Erik Smitterberg ([email protected])
Dept. of English, Uppsala University
A1/HS1/T1 Grammar
Spring Term 2012
Lecture 4. Nouns and Articles
1 Nouns
Categories:
o
Proper nouns (e.g. London and Tuesday). Proper nouns take initial capital letters
in English (see Appendix 1 in UGE), provide specific names for entities, and
usually lack plural forms and do not take articles (but see section 4.2 and
Appendix 2 in UGE for exceptions).
o
Common nouns:

Uncountable:
Concrete (e.g. butter).
Abstract (e.g. music).

Countable:
Concrete (e.g. [a] car, cars).
Abstract (e.g. [an] issue, issues ‘matter’).
Countable vs. uncountable (see also section 4.3.2 in UGE):
o
Plural forms:

Uncountable nouns cannot be used in the plural.

Countable nouns have separate singular and plural forms.
o
Indefinite articles (see below for the definite article):

Uncountable nouns cannot take the indefinite article.
There are exceptions (e.g. a good knowledge of Danish).
But the exceptions are fewer than in Swedish (e.g. Ett sådant
vackert månsken! = What beautiful moonlight!).

Countable nouns can take the indefinite article in the singular.
o
Verb forms:

Uncountable nouns cannot take plural verb forms.

Countable nouns can take both singular and plural verb forms.
o
Other determiners:

Uncountable nouns cannot take plural determiners.

Singular countable nouns take singular determiners; plural countable
nouns take plural determiners.
o
NOTE 1. The same noun can often be either countable or uncountable,
depending on the context: I love coffee (uncountable); Two coffees, please!
(countable).
o
NOTE 2. Some frequent nouns that are countable in Swedish are uncountable in
English, e.g. news. Use UGE and the Longman dictionary!
1
Erik Smitterberg ([email protected])
Dept. of English, Uppsala University
A1/HS1/T1 Grammar
Spring Term 2012
Number – the singular and the plural:
o
The regular plural ending: -(e)s /s/, /z/, /Iz/.

After a consonant, -y > -ies (party—parties). Exceptions include family
names (e.g. the Kennedys) and lay-bys.
o
Irregular forms (see UGE for lists):

f > v in some words with final /f/, which also affects pronunciation (e.g.
knife /naIf/—knives /naIvz/); but most nouns with f keep the f in the plural
(e.g. roof /ru;f/—roofs /ru;fs/).

-o > -oe- in some words (e.g. hero—heroes); but most nouns in -o do not
add an -e (e.g. video—videos).

Vowel changes (e.g. foot—feet).

Plurals in -en (e.g. child—children).

Foreign plurals (e.g. -us > -i /aI/ as in magus—magi).

Zero plurals:
Many animals (e.g. We saw three deer).
Nationality words in -ese (e.g. The UN operation has helped the
Congolese) and the nationality word Swiss.
A number of other words (e.g. You owe me ten quid, mate!).
o
Compound nouns:

Words with prepositions or to-infinitives: the -s is added to the first noun
(e.g. brothers-in-law, sergeants-to-be).

Words with adverbs: variation (passers-by but lay-bys).

Woman + noun: double plural if the sense is ‘who are women’ (e.g.
women writers ‘writers who are women’), otherwise regular plural (e.g.
woman haters ‘people who hate women’, not ‘haters who are women’).
o
Invariable singulars:

Most – but not all – proper nouns and all uncountable nouns.

Nouns that are uncountable in English but countable in Swedish are
difficult (see p. 99 in UGE). Also, three categories of uncountable nouns
end in -s and may therefore look like plurals:
Some diseases (e.g. Measles is dangerous for infants).
Some sports, games, etc. (e.g. Darts is my favourite game).
Some scientific/scholarly subjects (e.g. Acoustics is the study of
sound). But these nouns may be plural if they do not refer to the
subject (e.g. The acoustics of Stockholm Globe Arena are awful).
o
Invariable plurals:

Two-part items, esp. items of clothing, tools, and instruments (e.g. My
binoculars/trousers are blue).

Some words without -(e)s referring to animate beings, e.g. people
corresponding to Swedish folk (e.g. People are angry with the government).
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Erik Smitterberg ([email protected])
Dept. of English, Uppsala University
o
o
o
o
o
A1/HS1/T1 Grammar
Spring Term 2012
NOTE. People corresponding to Swedish folkslag is an ordinary
countable noun (e.g. Peoples such as the Basques and the Celts are of
great historical significance).

Some words in -(e)s that correspond to both Swedish singulars and
Swedish plurals (e.g. You have to pay your dues ‘din medlemsavgift/dina
medlemsavgifter’).
A few nouns have different meanings in the singular and the plural (e.g. We
may need to have a sale to boost sales).
Collective nouns:

Nouns whose singular forms refer to a group of people (e.g. family).

BrE: singular when referring to the unit (e.g. The family is important in
British society; its importance cannot be exaggerated) but plural when
referring to its members (e.g. The family were having their dinner).

AmE: typically singular regardless of function, except couple.
Logical plurals: English uses plural forms of some countable nouns when,
logically, more than one entity is involved:

Changes between items (e.g. We had to change lanes to get to the cinema).
Exception: change the subject/topic.

Human interaction (e.g. I refused to shake hands with him).

Expressions involving two or more numerals, digits, letters, etc. (e.g. This
rule is addressed in sections 3.2 and 3.3).

Some expressions involving two or more people’s bodies, personal
belongings, minds, etc. (e.g. We have different tastes).
Logical singulars:

Co-ordinated singular nouns are treated as singulars:
If they are joined by and and seen as a unit (e.g. Law and order has
returned); but Bill and Dave have returned (not seen as a unit).
If they are joined by and and preceded by each or every (e.g. Each
mother and father is given a booklet on caring for infants).
If they are joined by neither—nor (e.g. Neither their father nor their
mother was at work).

Plural expressions of amount (e.g. Ten grammes of sulphur was put in the
test tube).

Some proper nouns that have plural forms (e.g. The United States borders
Canada and Mexico; but The Alps have been important in European history).
NOTE. What follows as well as and together with does not affect the number of
the verb (e.g. The king, together with his children, is in the UK at the moment).
Case – the genitive and the of construction:
o
Often express possession, but may also express other relations between nouns.
o
The use of the genitive:

The genitive is used primarily with nouns that have to do with:
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Erik Smitterberg ([email protected])
Dept. of English, Uppsala University
o
o
A1/HS1/T1 Grammar
Spring Term 2012
People (e.g. the carpenter’s hammer) – including related words, e.g.
life (e.g. my life’s ambition), and collective nouns (e.g. the family’s
decision).
“Higher” animals (e.g. the dogs’ collars).
Geographical names (e.g. Sweden’s future).
Some expressions of time and measurement (e.g. an hour’s drive).

The genitive may classify nouns in a few cases, where Swedish
compounds the two nouns instead (e.g. Susan Mayer writes children’s
books; Swedish barnböcker).
NOTE. See the handout to Lecture 3 for the error in a Methodist
girl’s school (correct form: a Methodist girls’ school) on p. 117.

The form of the genitive:
Singular: add -’s to the singular form (e.g. the teacher’s handouts);
if the noun is a personal name ending in -s the “extra” genitive -s
is often optional (e.g. Dickens’ novels or Dickens’s novels). Some
set expressions are also exceptions (e.g. for goodness’ sake).
Plural: only add -’ to the plural form if the plural ends in -s (e.g.
the teachers’ handouts); otherwise, add -’s (e.g. the children’s toys).
With a very few exceptions, do not add an apostrophe to nongenitive plurals.
The of construction:

The of construction is used:
With nouns that do not take the genitive (see above) (e.g. the
colour of the boat).
With adjectives as heads of noun phrases (the plight of the
unemployed). The genitive is not possible here.
The “double” genitive combines both constructions (two friends of my sister’s).
2 Articles
Articles are the most frequent determiners in noun phrases.
The form of the articles:
o
Indefinite – a /eI, @/ before consonant sounds, an /&n, @n/ before vowel sounds
(e.g. a house, a union /"ju;nI@n/, an orange, an honour /"Qn@ || "A;n@r/).
o
Definite – the (/Di;, D@/ before consonant sounds, /Di;, DI/ before vowel sounds).
The indefinite article:
o
Usage:

The main function of the indefinite article is to introduce something new.
4
Erik Smitterberg ([email protected])
Dept. of English, Uppsala University
A1/HS1/T1 Grammar
Spring Term 2012

o
The indefinite article is only used with singular countable nouns.
One exception is the uncountable noun knowledge (e.g. A good
knowledge of German is useful in Central Europe).

The indefinite article introduces a singular countable noun (e.g. A onearmed man was running from the scene of the crime).

The indefinite article can describe a singular countable noun generically
(e.g. A computer can beat anyone at checkers).

The indefinite article is used in a Ps or Po when someone is classified as
regards occupation, religion, ethnicity, politics, etc. (e.g. I want to become
a linguist; cf. Swedish Jag vill bli Ø språkvetare.) The indefinite article is
also usually used after as (e.g. I have worked as a teacher; cf. Swedish Jag
har arbetat som Ø lärare.)
Exception: unique offices etc. (e.g. As Ø Prime Minister, Churchill
led the UK during WWII; Churchill was Ø Prime Minister between
1940 and 1945).

The indefinite article corresponds to Swedish per or i in expressions such
as You should take this medicine six times a day.

The indefinite article is used with singular countable nouns in many
expressions where Swedish has no article. See also Appendix 3 in UGE!
Word order – differences from Swedish:

The indefinite article follows such and what (e.g. He’s such a gifted child).

The indefinite article follows adjectives used with as … as, how, however,
so, and too (e.g. This is too serious a problem for us to solve it today).

The indefinite article follows no + comparative adjective (e.g. This is no
worse a situation than the last one).

The indefinite article often follows quite and rather (e.g. This is quite an
important section of the grammar book), and sometimes half.
The definite article:
o
The main function of the definite article is to point to something that the
hearer/reader is familiar with:

Something already mentioned, explicitly or by association (e.g. A new
dictionary has been published. The dictionary is very useful, and the author
has done a good job).

Something which can be identified by the context of the situation (e.g. If
you have to use the gun, aim for the legs).

Something which is generally familiar (e.g. We always listen to the radio).

Often with nouns that are identified by a postmodifier (e.g. I will never
forget the book that I read last year).

Unique entities (e.g. The earth revolves around the sun).

With a singular countable noun to refer generically to an entire class of
entities (e.g. The polar bear is an endangered species).
5
Erik Smitterberg ([email protected])
Dept. of English, Uppsala University
o
o
A1/HS1/T1 Grammar
Spring Term 2012
Uses where the definite form is typically not used in Swedish:

Some adjectives (e.g. She sang the same song this year).

Cardinal points (e.g. a warm wind from the West).

Grammatical terms (e.g. The story is told in the present tense).

Often musical instruments and dances (e.g. Can you dance the waltz?).
See Appendix 3 in UGE for more expressions and Appendix 2 in UGE for uses
of the definite article with proper nouns!
Zero/no article:
o
IMPORTANT: no article is used with uncountable nouns used in a generic
sense (‘in general’) (e.g. Ø Art mirrors Ø life vs. Konsten speglar livet) and plural
nouns used in a generic sense (e.g. Ø Prices have fallen lately vs. Priserna har
gått ned på sistone).

NOTE 1. A few exceptions to the above rules exist, e.g. the environment.

NOTE 2. The sense can be generic even if a premodifier occurs before the
noun (e.g. Ø British history is full of wars vs. Den brittiska historien är full av
krig).

NOTE 3. The definite article is used when the sense is specific (e.g. The art
produced in the 17th century has often been criticized).
o
Place names preceded by adjectives (e.g. I’m back in Ø medieval Visby vs. Jag är
tillbaka i det medeltida Visby).

But the definite article is used with the adjectives former and modern with
respect to borders (e.g. the former Czechoslovakia) and when the place
name is postmodified (e.g. the London of Shakespeare’s time).
o
Many places associated with human activity (e.g. I’m due in Ø court in five
minutes vs. Jag måste vara i rätten om fem minuter)

But articles are used with the actual buildings where the activity takes
place (e.g. The school was a tall red-brick building).
o
Some expressions of time with at, before, or by (e.g. We attack at Ø dawn vs. Vi
anfaller i gryningen).
o
Meals (e.g. Ø Dinner is served! vs. Middagen är serverad!).
o
Religions, ideologies, beliefs, etc. (e.g. Ø Communism suffered a severe blow in
1989 vs. Kommunismen fick ett tungt slag år 1989).
o
Seasons that are discussed in general (e.g. Ø Spring has finally arrived vs. Våren
har äntligen kommit).

But articles are used before seasons that are postmodified by an ofphrase (e.g. the summer of ’69) or preceded by during (e.g. during the
winter).
o
Often in “headlinese” (e.g. Ø Killer Bug Fear Hits Ø Conference).
o
See Appendix 3 in UGE for more expressions!
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