questions are evaluated.
The morphometric analysis of a species can yield
information on areas such as age determination, reproductive status, and general population ecology. Chapter 8
details some of the measurements that can be taken with a
view to standardizing collected data. This has been a
problem in pinniped biology - especially in taxonomic
studies - since many of the older papers do not define their
datum points. So, for example, 'skull length' can mean
condylobasal length, or the basilar length of Hensel, or
even another measurement known only to the author.
These discrepancies mean that data presented in the literature have limited value for comparative studies and are
potential causes of taxonomic chaos. In 1967 the Committee on Marine Mammals defined some body and skeletal
measurements in an attempt to standardize data collection
(Scheffer 1967); although many researchers adhere to
these standards, they are by no means used universally.
Hopefully, the importance of the standardization of data
collection stressed throughout Antarctic seals will yield
more favourable results for the future.
The determination of the age of pinnipeds was developed independently by Scheffer (1950) and Laws (1952),
and is essential in assessing pinniped population structures. Chapter 11 provides comprehensive information on
the different dental structures of the seven species of
Antarctic seals, as well as useful comparative data on the
choice of tooth to be used for age determination and the
variation in dental microstructure, both of which differ
between species. It also discusses the reliability of the
aging of cementum and dentine from different species at
different ages. For example, counting canine cementum
lines is adequate to age Weddell seals, but cementum is
poorly developed in Ross and crabeater seal canines.
In conclusion, the great value ofAntarctic seals lies not
only in the vast amount of information it contains, all
presented in a scholarly, comprehensive manner, but also
in the fact that, for the first time, guidelines are presented
so that data on pinnipeds may be collected systematically.
Adherence to the suggestions and outl ines presented by the
various authors in their capacity as members of SCAR's
Group of Specialists on Seals will allow comparisons
between studies to be made, and open the way for more
collaborative research between countries and individuals.
It is impossible to over-emphasize the importance of this
book, not only to the study of seals in the Antarctic and subAntarctic but to marine mammal research in general. (E.
Cruwys, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ.)
References
Laws, R. M. 1952. A new method of age determination for
mammals. Nature 169:972-974.
Scheffer, V.B. 1950. Growth layers on the teeth of pinnipedia
as an indication of age. Science 112:309-311.
Scheffer, V.B. (editor). 1967. Standard measurements of
seals. Journal of Mammalogy 48:459-462.
SILAS: THE ANTARCTIC DIARIES AND MEMOIR OFCHARLES S.WRIGHT. Colin Bull andPatF.
Wright(Editors). 1993. Columbus: Ohio State University
Press, xxx+ 418 p, illustrated, hard cover. ISBNO-81420548-8. US$59.50.
Few polar expeditions can lay claim to so great a wealth of
literary talent as Scott's last. The leader's own posthumously published journals along with Cherry-Garrard's
Worst journey in the world are both classics. Other
members were likewise not wanting in this faculty;
Priestley, Lieutenant Evans, Ponting, and Griffith Taylor
all published narrative accounts. The subsequent publication of Edward Wilson's journals edited from the originals
heralded a new genre exemplified in recent years by the
edited diaries of Victor Campbell and Frank Debenham,
neither accomplished literary gems but both valuable for
their historical immediacy.
It is particularly gratifying to welcome to this growing
library the diaries of Scott's talented and versatile young
scientist, Charles (later SirCharles) Seymour Wright. The
editors are Dr Colin Bull (Dean Emeritus of Ohio State
University and, like Wright, an experienced polar geo-
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REVIEWS
physicist and glaciologist) and Sir Charles' daughterPatricia
(who, persuaded that her father had a tale to tell, encouraged him to help her transcribe his Antarctic diaries). By
his own confession Wright 'never kept diaries except
when it was necessary,' so that the end product proved too
abbreviated, incomplete, and frequently commonplace to
be considered for publication. Pat Wright at the same time
assisted her father in the writing of a retrospective memoir
(he boasted an excellent memory). Alas, he died in 1975,
leaving it uncompleted. It is these two records, the daily
diaries (plus some field notes) and the memoir, that constitute the core of the present volume. To this material has
been added a series of letters written by Wright to his father
in Toronto during the journey south. All this diverse
material has been woven into a coherent whole under 17
chapter headings covering the principal events on the
expedition in which Charles Wright played a part. Each
chapter is introduced by a linking text. There are no
footnotes as such, and explanatory matter and comments
follow the relevant diary entries. To distinguish between
diary and memoir extracts and editorial matter a system of
differing type faces and marginal indentations has been
employed, which some readers may find confusing. Finally, Pat Wright, herself a talented artist, has embellished
the text with numerous delightfully executed and wellresearched black-and-white sketches.
In his introduction Bull reminds us of the events
leading to Wright's appointment to the Scott expedition as
chemist and physicist. At the time he was a bright young
Canadian '1851 Exhibitioner' studying under Professor
J.J. Thompson at the University of Cambridge'sCavendish
Laboratory. Griffith Taylor, also up at Cambridge, encouraged him to apply. The first time round he was turned
down. The second time, after walking the 50-odd miles to
London with Taylor to talk to Scott and Wilson in person,
he was successful. Unfortunately, no contemporary record
of this interview survives.
Wright's account of the Terra Nova expedition as told
in the pages that follow can in no way be seen as the work
of a poet, artist, or visionary. Wright was young, bursting
with energy and ambition, and anxious to get into the field.
His main sphere of interest was the study of penetrating
radiation, but once on the ice he found himself immersed
in all manner of other speculations and investigations —
not least in the then novel field of glaciology. Little
wonder that there was scarcely time to comment on personal or domestic affairs or on the overall progress of
events. Of course, on the long voyage south there was time
to spare, and in his letters home we have some worthwhile
accounts of life on board ship and some pithy and lighthearted appraisals of his shipmates. Captain Scott 'has a
thirst for scientific knowledge that cannot be quenched';
Bowers (responsible for dubbing Wright 'Silas') 'gets
sunburned even if it rains or is clouded over'; Wilson' has
no peculiarities save that of teetotalism'; and so on. A
thumbnail sketch of the visit to South Trinidad related how
Wright, alongside Bowers, was appointed 'bugologist'
despite a mutual arachnophobia. At Melbourne, Wright
143
heard of Amundsen's volte-face, which he dismissed as 'a
bit offside.' The near foundering of Terra Nova in the
storm off Campbell Island was also typically low key;
there is a diary version alongside the more leisurely memoir
account. Delayed in the pack, Scott fretted while Wright
found much to interest him in the forms and movement of
floating ice. And so finally Ross Island was achieved,
where Wright learned about photography from Ponting
and then very soon found himself in the field attached to
Taylor's reconnaissance in the Western Mountains, and,
as he put it 'wearing the hat of glaciologist for the first
time.' This chapter provides an interesting picture of
Wright finally in his element and should be read in conjunction with the accounts given by Taylor and Debenham.
The long Antarctic night spent at Cape Evans would have
provided opportunities for journal writing, butagain Wright
was preoccupied with his scientific work — writing up
field-notes, compiling maps, working on radiation, and
helping meteorologist Simpson with routine observations,
together with auroral and magnetic studies.
Fortunately for Wright, he was included on the 'Great
March South,' and was able to carry out physiological
work on the Beardmore Glacier. To his chagrin he never
achieved the summit, being ordered back to Cape Evans as
navigator with the'FirstReturn Party.' It is at this juncture
that his normally unemotional diary entries flare up in
anger. Teddy Evans, in earlier entries noted as 'wasteful
and clumsy' and 'a quitter,' is now perceived as slacking
in the traces while at the same time seeking to impress the
'Owner' with his expertise as a sledger ('the damn hypocrite'). Thus Wright was ordered back while Evans
proceeded. A rare example of Wright losing his cool!
Back at Cape Evans, Wright and his companions settled
down for a second winter. The diary notes now became
even more intermittent and abbreviated, dedicated largely
to scientific observations, Cherry-Garrard being regarded
as the 'responsible historian.' It was left to the memoir to
supply any local colour. Despite the presumed loss of the
Pole Party and the uncertainty as to the fateof Campbell's
Northern Party, the little group at Cape Evans seems to
have remained remarkably cheerful and fully occupied
under the benevolent and relaxed leadership of Atkinson.
Then, with the return of spring, a mule party set out in
October 1911 in the hope of settling the fateof Scott'sPole
Party. It was Wright's keen eye that spotted the snowcovered tent. The diary is brief and laconic: 'Found
Owner, Bill & Birdie in tent....a damn fine finish.' The
memoir recalls the event with someemotion: 'I felt much
as if I were in a cathedral and found myself with my hat on.'
The rest of the diary is anticlimax — an awaiting of the
relief vessel. The memoir concludes the book with some
of the author's thoughts on the reasons for the disaster and
takes issue with Simpson on his theories concerning an
unexpected drop in temperature on the Barrier.
In an epilogue.Bull provides an account ofSir Charles'
subsequent career and a brief review of the several contributions made by him to the volumes of Terra Nova
scientific reports, more particularly that entitled Glaciology,
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REVIEWS
written in conjunction with Raymond Priestley and subsequently to become a fundamental work of reference in this
field. The publication of these diaries is a fitting tribute to
a pioneer of Antarctic science. (H.G.R. King, Scott Polar
Research Institute, University of Cambridge, Lensfield
Road, Cambridge CB2 1ER.)
THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF ANTARCTIC POPULATION. Juan Carlos M. Beltramino.
1993. New York: Vantage Press. xvii+ 105 p, illustrated
with tables and maps, hard cover. ISBN 0-533-10205-7.
US$16.95.
Knowledge about Antarctica is rapidly accumulating, but
demographic research has not received much attention,
even from the SCAR Working Group on Human Biology
and Medicine. Data are not registered centrally by the UN
or World Bank, which cover all other regions, and Dr
Beltramino has donea service in writing this slim book that
contains much of interest; the lengthy acknowledgements
reflect the extensive correspondence that has been necessary to obtain data (to 1990) from all the countries involved. The author draws attention to the uniqueness of
Antarctic demography, characterised by its international
nature, the short residence times of individuals relative to
other regions, the sex and age biases, the lack of natural
increase, and the special nature of mortality. This means
that full demographic procedure cannot be applied. Two
chapters then describe the natural setting and the historical
and political background; it is the one region on Earth that,
for obvious reasons, never had an autochthonous population. Unfortunately, a table of historical events makes no
mention of SCAR, which predated the Antarctic Treaty
and has served it well, and Beltramino does not make clear
the primary intention to create 'a continent for science.'
The remaining five chapters contain the meat of the
book. The populations are broken down by wintering and
summer, including tourism and small adventure expeditions, but largely omitting whaling, sealing, and fishing
operations. The results are summarized in six maps, eight
tables, and a number of additional tables in the text.
Appendices list the primary data on wintering expeditions
starting with Belgica in 1898; on scientific stations operating in winter, their location and breakdown by station
and year; similar information about summer scientific and
support expeditions; and mortality rates at scientific stations and on summer expeditions. The author emphasises
the approximate nature of some of the data, which is
beyond his control.
From the beginning of this century it took 50 years for
the wintering population as a whole to reach 100, only a
further five years to reach 500 (influenced by theIGY),and
80 years in all to reach 1000. Women increased from two
in 1974 to 74 in 1990 (from only six countries and
Greenpeace) and children from 14 in 1978 to 29 in 1990
(from only Argentina and Chile). The largest number of
stations was present in the IGY. Summer populations are
more difficult to establish, but the approximate totals are
given; numbers increased from 75 in 1941/42, jumping to
6167 in 1956/57 representing IGY activities, and then
increasing to 8340 in 1989/90. The number of women in
summer increased from eight in 1947/48 to 260 in 1989/90
(from 14 countries and Greenpeace).
There are many other interesting points brought out by
Dr Beltramino in his analysis. I would like to mention
three. First, mortality rates: in wintering expeditions,
almost all in the 'heroic era,' the rate 25.9 %o\ on scientific
stations from 1904 to 1990, it was 2.5%e; and on summer
expeditions 0.55%o. The causes of deaths in winter were
87% due to environmental hazards; in summer 61% to
aviation accidents (greatly influenced by the 257 deaths in
the crash on Mt Erebus in 1979) and 33% to other accidents, mainly involving air staff, seamen, and vehicles.
Deaths due to medical problems are minor. Second,
brought out clearly, is the very low winter density of
people — a mere .00008 I/km 2 in winter (compared with
a world average of 39/km2). Third, meteorology is the
predominant scientific discipline in winter, whereas biology is in summer.
This is a useful contribution, written in an engaging
style, well-produced with clear maps, graphs, and tables,
and commendably free of typographic errors. However, I
must declare a prejudice against the irritating term'wintering over'; why not the simpler 'wintering'? The author
clearly defines his terms and draws attention to the deficiencies of the data. It is a worthy contribution to an
emerging topic. (R.M. Laws, StEdmund'sCollege, Mount
Pleasant, Cambridge CB3 0BN.)
HIGH LATITUDES: A HISTORY OF SWEDISH
POLAR TRAVELS AND RESEARCH. GOsta H.
Liljequist. 1993. Stockholm: Swedish Polar Research
Secretariat in collaboration with S treiffert FOrlag AB. 607
p, illustrated, hard cover. ISBN 91-7886-102-0.
To the majority of English-speaking individuals interested
in polar exploration, the period 1857 to 1859 is most
notable for Francis Leopold McClintock's expedition in
Fox, which helped finally to resolve the fate of John
Franklin's Northwest Passage expedition. However, during the same years, a series of expeditions that have rarely
even been mentioned in English-language books on polar
exploration helped to lay the foundations for much of
modern polar research. At the center of these scientific
developments was Otto Torell (1828-1900), a Swedish
glaciologist who was the first major figure to propose
scientific study of the Arctic as a goal and not just an
addendum to commercial or geographical investigations.
Torell's expeditions to Iceland (1857), Spitsbergen (1858),
and Greenland (1859) served as preparatory work for his
leadership of the Swedish Arctic Expedition of 1861,
which included nine scientists, among them Adolf Erik
NordenskiOld, Karl Chydenius, and Nils Diiner. The
expedition had three main goals: interdisciplinary studies
of S valbard and the seas adjacent to it; a reconnaissance for
establishing a triangulation network for future measure-
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