Government Communication
2007/08:67
Sweden and Africa — a policy to address
common challenges and opportunities
Govt Comm.
2007/08:67
The Government hereby submits this Communication to the Riksdag.
Stockholm, 6 March 2008
Fredrik Reinfeldt
Carl Bildt
(Ministry for Foreign Affairs)
Main contents of the Communication
In the present communication to the Riksdag 1 , the Government
proposes a policy for Africa which reflects and builds on the positive
changes Africa has undergone in the last ten years, and which
acknowledges the changes that have taken place over the same period in
Africa’s relations with the rest of the world, including Sweden. Its point
of departure are the processes of change and development in Africa. It
provides an account of the challenges and opportunities facing the
continent in its fight against poverty and efforts to achieve sustainable
development. It also discusses the foreign policy framework governing
Sweden’s actions as well as the many available instruments and channels
for cooperation with Africa. Particular emphasis is given to the key role
played by the strategic partnership between Africa and the EU.
The Government proposes an Africa policy whose purpose is to
support African countries and their people in their quest for peace,
democracy, respect for human rights and economically, socially and
environmentally sustainable development; to help Africa achieve full and
active participation in ongoing global political and economic
cooperation; and to broaden areas of contact between Sweden and Africa,
and thereby promote Swedish and African interests.
The communication reflects a broad approach to development in
Africa, in which security policy, aid policy and trade policy, and
1
The Swedish Parliament.
1
initiatives in areas such as climate and the environment, economic Skr. 2007/08:67
growth, social development and health are viewed, and treated, as an
integrated whole. It places particular emphasis on the importance of
stronger democracy, respect for human rights and freedoms, and greater
equality between men and women.
A basic premise of Sweden’s Africa policy is the continent’s
responsibility for its own development. The initiatives, programmes and
measures implemented by the rest of the world, including Sweden, must
be designed to support and encourage assumption of that responsibility.
Sweden’s Africa policy must rest on and promote a broad, active and
effective commitment in Swedish society to Africa’s development and
close collaboration between government and non-government actors.
The present communication, drawn up in accordance with the
Parliamentary Committee on Foreign Affairs Report No. 2005/06:UU2,
reflects developments in Africa and its cooperation with the world
community since 1997-98, when the Government last presented a
communication to the Riksdag on Africa. The measures announced in the
communication do not entail expenditures outside the framework
estimated in the central government budget.
2
Table of Contents
1
Introduction...................................................................................... 4
2
Africa today ..................................................................................... 5
3
Sweden’s position and policies: points of departure ...................... 21
4
Swedish cooperation with Africa ................................................... 29
4.1
Growth for poverty reduction and sustainable development
................................................................................... 29
4.1.1
Trade, regional integration and business
development ................................................... 30
4.1.2
Agriculture...................................................... 33
4.1.3
Energy and infrastructure ............................... 34
4.1.4
Research ......................................................... 36
4.2
Peace and security in a new regional context .................. 38
4.3
Democracy and human rights – development opportunities
................................................................................... 43
4.4
Gender equality – development on the same terms ......... 47
4.5
Environment and climate – national, regional and global
challenges and opportunities ........................................... 49
4.6
Development opportunities for the individual................. 53
4.6.1
Health ............................................................. 54
4.6.2
Education........................................................ 55
4.6.3
Migration and asylum..................................... 56
4.6.4
Culture ............................................................ 58
4.7
Trade and economic cooperation..................................... 59
5
Summary and conclusions ............................................................. 63
Skr. 2007/08:67
Key to abbreviations used in the text
Extract from the minutes of the Cabinet Meeting of 6 March 2008
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1
Introduction
Skr. 2007/08:67
Africa’s development is a common global concern. It is also one of the
Swedish Government’s foremost foreign policy priorities. As a
cooperation partner, Africa offers a multiplicity of opportunities and
challenges. Development in Africa is multi-faceted; the last decade has
witnessed a number of new trends of crucial significance to the
continent.
To an increasing extent, Africa has the capacity and resources to turn
its vast potential to account. Development is improving people’s
prospects of changing their lives and enabling African countries to
benefit from the advantages of globalisation. In many African countries,
living conditions for children, women and men are improving –
economically, socially and politically. Growth is picking up, democracy
is deepening and previously war-torn areas are experiencing increased
stability. Poverty, oppression and conflict remain widespread and hinder
development, and in many areas the continent still lags behind. In many
parts of the continent, however, the favourable trends prevail. A stronger
Africa is emerging and African self-confidence is growing.
The new realities of African development have brought a change in the
way the EU and the world as a whole approach Africa, and a
corresponding change in Africa’s approach to the world. The 2007
Africa-EU Summit was a manifestation of the mutual desire to establish
and maintain an equal relationship and address regional and global
challenges together, and of a willingness to be guided in this deeper
cooperative endeavour by common, strategic priorities.
Development in Africa, the new common approach to Africa-EU
relations and Sweden’s long tradition of close cooperation with Africa
are key points of departure for Sweden’s Africa policy. Central to this
policy is Sweden’s global development policy and its emphasis on the
need for coherent action to achieve the policy’s objectives of equitable
and sustainable global development. For cooperation with Africa,
Sweden has at its disposal a wide range of mutually supportive
instruments in the security, development and trade policy spheres.
Swedish actors possess highly sought-after knowledge and expertise in
key sectors such as the environment, science, health and infrastructure in
general. To implement the policy, Sweden also has access to a broad
selection of channels and forms of cooperation.
The Swedish Government accordingly intends to pursue a policy for
Africa aimed at:
–
supporting the countries of Africa and their inhabitants in their
efforts to foster peace, democracy, respect for human rights and
economically, socially and environmentally sustainable
development,
–
helping Africa achieve full and active participation in global
economic and political cooperation on common challenges, and
4
–
broadening areas of contact between Sweden and Africa and
thereby promoting Swedish and African interests.
Skr. 2007/08:67
The present communication is concerned with policy on sub-Saharan
Africa. The countries of North Africa, excluding Morocco, are of course
members of the African Union (AU), and extensive inter-regional
cooperation takes place in this forum. However, North Africa’s
orientation towards the Arab world and the Mediterranean sets it apart
from sub-Saharan Africa. For example, the former has separate
instruments, such as the Barcelona process, for cooperation with the EU.
Even today, the Saharan desert acts as a barrier to integration between
Northern and Southern Africa. The present communication accordingly
focuses on countries south of the Sahara and, unless otherwise stated,
‘Africa’ is used here to refer to these countries.
2
Africa today
There is no one picture of Africa, nor, indeed, one Africa. Development
is heterogeneous and varies widely from country to country and from one
population group to another. Nevertheless, certain general features and
trends may be identified. Economic growth rates are rising, armed
conflicts are fewer in number and African countries are increasingly
assuming responsibility for their development. The challenges are partly
global, partly peculiar to the African continent and, in a regional
breakdown, specific to the heterogeneous conditions obtaining in the
different countries.
Growth and development in Africa
Economic growth is a condition of sustainable development and the fight
against poverty. Large parts of Africa have extensive resources and
comparative advantages in terms of growth potential. Many countries are
also pursuing macroeconomic and growth-generating policies which are
increasingly contributing to and benefiting from the changing conditions.
At the same time, tensions created by major social divides could threaten
prospects for growth.
Today, rates of economic growth in most African countries are higher
than for many years, and higher than in other parts of the world. The
countries with the highest rates of growth are those with natural
resources, in particular the oil producing nations. In recent years, the
countries of Africa have enjoyed an average annual growth rate of 6 per
cent. This stands in stark contrast to progress in previous decades.
Between 1960 and 2005, real income per capita rose by only 25 per
cent in Africa, while the average Asian enjoyed real income growth of
several hundred per cent. This has materially affected people’s chances
of improving their living conditions. Current trends, however, hold out
hope for the future. A picture is emerging of a continent with good
growth potential and better prospects of combating poverty on the basis
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of its own, growing resources. Nevertheless, it is a fact that the current Skr. 2007/08:67
growth rate figures start from very low initial levels. If it is to have a
decisive impact on poverty, the growth rate must be higher than at
present for the continent as a whole and continuous over longer
consecutive periods.
Poverty remains a dominant factor in most African countries and the
lives of its people. More than 40 per cent of the population still live in
extreme poverty, i.e. on less than one USD per day. Large parts of Africa
will fail to meet the eight UN Millennium Development Goals by 2015,
namely to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
halve world poverty and hunger,
achieve universal primary education,
promote gender equality and empower women,
reduce child mortality by two thirds,
reduce the maternal mortality ratio by three quarters,
halt the spread of HIV/AIDS other major diseases,
ensure environmental sustainability, and
develop a global partnership for development through closer
cooperation between rich and poor countries on development aid,
the environment, trade and debt cancellation.
While the prospects of achieving the Millennium Development Goals
are particularly darkened by countries in conflict, even in some of
Africa’s stable countries there are areas that suffer from deep poverty and
lack of development. The situation calls for greater efforts by African
and international actors to ensure that the higher growth also benefits the
most vulnerable groups in African society. The complex interrelationship
between growth and health is attracting increasing attention. Although
the outlook is brighter with regard to the spread of disease in certain
countries, the ravages of HIV/AIDS continue to undo the results of many
years of development work and impair prospects for future development.
If the Millennium Goals are to be achieved sooner, better use must be
made of the many opportunities that exist in Africa. However, although
the potential is there, many obstacles will need to be removed before
people can fully benefit from it. It is a matter of utilising all the
continent’s resources, generating growth and distributing resources
effectively. It is also a matter of creating societies and states based on the
rule of law, which respect human rights, safeguard the role of women in
development, offer participation on equal terms and are capable of
providing security for their citizens. Finally, it is a matter of exploiting
the opportunities offered by globalisation and turning the support of the
world community to account, in order to promote development and
poverty reduction.
Africa’s natural resources and the interests of the surrounding world
Africa’s growth potential and abundance of natural resources is drawing
an increasingly wide response from the surrounding world. This growing
interest is exemplified by China’s involvement in Africa. However,
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India, Brazil, and other countries in the South are also stepping up their Skr. 2007/08:67
activities on the continent. Investment, credit and the export of African
natural resources have given a major stimulus to African development,
and often include third country support for the development of African
infrastructure.
Africa’s attractiveness can be described in economic terms. Between
2002 and 2006, net capital inflows, including direct investment, in subSaharan Africa rose from USD 10 billion to USD 36 billion. The
continent has assumed greater strategic significance to the rest of the
world given the latter’s need to secure access to natural resources and
export outlets. In this sense, Africa forms an integral part of the
globalised world of our time.
However Africa’s natural resources are unevenly distributed; many
countries have few or no mineral assets whilst others possess immense
deposits. Moreover, there is a risk in countries which derive large export
incomes from resource exploitation that the profits will be concentrated
in the hands of the few. If growth is to contribute to sustainable
development it must be broad-based, encompass all aspects of social
development and benefit the poor to a greater extent than at present. It is
essential that Africa’s young people have access to education and
productive jobs so that they, too, can benefit from economic growth and
thereby contribute to its management and further development.
In addition to spreading prosperity to the mass of the people, many
African countries still face the task of diversifying their economies and
guaranteeing more – and more productive – employment opportunities.
The private sector must be developed, efficient, transparent markets
established and legal systems, including property rights, strengthened.
Countries disproportionately dependent on the export of raw materials
need to further develop alternative export sectors. Another major
challenge is to convert the potential residing in Africa’s vast energy
resources, particularly solar energy and hydropower, into increased
electricity production and use to support economic growth.
Domestic resources, foreign investment and aid
Mobilisation of domestic resources is crucial to Africa’s long-term
development. More capital is being generated in Africa as growth
increases, along with demand for African goods and services and rising
prices for natural resources and agricultural produce. A higher
percentage of income is being reinvested. The investment ratio (in
relation to GDP) for Africa as a whole is 22 per cent, the highest level
ever. However, in light of the ratios for South Asia and East Asia (31 per
cent and 38 per cent respectively), this needs to rise even further to
ensure rapid, long-term growth.
Mobilisation of domestic resources also includes the ability of African
governments to generate their own revenue. No African country has a tax
take below 10 per cent of GDP. However, in view of the economic
advantages of the tax system compared for example to tariff revenues,
this percentage should be raised. Total budget revenue has risen sharply
and now stands at an average 26 per cent of GDP, excluding aid. This
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applies to the less resource-rich countries as well. Government income Skr. 2007/08:67
generation is dependent on public trust in the tax collection system and
respect for government institutions.
Sustainable development is predicated on the improved ability of
African countries to support themselves. Aid dependency can be reduced
over time through integration into the global economy, effective
mobilisation of domestic resources and increased investment and
remittances. At the present time, however, development aid is a vital
resource for many of Africa’s poor, and aid commitments and
disbursements from the international community are on the increase. Aid
flows to sub-Saharan Africa rose from just over USD 13 billion in 2000
to over USD 32 billion in 2005. Although debt cancellation accounted
for a large share of this expansion, aid flows have shown a generally
upward trend. Aid as a percentage of GNI rose from 4.1 percent in 2000
to 5.5 per cent in 2005. The World Bank is the biggest single multilateral
aid donor; its contribution through the International Development
Association (IDA) accounts for approximately 40 per cent of the total
volume of multilateral aid. The EU, with 35 per cent of the total volume,
is the next largest donor, followed by UN aid organisations, with 13 per
cent.
Many heavily indebted countries in Africa have received significant
debt relief, including total cancellation of their debt to the International
Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank and the African Development
Bank. This has led to a reduction in expenditure on interest and capital
repayment from an equivalent of 17 per cent of export earnings at the end
of the 1990s to 4 per cent today. In cases of debt restructuring, it is
important to ensure that previous mistakes are not repeated by allowing
new loans to add uncontrollably to the debt burden of African countries.
To this end, the World Bank and the African Development Bank have
introduced a system which takes debt burdens into account when issuing
new loans.
The trend with respect to foreign investment is clear. Inflows of
foreign capital are accelerating, with interest focused particularly on
countries rich in natural resources. The rate of return on investment in
Africa has reached record-high levels – around 25 per cent. However,
this mainly reflects the need for high returns given high transaction costs
and the higher cost of investment in Africa. In many places, there is a
need to develop domestic policies aimed at generating more growth,
remove supply-side constraints, effect improvements to the legal system
and regulatory frameworks, and step up the fight against corruption in
public authorities and companies. A number of African countries are
undergoing rapid reform. Among the more reform-oriented countries
singled out by the World Bank in recent years are Rwanda, Tanzania and
Ghana.
However, rapid reforms in the economic sector are not always
followed by equally rapid political and social reform. It is not easy to
heal the deep wounds so often inflicted on the people of Africa
throughout history, wounds which have split whole nations and can so
easily be reopened and exploited by political interests. The genocide in
Rwanda, which occurred a mere fourteen years ago, is one example.
Only if priority is given to reconciliation and deeper democratic
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development can economic reforms rest on stable foundations. If this is Skr. 2007/08:67
not done, development could rapidly move backwards, even in countries
perceived from the outside as reform-oriented and stable.
Stable institutions and local democracy based on grass-roots support
are essential if democratic gains are to be deep and long-lasting.
Similarly, this calls for a political culture based on dialogue and public
discourse that fosters tolerance. Civil society and independent media
have a key role to play in democracy and reconciliation.
Trade and regional integration
Growing international trade, and the ability to benefit from the potential
of globalisation, are a major growth engine for the African economies.
Africa as a whole has long had difficulty competing in the growing
global market. Between 1980 and 1995, Africa’s share of world trade fell
from 6 to 2 per cent. Only in recent years has Africa succeeded in
maintaining its share of rising world trade, and even increasing it
somewhat. There is reason to believe that Africa’s share will continue to
grow, particularly as several of the world’s new growth markets are
actually located in Africa, and in view of growing interest in the
continent. Moreover, it is anticipated that the Economic Partnership
Agreements (EPAs) currently being negotiated between the countries of
Africa and the EU will be a powerful instrument for promoting increased
trade and investment. Within a few years, all the sub-Saharan countries
except four will have full access to the EU Internal Market under the
Everything But Arms Initiative (EBA) and the EPA.
Africa’s wealth is increasingly derived from oil, gas and minerals.
Present record-high prices have contributed to the current interest in
Africa on the part of the rest of the world. There is nothing to suggest
that this trend will decline in the near future; on the contrary, rising
demand is predicted in many parts of the world. Natural resources
already generate considerable income, but the potential is even greater.
The challenge for many African nations is to extract their resources
sustainably and ensure that a larger share of the earnings generated stay
in the countries and benefit their populations through broad social
development programmes. World market prices of food are also at
record-high levels, a development which is helping to generate increased
export income for Africa as a food exporter. Coffee is a case in point.
However, global trade is not the only driving force for the development
of Africa’s potential. Boosting regional exchange is equally important.
At present, intra-African trade only accounts for 10 per cent of the total
trade of all African countries; the corresponding figure for Western
countries is 20 per cent and for Asian countries 40 per cent. A major
challenge in this connection is the inadequate infrastructure in many
African countries. Moreover, landlocked countries seeking to develop
export industries and trade face even greater difficulties, or higher costs.
Deeper regional integration in Africa offers immense potential for
growth and welfare and is an important factor for peace. Cooperation
within Africa is being gradually strengthened through regional
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agreements on the harmonisation of tariffs and regulations aimed at Skr. 2007/08:67
facilitating cross-border trade and investment. The Southern Africa
Development Community (SADC) is working for the establishment of a
free trade area in 2008, a customs union in 2010 and a common market in
2016. In West Africa, the Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS) is seeking to establish a customs union and a common
market, while in East Africa, ambitious integration plans have been
drawn up by the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
(COMESA) and the East African Community (EAC). However, the full
economic and political potential of these regional commitments has not
been exploited. It is hoped that the African Union (AU) will be able to
act as a kind of continental catalyst for the promotion of regional
integration and development. However, this effect remains to be
achieved.
In addition, efforts should be made to increase the level of processing
and thus the local added value of products. African countries have the
ability to process products locally in a number of areas and thereby
generate income and employment. Decisive factors in this connection are
increased stability, better governance, a developed infrastructure and the
assumption of social responsibility by all parties concerned, including
foreign enterprises. Growth-friendly policies and further private sector
development will play a key role here.
Agriculture
The importance of processing and adding value to products locally
applies particularly to agriculture. Agriculture and fishing are still the
mainstay of the economy in many African countries, both in terms of
people’s livelihoods and share of GDP. In a number of countries,
agriculture is by default the engine of economic growth. GDP growth
and productivity gains in agriculture contribute effectively to poverty
reduction and, over time, help free up human resources which can then
contribute to other spheres of the economy such as industrial
development. Africa’s immense agricultural potential is vital and its
realisation crucial to achieving the first Millennium Development Goal
of halving extreme poverty and hunger by 2015.
The challenge here is to affect a long-term, sustainable increase in
agricultural productivity. The average yield from a given area of arable
land in Africa is only half the average yield in the whole of the
developing world and only one fifth as high – in terms of volume and
income – as in the Western world. While in Asia yields have tripled since
1960, in Africa they have remained almost unchanged. This is also a
contributing factor in the undernourishment prevailing in many African
countries, where more than 35 per cent of their respective populations are
affected. The right to food, that is to say regular access to food which is
nourishing, sufficient and culturally appropriate, is neglected in Africa,
and women are particularly vulnerable.
If agricultural yields and income are to improve, domestic reforms
must be put in place and capital build-up must gradually increase. Efforts
must be made to improve conditions for the agricultural population,
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or cultivate. Fair, non-discriminatory and effective land and property
rights as well as other reforms aimed at promoting agricultural and wider
rural development are vital to socio-economic development.
If farmers are to deem it worthwhile to raise productivity, they must
have secure local and international outlets for their products. Moreover,
the world market for agricultural products must be reformed; subsidies
and tariff barriers must be minimised so that African countries can
participate more fully in international trade and access more outlets for
their products. In some cases, developing countries may need a
transitional period after entering into a trade agreement.
Millions of Africans are directly or indirectly dependent on fishing,
both as a source of income and protein. Fish exports are vital in
maintaining employment and income in the developing countries,
particularly in poor coastal areas. The value of fish exports now exceeds
that of traditional goods such as coffee, rice and tea. However, a
significant proportion of imports from developing countries take place
through provisional tariff reductions and quotas, and are complicated by
procedures for the approval of sanitary provisions.
Environment and climate
An increasingly present threat to development in Africa is the changing
ecological outlook and, in particular, the threat of climate change. Africa
may be the hardest hit continent despite its minimal contribution to the
problem. This not only poses a crucial challenge for Africa’s own
leaders; it also represents a responsibility for the world’s rich countries.
Desertification, climate change and inadequate planning are resulting in
the destruction of valuable agricultural land and fish stocks. This, in turn,
breeds poverty. Africa’s chances of achieving sustainable economic
growth are inextricably linked to progress in protecting the environment
and preventing climate change.
Many Africans are closely or directly dependent for their livelihoods
on arable land, predictable weather patterns, access to water and the
preservation of biological diversity. They have few, if any, other options
when the environment is damaged and natural resources are depleted.
Margins are narrow and ecological stresses markedly increase people’s
vulnerability to poverty. At the individual level, poverty in turn often
contributes to a failure to manage and develop natural resources and the
environment in a long-term, sustainable manner. Thus environmental
problems create greater poverty, which in turn hinders efforts to protect
the environment.
Although Africa contains 10 per cent of the world’s fresh water
resources and 11 per cent of the world’s population, 300 million Africans
– almost every other person – have no access to clean water, with all that
this entails in terms of health, poverty, etc. Almost three quarters of
Africa’s city dwellers live in slums, in conditions of severe poverty and
polluted environments. The development of the chemical industry and
the sale of chemical and electronic waste to Africa is already having
severe repercussions on local ecologies and health. The problem is
11
further aggravated by global climate changes. Although Africa’s Skr. 2007/08:67
contribution to climate change has been marginal the continent has been
widely affected. Equipping societies to deal with these unavoidable
environmental changes is both difficult and costly for many African
countries.
This downward spiral must therefore be halted as quickly and
effectively as possible. Forests, renewable energy sources such as sun
and wind, agriculture, fishing, coastal areas, fresh water resources,
biological diversity, fossil fuels and minerals – all these are areas of great
potential for Africa’s development. Some of these areas already lie,
wholly or in part, behind the growth which has taken place in recent
years. Properly used, Africa’s vast natural assets afford a ready basis for
rapid economic growth and the fulfilment of the UN Millennium
Development Goals.
That said, a policy of sustainable development involves deliberate,
often difficult, political decisions and effective, concrete measures on the
part of African countries and the international community. Such
measures must take account of the close interrelationship between peace,
freedom, democracy and respect for human rights and effective
environmental action and sustainability in all areas of development in
Africa and elsewhere in the world.
Peace and security
Much of the history of the African continent and its people is a long,
arduous chronicle of colonialism and struggles for independence.
Independence, when it came in the 1950s and 1960s, left many countries
impoverished and with a weak state apparatus. The political systems
chosen were often characterised by top-down governance, abuse of
power and excessive reliance on a planned economy, all of which
prevented lasting development. The repercussions of the Cold War
caused further havoc. The 1990s and the end of that conflict marked a
turning point. Interest in Africa and its resources was initially limited.
Several prolonged conflicts were allowed to continue unchecked and
others were ignited when power bases shifted. Hostility and antagonisms
were fuelled by security policy and economic interests. Serious breaches
of international law were perpetrated.
Today, the picture is brighter. There is a clearly observable trend
towards peace and security in large parts of Africa. The number of armed
conflicts has dropped by almost half since the beginning of the 1990s.
Eleven major armed conflicts were being waged in Africa in 1999, most
of them within countries. In 2005, the number had fallen to three. The
number of African countries where an internal conflict was taking place
fell from 15 in 2002 to 8 in 2005.
With the exception of Zimbabwe, Southern Africa has enjoyed
peaceful conditions and governance structures that reflect democratic
values despite the continuing fragility of its states. Devastating wars were
followed by peace in Mozambique at the beginning of the 1990s and in
Angola after the turn of the century.
12
Central Africa is also experiencing greater security. The calamitous, Skr. 2007/08:67
long-drawn-out war in the Great Lakes region, involving the Democratic
Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Burundi ended in a regional peace
accord in 2006. However, the peace process remains precarious. In
eastern Congo violence is still widespread and women are systematically
abused. There is still a serious lack of respect for human rights
throughout the country. A sustainable peace agreement also remains to
be worked out in northern Uganda, where the conflict has hit children
particularly hard. Important efforts are being made to bring those who
have committed the most serious crimes to justice.
Recent years have seen positive developments in West Africa. The
brutal wars that for many years wracked Liberia and Sierra Leone have
given way to normalisation, reconstruction and hopes of a lasting peace.
In stark contrast to this picture stand the tragic developments in the
Horn of Africa. The war in Somalia has brought death, displacement and
other hardships to an already suffering population. The war in Darfur has
claimed hundreds of thousands of lives and forced as many again to flee.
Darfur has witnessed some of the worst attacks on a civilian population
in over a century. There appears to be limited willingness on the part of
the parties involved to seek a solution. Aside from the ongoing wars, the
situation in the region as a whole is unstable. Relations between Ethiopia
and Eritrea in particular give cause for concern. While the peace
agreement between north and south in Sudan has laid the groundwork for
a peaceful resolution to the conflict, the peace process remains fragile
owing to inadequate implementation.
The growing commitment on the part of African countries to opposing
abuses and improving conditions in neighbouring states, the emergence
of an African security structure and the strengthening of regional and sub
regional institutions are highly significant developments.
Africa’s assumption of responsibility for conflict management
The African Union’s declared ambition is to contribute to conflict
resolution in the continent. Since it was founded in 2002, the AU has
built up an institutional structure and become an increasingly important
actor through its civil and military interventions. The establishment of a
Peace and Security Council as a permanent decision-making body in the
sphere of conflict management and peace support means that the AU
now has an independent body that stands above the individual member
states in core national sovereignty areas. The Council is supported by the
AU Commission, a consultative panel, an early warning system and an
African rapid reaction force, currently under creation.
Although the AU has not yet succeeded in intervening effectually in
any of the major conflicts, the organisation has acted as an arena for
diplomatic efforts in a number of instances and staged several
peacekeeping operations. Ongoing conflicts in Africa are discussed at top
level at the AU’s annual summit meeting. At sub regional level, the
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) has sought
wider responsibility for peace and security in the region. The same
applies to the cooperation body in Southern Africa, the Southern Africa
13
Development Community (SADC), and the Intergovernmental Authority Skr. 2007/08:67
on Development (IGAD) in the Horn of Africa.
Africa’s conflict resolution capacity must, and can, be further
strengthened. The AU has the potential to become a real peace project,
both as a promoter of deeper cooperation and integration and as a peace
support actor in cooperation with the UN and other bodies. However, the
AU’s ambitions as a regional organisation extend to other areas besides
peace and security. It is also expanding its capacity in the field of human
rights and democracy, and in the development sphere.
In 2007, the AU heads of state and government adopted the forwardlooking African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance.
Among other provisions, the Charter states that a change of government
in a State Party may only take place through transparent, free and fair
elections, and that AU sanctions shall be imposed automatically in cases
of unconstitutional changes of government. The Charter also stipulates
that State Parties shall strengthen and institutionalise constitutional
civilian control over the armed and security forces.
In 2002, the AU adopted the New Partnership for Africa’s
Development (NEPAD). NEPAD, which is both a vision and a strategic
framework, is underpinned by a set of basic ideas on what needs to be
achieved, in particular by the African countries themselves, in terms of
Africa’s development. Its main areas of concern are sustainable
development, poverty reduction, gender equality and the need to move
from marginalisation towards integration into the global economy. One
of its most important components is the African Peer Review Mechanism
(APRM), under which participating African countries undertake to
submit to assessments (peer reviews) by a panel appointed by the heads
of state and government of the participating countries to ascertain
progress being made towards democracy and good governance. A
number of countries, including Rwanda, South Africa, Kenya and Ghana,
have been assessed.
The African Commission on Human and People’s Rights, founded in
1987, has laid the foundation for the work of supervision, opinionmaking and advocacy work. The AU is in the process of establishing an
African Court on Human and People’s Rights, based in Arusha,
Tanzania. It is hoped that an independent court of this kind will play an
important role in the protection of human rights in the region and exert a
positive influence on national courts. The right of individual recourse
will allow the court to establish guiding precedents, as well as enable
African people to exercise their rights more fully.
Charters, agreements and undertakings concerned with democracy,
human rights, gender equality and the fight against corruption are
becoming increasingly important constituents of inter-African
collaboration. A great deal of institutional, political and practical work
remains to be done to ensure that policy commitments are followed up on
a broad front and, where necessary, developed. Politically and
symbolically important initiatives such as NEPAD need to make a
concrete, visible impact on African realities if they are to be fully
effective.
14
Democracy and human rights
Skr. 2007/08:67
In the last ten years, democracy has become more widespread in Africa.
A number of countries previously under one-party rule or totalitarian
regimes have seen movements towards democratic governance. In the
past decade, the media and civil society have had more freedom to act.
Free and fair elections have been held, in which opposition victories have
been respected and power has been transferred peacefully, as happened
recently in Liberia and Sierra Leone. Elections have even taken place in
such fragile and conflict-ridden countries as the Democratic Republic of
Congo. Leaders who prevent their citizens from exercising their
democratic rights are coming under closer outside scrutiny and their
positions of power are increasingly being called into question.
Effective national parliaments that can vigorously represent their
electorates and act as a check on the executive power are a precondition
of democratic governance. Although significant progress has been made
in this regard over the past 20 years, parliaments in Africa are generally
weak and overly dependent on the executive branch which they were
elected to supervise and hold accountable. Democracy requires increased
faith in pluralism, yet in some countries, elements of earlier one-party
thinking live on. This is often linked historically to the movements that
once led these countries to independence. These tendencies may be
observed in several countries in Southern Africa. By virtue of its rolemodel status, South Africa bears a special responsibility, and favourable
progress towards greater pluralism in South Africa will have a significant
impact on the region as a whole.
Freedom House, the international organisation for democracy, has
recently pointed to growing restrictions on freedom in 2007 in countries
like Nigeria, Mali, Niger, Chad, Congo-Brazzaville and Malawi. The
organisation notes, among other things, that ethnic friction and hostility
in Africa are stirred up by political leaders in their pursuit of power and
influence. Freedom of the press has also come under severe pressure in
many parts of Africa, and countries like Somalia, Zimbabwe and Eritrea
ended up at the bottom of the list in international surveys of press
freedom.
15
Freedom in sub-Saharan Africa 1976
Skr. 2007/08:67
7%
36%
57%
Not free countries, 25
Partly free countries, 16
Free countries, 3
Freedom in sub-Saharan Africa 2006
23%
29%
48%
Not free countries, 14
Partly free countries, 23
Free countries, 11
Comment on the figures: Freedom House’s category designations are based on
the degree of civil liberties and political rights in each country and include an
assessment of political rights and civil liberties based on the electoral process,
political participation, freedom of expression and opinion, rule of law, etc. The
assessment gives an indication of the situation in the country with respect to
democracy and human rights. Source: Freedom House, www.freedomhouse.org
Democratic governance is closely linked to respect for human rights
and the principles of the rule of law. Democracy is predicated on respect
for human rights, freedom of access to information and the ability to
participate on equal terms. The situation for those who live in Africa’s
conflict-ridden areas remains dire, and serious and widespread violations
of human rights and humanitarian law continue to be committed. For
example, a major proportion of the world’s child soldiers are recruited
and deployed in these countries.
Conflict areas, moreover, are often the scene of systematic sexual
violence, mainly against women, but also targeted at girls and boys. The
extent and consequences of sexual violence were laid bare in the course
of the conflict in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Another vulnerable group in and in the proximity of conflict areas are
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refugees and internally displaced persons. Their predicament can be so Skr. 2007/08:67
serious as to trigger a humanitarian crisis and spark further conflict, as in
the cases of Darfur/Sudan and eastern Chad.
But lack of respect for the rule of law, human rights and basic
freedoms is also prevalent in countries where conflict is absent.
Zimbabwe is a specific example. In addition, efforts must be made to
combat corruption, impunity from criminal legal accountability and
mismanagement. Democratic governance that strengthens the capacity of
public institutions is also a precondition of economic growth. African
countries must also assume responsibility for their own commitments to
economic, social and cultural rights. Public participation and legal
security must be enhanced. Weak institutions must be strengthened.
These efforts must be more fully mainstreamed into development
cooperation. The violence and political antagonisms that erupted in
Kenya after the elections in December 2007 illustrate the fragility that
exists even in African countries that have enjoyed greater political and
economic progress.
Justice and efforts to end impunity are essential to sustainable peace.
Prosecution of the wide-scale violations of international law, including
humanitarian law and human rights, committed in Rwanda, Sudan, Sierra
Leone, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda is essential to
peace and reconciliation. Although the rest of the world is involved
through the International Criminal Court and the special war crimes
courts for Rwanda and Sierra Leone, international efforts to bring people
to justice can only play a complementary role; the primary consideration
must be to establish effective national judicial systems charged with
preventing impunity. The process of reconciliation is also crucial in postconflict situations. Achieving a durable mix of efforts to bring about
justice, reconciliation and long-term stability is a challenge for the
international community.
People’s rights and their ability and potential to develop and contribute
to sustainable development must be turned to account more effectively as
much in order to create decent living conditions as to combat poverty
itself. Africa therefore needs to increase its investment in human
resources.
The role of women and equality between women and men
Some 750 million people live in sub-Saharan Africa. More than half are
women and girls. They are over-represented among the poorest sections
of the population and generally more vulnerable than men because of
gender-variant conditions and unequal distribution of resources, power,
influence and decision-making powers. Women make up 80 per cent of
the workforce in agriculture and only one in three women in Africa have
independent incomes outside agriculture. One in every 22 women in
Africa die of pregnancy- or birth-related causes, compared to 1 in every
7 300 in developed countries. Sexual violence, particularly in conflictaffected countries, and injurious customs such as genital mutilation and
early marriage remain a reality for a very large number of women.
17
The suppression of women’s freedom, empowerment and potential is Skr. 2007/08:67
hindering development at both individual and national level. The
systematic subordination of women must be halted and women must be
given the scope and means to realise their opportunities in life. The rise
in the number of women politicians in Africa is therefore a welcome
development. The proportion of women parliamentarians has grown from
7 per cent in 1990 to 17 per cent in 2007. In Liberia, the last presidential
election gave Africa its first female elected head of state, Ellen JohnsonSirleaf.
A gender equality perspective and the status and roles of women in the
context of development, peace and security, the exercise of human rights
and democratic governance must be mainstreamed into all policy areas to
ensure that policy commitments are translated into practice.
Children and young people
Africa has a young population. Children and young people are one of the
continent’s biggest assets. Many African countries nevertheless have
difficulty in living up to their commitments when it comes to children’s
rights. Here, as in many other areas, poverty and conflict are amongst
those factors that hit children the most. Children, especially girls, lack
access to healthcare and education and have no means of making their
voices heard or of ensuring that their rights are respected. However, the
proportion of children attending school is growing and child mortality
has decreased, albeit from a high initial level. Mortality among children
under five is still twice as high in Africa as in other poor countries.
National child strategies are often lacking despite the fact that all
African countries except for Somalia have acceded to the UN
Convention on the Rights of the Child. Since the African Charter on the
Rights and Welfare of the Child was adopted by the AU in 1999, a
number of countries in Southern Africa have incorporated objectives
relating to children in their poverty reduction strategies. However, the
link between goals and priorities in government expenditure must be
strengthened if these objectives and the UN Millennium Development
Goals are to be met. Access by girls and boys to food, healthcare and
education is crucial not only to their welfare as individuals but also to the
future development of the African continent as a whole.
While the young generation has never been larger, the birth rate is
falling and the proportion of older people in the population remains low.
This represents an immense potential for growth provided that efforts are
made to provide young people with education and employment. The
widespread prevalence of youth unemployment in many African
countries can give rise to social unrest, criminality and violence. By
implementing special measures targeted at young people and offering the
hope of a livelihood, the potential residing in these large groups of young
people can be used to the benefit of development in many African
countries.
18
Health, education and research
Skr. 2007/08:67
The health challenges in Africa are extensive and multi-faceted. Illhealth, sickness and lack of healthcare cause personal suffering, prevent
people from taking part in working, family or community life – or in
society at large – and hamper social and economic development. Poor
people run a greater risk of falling ill while sick people are at greater risk
of becoming poor.
HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and other poverty-related diseases
still account for the largest number of deaths in Africa. This has severe,
long-term adverse effects on socio-economic development. Most studies
indicate that the HIV/AIDS epidemic alone is responsible for reducing
the growth rate by approximately 0.5 per cent. Approximately 900 000
people die of malaria each year. However, it is not only these more
intractable epidemics that need to be addressed. Ordinary respiratory
tract infections, diarrhoeal diseases and undernourishment are still fatal
in many African countries, especially for small children.
To the task of dealing with communicable diseases must be added the
growing burden of non-communicable diseases. Coping with this
multiple burden of disease when the healthcare sector is already
overstretched is posing a major challenge. Sustainable systems that can
deliver care, prevent illness and disease and promote health are essential.
However, in many African countries such systems are very weak or only
available to certain groups in society.
Most African governments lack sufficient capacity or resources to
provide education for all. Millions of Africans remain outside the
education system. Moreover, African research capacity needs to be
developed so that it can contribute to sustainable development and
economic growth. Basic education and research capacity, combined with
innovation, are a precondition of poverty reduction and economic growth
in Africa.
Only in South Africa and Nigeria does the total number of research
workers exceed 600, as compared to 54 000 in Sweden. Despite
government ambitions, African research suffers from serious resource
and capacity constraints. Although capacity, quality and aims vary
widely from country to country, the deficiencies are in many cases so
large that the country’s research establishments are unable to meet
national needs.
At individual level, lack of education is directly linked to lack of
resources: not being able to forego income from work – including
income from children’s labour – so as to invest in education, or not being
able to afford books and school uniforms. Access to education in Africa
is sharply divided along income and class lines. This becomes
increasingly evident the higher up one goes in the education system. For
poor people, the chances of going on to post-primary education are
generally extremely limited. The prospects are even dimmer for girls,
people with disabilities and those living in post-conflict countries.
Ethnicity, language, and, in the case of girls, early pregnancy, their own
ill-health or a duty to care for relatives are other significant barriers to
access to education.
19
Migration
International migration, both within the African region and (mainly) to
Europe, is natural in an increasingly globalised world. Certain regions in
Africa are distinguished by a high level of mobility across porous
national borders. Migration has the potential to boost development both
in countries of origin and receiving countries, and is a major source of
economic opportunity. Migrants’ remittances – money transfers from
Africans working abroad – account for a growing proportion of capital
inflows to African countries. Available statistics show that the total value
of remittances in 2005 was USD 7 billion. The true figure, however, is
thought to have been considerably higher. It is estimated that the total
value of remittances to Senegal is equivalent to one third of the central
government budget. Migration also brings people and countries into
contact with one another and thereby facilitates the exchange of ideas,
culture and knowledge.
People who flee from their countries of origin due to persecution,
armed conflict or environmental disasters differ from other migrants in
that they are not voluntary migrants. Political failures that cause people
to flee their home countries are basically the responsibility of the
governments of those countries. If their own government is unable or
unwilling to provide protection, however, people have no option but to
leave the country. Africa accounts for one third of the world’s refugees,
and half of the world’s internally displaced persons.
Human trafficking between countries in Africa and between Africa and
other continents – a growing phenomenon and a brutal form of
exploitation of the most vulnerable individuals or groups – must be
combated and eventually prevented through economic development,
more and better livelihood options and better opportunities for people to
exercise their rights in their home country.
The difficulty experienced by some countries in keeping qualified
manpower can mean a loss of key resources for those societies and lost
investment in education. Although this ‘brain drain’ is not a widespread
problem, specific areas in some countries, such as the healthcare sector,
may be hard hit by emigration, in which case brain drain can have
serious repercussions. The underlying cause here is lack of jobs or poor
working conditions. Preventing migration is not a solution as people
often choose to migrate illegally where legal avenues are lacking.
Success in countering brain drain is ultimately a matter of democratic
institutions, respect for human rights, better livelihood options and
decent working conditions. Progress in this area presupposes greater
political awareness of the problem in the countries of origin.
In an Africa of greater freedom and security, stronger democratic
institutions and closer regional integration through the AU and sub
regional institutions, development can flourish and the continent’s
resources can be exploited and used sustainably.
Sweden’s and the EU’s positions and policies vis à vis Africa are
changing in response to the gradual, ongoing transformation of
conditions on the continent and in the rest of the world. We share a
common responsibility and interest in promoting development in Africa
as part of our commitment to development assistance, our interest in
Skr. 2007/08:67
20
trade, our work to promote peace and security, our support for human Skr. 2007/08:67
rights, and our efforts to safeguard the environment and the global
climate.
3
Sweden’s position and policies: points of
departure
Sweden’s foreign policy must contribute to freedom, peace and
reconciliation both in our own and in other parts of the world. It must be
based on recognition of the value and importance of promoting
democracy and human rights. The principle of free trade is a cornerstone
of our foreign and trade policies.
Swedish policy for Africa is based on the new development
cooperation framework, the need for poverty reduction and our global
development policy, which is aimed at promoting equitable and
sustainable development.
Sweden’s role
It is in Sweden’s interests to pursue an active policy in world affairs in
support of peace, security, democracy and development. Sweden’s
policies should benefit both Swedish and global interests.
Sweden’s development is closely interwoven with that of the rest of the
world. Thus development, security, stability, democracy and human
rights in Africa are also matters of concern for Sweden. Distance is of
little significance when it comes to climate change, environmental
threats, epidemics, international terrorism and war. Moreover, the
benefits of globalisation should be made available to more people.
Compared to other parts of the world, Africa has so far been unable to
take full advantage of globalisation so as to bring about broad and lasting
poverty reduction. Globalisation and increased trade can also break down
barriers to political dialogue, transparency and democracy. Helping
Africa benefit from the advantages of globalisation is therefore a
common interest.
Similarly, it is in Sweden’s interests to help develop the partnership
between Africa and the rest of the world, and to enable Africa to make a
more active contribution to constructive international solutions. All stand
to benefit from increased international trade, stronger action on the
environment, more democracy, or improved research and technological
development in the rest of the world.
Economic ties in the form of trade and investment benefit African as
well as Swedish commercial interests, a potential that should be
exploited more extensively. The Government intends to collaborate with
the private sector so as to protect and promote Swedish business relations
with Africa. Closer political contacts, cooperation in the international
arena and cultural exchange can be stimulated by and contribute to
stronger and deeper economic relations. This applies at all levels: local,
21
regional and national. Such initiatives can have a positive ‘domino’ Skr. 2007/08:67
effect on cooperation. The African diaspora in Sweden has a significant
role to play in the further development of political, economic and cultural
relations between Africa and Sweden.
Prospects for Sweden
Sweden’s long history of close cooperation with Africa offers an
exceptional platform and excellent conditions for a coherent policy on
Africa. In many parts of Africa, Sweden’s image is still associated with
its support during countries’ liberation struggles and its extensive
political and economic support to those, subsequently independent,
nations. Sweden’s lack of a colonial past in Africa and the fact that the
north European social model has served as an inspiration for many
African countries mean that Sweden is well placed to influence,
cooperate and act.
Sweden’s Africa policy builds on a broad set of factors that underpin
its framing and implementation, and often represent comparative
advantages: Sweden’s ability to take on global challenges, its
commitment to resolving climate issues, its openness to free trade and
liberalisation of the EU Common Agricultural Policy, its extensive
support for peacekeeping missions and its world-leading development
assistance programmes, the large number of leading Swedish enterprises
in sectors vital to African development, its committed NGOs, and the
growing number of Africans living in Sweden. Sweden’s membership of
the EU and its active involvement in the UN afford additional
opportunities for common action in priority areas. The Government is
actively promoting progress in this area in the EU, a key actor in
relations with Africa.
The general policy framework
The point of departure for Sweden’s Africa policy is Sweden’s Policy
for Global Development, which is aimed at promoting equitable and
sustainable global development. This goal, which impacts all policy
areas, not merely development aid cooperation, is predicated on the
assumption that development is based on a series of interacting factors
and thus requires a holistic approach. Two perspectives run through the
policy: a rights perspective and the perspective of poor people on
development. The policy is to be implemented in accordance with the
principle of the freedom and dignity of the individual, wherever he or she
may live. Whether in Sweden or Africa, development is driven by the
same underlying factors: peace and security, democratic governance, a
society effectively based on the rule of law, concern for the environment,
stable macro-economic conditions, an open economy, openness to
migration including return migration, gender equality, investment in
research, education and health. Thus, working effectively towards the
goal of equitable and sustainable development in Africa calls for
coordinated interaction across a wide range of factors in all policy areas.
22
This presupposes a coherent approach not only designed to heighten Skr. 2007/08:67
the effectiveness of development cooperation and the overall impact on
development, but which can also be applied to the policies pursued in the
EU, the UN and international financial institutions. Swedish policy is
framed and implemented in accordance with the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change, the UN Millennium Development Goals
and the EU’s Africa policy. Acting bilaterally, within the EU and through
multilateral actors, Sweden must endeavour to promote deeper
collaboration with Africa based on equal terms. Sweden seeks to achieve
breadth in its relations with Africa – a partnership that rests on jointly
developed goals and clear, mutually agreeable terms and conditions for
cooperation.
Development cooperation and poverty reduction are a cornerstone of
Sweden’s relations with the countries of Africa. Along with diplomatic
efforts and Sweden’s trade policy, they constitute the Government’s
primary instrument for promoting equitable and sustainable development
in Africa.
Sweden’s development aid policy, coordinated with those of other
donors in accordance with the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, is
implemented with a clear emphasis on African ownership of policies and
programmes. A central component of Sweden’s new aid policy is the
government decision to adopt a ‘country focus’ approach. Combined
with sectoral concentration, this approach allows Sweden to target
resources and know-how at African countries and sectors where its
programmes and projects will provide clearly defined added value and
where Swedish skills and know-how can do most good.
The Government has chosen to classify cooperation partners in Africa
to gain a clearer picture of the conditions and prospects for cooperation.
Countries are accordingly divided into those with which Sweden plans to
conduct long-term development cooperation, countries in conflict or
post-conflict situations, and countries where Sweden is implementing
alternative measures aimed at supporting human rights and democracy.
In addition, there is a group of countries where long-term development
cooperation is being phased out and replaced with selective cooperation,
including actor-driven cooperation. It is to be expected that as time goes
by countries will move from one group to another. In the case of
prioritised cooperation countries, regardless of which group they belong
to, long-term strategies are drawn up in close cooperation with the
country concerned and, on Sweden’s part, with relevant actors in the
public system, civil society and the enterprise sector.
Combating poverty and creating conditions in which poor people can
improve their lives by their own efforts remains the over-riding goal of
the Government’s aid policy. In its budget bill for 2008, the Government
has stated that development cooperation in all countries and sectors must
be guided and informed by three priorities: 1) democracy and human
rights, 2) the environment and climate, and 3) gender equality and the
role of women. While all three priorities are ends in themselves, together
they contribute to the over-riding goal of lifting countries out of poverty.
Efforts should be made to strengthen quality, efficiency and results
orientation in the planning, implementation and reporting of Swedish
development cooperation.
23
However, aid is only one – albeit a vital – part of the Government’s Skr. 2007/08:67
total, active commitment to peace, global development and poverty
reduction. Equally important is Sweden’s political commitment, and that
of private actors, to Africa’s development. The Government is anxious to
improve conditions for collaboration between government-sponsored
cooperation and the Swedish business sector without however departing
from the Swedish principle of non-tied aid. Swedish support to Africa is
developed in close dialogue with the countries concerned, their
governments, political parties and parliaments, as well as civil society,
the business community, NGOs, researchers, and actors in the cultural
world in Sweden and Africa. It is important in this connection to
encourage new forms of collaboration.
Diplomatic efforts aimed at deepening and broadening contacts with
African countries and leaders are central to the implementation and
effectiveness of Sweden’s Africa policy. Bilateral as well as multilateral
channels are needed to ensure broad political dialogue at different levels.
Like the bilateral agenda, the political dialogues conducted under EU
cooperation agreements, EU policy instruments and its meeting agenda
are vital to the development of well-informed relationships based on
mutual trust. For its part, Sweden should therefore seek to develop
contacts between Swedish and African public sector actors as well.
Diplomatic efforts for freedom, peace and reconciliation, at bilateral
and multilateral level, act as a complement to development cooperation
initiatives. Peacebuilding and state-building initiatives require action
across a broad spectrum of areas. Swedish participation in peacekeeping
operations and efforts to strengthen regional conflict management
capacity are important components of Sweden’s security and foreign
policy, and should also guide and inform Sweden’s Africa policy.
Trade policy, a central pillar of Sweden’s new Africa policy, is a
powerful instrument for development and the diffusion of economic
progress. Removal of barriers to trade in the rest of the world,
particularly in the agricultural sector, can mean a great deal to poor
people in Africa There are also immense benefits to be gained from free
trade between African countries. A major reason why only a few African
countries have succeeded in benefiting from globalisation is the presence
of extensive trade restrictions, including tariffs, which not only make it
difficult for people to augment their income but also increase the cost of
everyday items of consumption. Trade-distorting subsidies, including
export subsidies in the EU and other industrialised countries, can also
result in African products being out-competed in domestic markets.
Sweden is actively engaged through the EU in promoting the
establishment of a free trade system with fair, transparent and predictable
rules within the World Trade Organization (WTO). The circumstances
and development interests of developing countries should be taken into
particular consideration in order to facilitate their integration into the
global economy. Trade relations are being strengthened through
negotiations between the EU and countries in Africa on broad, prodevelopment EPA agreements, which in addition to market access cover
trade in services, regulations on investment and other trade-related
issues. In addition, Sweden undertakes active promotion efforts aimed at
boosting trade with and investment in Africa.
24
Both public and private initiatives are essential to broaden areas of Skr. 2007/08:67
contact and promote closer exchanges between our countries. Further,
more multifaceted contacts with Africa are needed in many areas in order
to effectively promote more open societies, economies and trade.
Instruments and channels
In the last decade, the European Union has emerged as an increasingly
important platform and framework for Swedish policies for and
commitments to Africa. The EU Common Foreign and Security Policy,
its policy on development aid and its trade policy undergo constant
development, and new policy instruments are continually being placed at
our disposal.
Sweden’s prospects of contributing to EU policies and gaining
recognition within the Union of its experience and priorities are good. As
a participant in the development of EU foreign, aid and trade policies for
Africa, Sweden has sought to promote more effective, coherent action in
accordance with international gaols and shared values. Sweden and likeminded parties in the Union must together seek to ensure that the EU’s
Africa policy and the strategic partnership between the EU and Africa are
further developed and deepened. The Swedish presidency of the EU
Council of Ministers in the second half of 2009 will be particularly
significant in terms of promoting a common EU approach to its Africa
policy.
The EU has at its disposal a range of aid, trade, foreign and security
policy instruments as well as common guidelines and action plans in
different policy areas. It is essential that these instruments work in
harmony. The EU’s role as a foreign policy actor is strengthened by the
Council’s conclusions and statements, and EU diplomatic representations
and actions. The 20-year cooperation agreement signed in Cotonou,
Benin in 2000 is an important instrument in EU relations with African
countries in terms of aid, consultation and political dialogue, as provided
by Articles 8 and 96 of the agreement. Trade cooperation between the
EU and African countries is regulated by EPA agreements negotiated by
the parties. Based on mutual respect, these are aimed at promoting and
safeguarding African development interests.
The relevance of the EU to Africa is growing in a number of respects.
The EU’s growing aspirations vis à vis Africa are a reflection of global
practical political and economic changes. Cooperation between the two
continents is expanding and taking on an increasingly equitable
character. This was apparent at the EU-Africa summit held in Lisbon in
December 2007 and the resulting agreement on a long-term Joint
Strategy and Action Plan for the period 2008–2010. The joint strategy
states that relations between the continents must be taken to a new,
strategic level based on strengthened political partnership and in-depth
cooperation in all areas. The principal instruments are to be closer
political dialogue and the establishment of specific partnerships in all
policy areas.
For the period 2008–2010, European-African cooperation will be
concentrated on eight areas: 1. peace and security, 2. democratic
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governance and human rights, 3. trade and regional integration, 4. the Skr. 2007/08:67
UN Millennium Development Goals, 5. energy, 6. global climate change,
7. migration, mobility and employment, and 8. research, IT and spacerelated matters. Each partnership also includes priority measures to be
implemented in the respective policy areas. Sweden will actively
contribute to the implementation of these eight EU-Africa partnerships
and ensure that they are reflected in its policies on Africa. Particular
importance will be attached to partnerships that reflect the priorities of
Sweden’s Africa policy. In addition to giving more concrete form to EUAfrica cooperation, these partnerships provide an opportunity to deliver
tangible results, to the benefit of African development and deeper
relations between the continents.
Together, the EU member countries and the European Commission are
among the world’s biggest aid donors. Helping to achieve the
Millennium Goals is the EU’s principal challenge with respect to Africa,
and the extended partnership between the EU and Africa will provide
added stimulus to this endeavour. Collaboration within the EU and
dialogue and cooperation with the European Commission are vital to
Swedish development cooperation, including trade-related cooperation,
with individual countries in Africa and the continent as a whole. EU and
Commission guidelines and Council conclusions on development
cooperation are of central importance to Sweden’s actions, and Sweden
has been seeking to ensure that these reflect Swedish policy.
The EU also extends loans to Africa through the European Investment
Bank (EIB). The EIB Investment Facility is used to finance
commercially run projects in the public sector, as well as projects in the
infrastructure and financial sectors, with the aim of promoting private
sector development. Sweden and other member states make the
Investment Facility and other programmes and projects possible through
their contributions to the European Development Fund (EDF) and via
state guarantees.
At global level, the United Nations and the financial institutions
remain key forums for the development of policies for Africa and
important instruments for policy implementation. The UN has developed
a far-reaching framework of resolutions and conventions of major
relevance to Africa.
Most of the countries in Africa have signed international conventions
on a range of issues including human rights and democracy, the
environment, peace and security, economic and social rights and
combating corruption. Apart from the fact that such commitments serve
as instruments in Sweden’s practical cooperation with these countries,
the UN system, through its normative work, provides an important forum
for dialogue in which African countries and Sweden can take an active
part.
Moreover, the UN Development Programme (UNDP) and the
organisation’s specialised agencies are often key actors in countries
where Sweden is active. The UNDP, the United Nations Children’s Fund
(UNICEF), the World Food Programme (WPF), the UN Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO)
and other UN agencies are highly important cooperation partners in the
field and often major channels of Swedish multilateral aid. The UN
26
conducts extensive humanitarian operations in Africa. Another Skr. 2007/08:67
important body is the UN Peace Building Commission, which works at
the interface between security and development to prevent countries from
lapsing back into conflict after a peace process has been initiated.
The international financial institutions, the IMF, the World Bank group
and the African Development Bank (ADB) are significant actors in
Africa. The World Bank and the ADB provide extensive financial
resources for Africa’s development, both through debt relief and new
resource flows in the form of soft loans and grants. The World Bank’s
coordinating tasks, analytical capacity and role as a knowledge bank are
also important functions, which together make the Bank a significant
dialogue partner in Africa. At the same time, African leaders emphasise
the need for strong ownership by the ADB, which is gradually growing
in strength as its reform efforts proceed. This tendency is likely to
continue, with the ADB becoming an increasingly important cooperation
partner for Sweden.
Sweden’s efforts to boost efficiency and relevance at central level, on
the boards of multilateral organisations, are intended to have an impact
on the organisations’ operations at country level. The point of departure
here is the Government’s Strategy for Multilateral Development
Cooperation. The work must therefore be reflected in dialogue in the
field between Swedish representatives and individual organisations, and
an effective link must be established between the two levels. Particularly
important in this respect are efforts by the UN system to strengthen its
internal coordination on the African continent, both in the field and in
connection with the activities of the World Bank, IMF, the ADB and
UNDP.
In the case of Swedish bilateral assistance, each cooperation strategy is
individually assessed to determine which multilateral organisations will
be relevant to Swedish support and priorities. The aim is to identify
opportunities for cooperation, including financial support, in the form of
multi-bilateral support, i.e. Swedish bilateral support through multilateral
initiatives.
The Nordic countries continue to be important contributors to an
effective Africa policy. The Nordic countries’ commitments in Africa
share similarities in terms of aims and fundamental approach, and often
complement one another in the field. They also maintain continuous joint
dialogue with selected African countries through informal annual
meetings at foreign minister level. The first ministerial meeting took
place at Sweden’s initiative in Stockholm in 2000. The purpose of the
meetings is to conduct talks with democratic countries in Africa on key
issues such as crisis management and conflict prevention, development
and the environment.
In addition to the activities of more traditional multi- and bilateral
actors in Africa, to which group the USA and Russia also belong,
consideration should also be given to those of new actors in Africa.
These include large and rapidly growing economies such as China, India
and Brazil. Their relations with Africa and collaboration with and within
multilateral organisations will also have an impact on Sweden’s Africa
policy.
27
The African intergovernmental organisations – both the AU for the Skr. 2007/08:67
whole continent and sub regional organisations such as SADC and
ECOWAS – are emerging as increasingly important cooperation partners
both for Sweden and the international community. The AU is growing
steadily stronger both as an organisation and as an actor, particularly in
the spheres of peace and security, human rights, democracy and
governance, and integration. Sweden must work for and through a
strengthened AU and the regional organisations in Africa.
28
Skr. 2007/08:67
4
Swedish cooperation with Africa
The aim of Sweden’s Africa policy is to support African countries and
citizens in their pursuit of peace, democracy and sustainable
development. This policy is designed to help Africa take a full and active
part in global political and economic cooperation on common challenges.
It is also intended to broaden areas of contact between Sweden and
Africa and thereby promote both Swedish and African interests.
4.1
Growth for poverty reduction and sustainable
development
Economic growth is a means of combating poverty and promoting
sustainable development.
After decades of lost growth, there are now signs that Africa may be
turning the corner. The conditions for growth – peace and political
freedom – are spreading on the continent, and sounder economic policies
are being framed. High growth figures indicate a real potential for
development. The Government intends to build on this foundation by
supporting the favourable trends now in evidence and to join with the
countries and people of Africa in their endeavour to realise their
ambitions.
Contributing to poverty reduction in Africa and thereby to the
achievement of the UN Millennium Development Goals is a matter of
high priority for the Swedish Government. It is also one of the principal
goals of the EU’s Strategy for Africa. Major challenges need to be
confronted before sustainable development for all the people of Africa
can become a reality. Sweden is accordingly intensifying its focus on
long-term poverty reduction and economic growth on the African
continent.
Economic growth is necessary to reduce poverty, protect the
environment and deal with the effects of climate change, as well as to
encourage personal development and initiative among individuals,
particularly young people, via education and productive employment. It
is also essential if Africa is to gain a stronger foothold in the global
market. Africa needs large-scale investments and a favourable
investment climate in order to boost economic growth and
competitiveness. Sustainable development presupposes peace,
democracy and respect for human rights, a well-managed environment,
favourable health trends and good educational levels. To ensure an
upward growth spiral, the resources generated in a growing economy
need to be distributed in such a way that they benefit the community as a
whole. Economic growth is thus a means of combating poverty and
promoting sustainable development.
Conditions for growth must originate and be firmly rooted in the
country in question. The principal responsibility for growth and
development ultimately lies with the African countries themselves.
29
Others can support and encourage the development of such conditions, Skr. 2007/08:67
but not create them. Support from the outside world must be aimed at
helping the country stand on its own feet and develop its potential on the
basis of its own conditions. Outside aid must neither direct nor supplant
the efforts of a developing country to lift itself out of poverty. Thus,
support measures aimed at switching the emphasis from aid to
cooperation and trade as soon as possible are the most desirable option.
4.1.1
Trade, regional integration and business development
Trade and regional integration are high on the African agenda for
growth, development and poverty reduction. Predictable trade regulations
give the countries of Africa a better chance to build up a more diversified
range of products and exports. Trade can also have a stabilising effect in
preventing conflict both between and within states.
The EU and Sweden must share with Africa their own knowledge and
positive experience of open trade. Trade and regional integration are
identified as strategic priorities in the Joint EU-Africa Strategy and
Action Plan for an economically stronger Africa with a recognised place
in the global market. Sweden can contribute both nationally and via the
EU to cooperation between the EU and Africa. As envisaged in the
strategy, this will focus on three principal areas: private sector
development, infrastructure and trade integration.
The Government will seek to ensure that aid from the European
Commission focuses more specifically on the key conditions for growth
– economic integration, regional cooperation and infrastructure – in line
with the Joint EU-Africa Strategy. Other important components are the
EU Aid for Trade Strategy – which seeks to use trade more effectively as
a means of promoting growth and poverty reduction – and intensified
cooperation in the statistical field aimed at helping policymakers to
coordinate African statistics as part of the African Charter for Statistics
programme.
The African Development Bank (ADB) and the World Bank are also
engaged in efforts to strengthen regional integration in Africa and
thereby promote growth. The Government supports these initiatives and
is seeking to ensure that input from different actors is efficiently and
effectively coordinated.
Sweden will continue to adopt a pro-free trade approach in the future
and to work within and through the EU to offer African countries and
others access to OECD markets both via the WTO rounds and other trade
agreements. The EU offers duty- and quota-free access via the
Everything But Arms (EBA) initiative and via the EPA-sponsored public
supplies agreements. The EPA process is to be moved forward by means
of broad, development-enhancing agreements that encompass market
access, investment rules, regional integration, services and other trade
policy issues. An area in which Sweden is strongly committed is support
for regional integration and cooperation in Africa, with the EPA as the
central development instrument. Sweden is pressing for the EU to grant
preferential market access, both in the EPA negotiations and in the
30
current WTO round of talks, to environment-friendly and climate- Skr. 2007/08:67
friendly technologies and products.
The EU and Africa are to work together to successively harmonise
regional trade, tariffs, industrial policies, laws, rules and procedures, and
to develop quality controls and standards in Africa that meet
international requirements. This is essential if the countries are to exploit
the market opportunities now open to them. Cooperation will
additionally focus on strengthening production capacity for
pharmaceuticals in accordance with international rules and controls, and
will promote access to cheap medicines and vaccines for significant
epidemics.
Sweden is also working on trade-related development aid, one of the
purposes being to make it easier for African countries to benefit fully
from EPAs. The countries need to strengthen their capacity to negotiate
and implement such agreements. One area of Swedish input is extensive
bilateral funding to the African trade institute TRAPCA in Tanzania. The
institute provides training to individuals working for public authorities,
institutions and the business community in developing countries with a
view to strengthening their negotiating capacity in international trade
matters.
In continuing to upgrade its trade-related support to African countries,
the Government will make use of the skills of Swedish agencies and
organisations. This applies to areas such as cooperation on the regulation,
administration and operational development of sanitary and
phytosanitary measures (to protect the health of people, animals and
plants), tariffs, taxes and statistics.
Trade-related development cooperation is to be based on the Aid for
Trade strategy. This specifies that the EU is to increase its trade-related
funding to EUR 2 billion in 2010, and that about half the increase is to be
made available to the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) states.
The Government is also anxious to promote closer cooperation
between the EU and Africa in international forums. In the short term, the
goal is to make concerted efforts to bring the current Doha development
round of WTO talks to a conclusion by emphasising common interests
such as reduced trade-distorting subsidies, increased market access,
lower tariff peaks, better anti-dumping rules, and reforms aimed at
simplifying trading procedures.
In high-growth countries with which Sweden engages in long-term
development work, wider opportunities are gradually being created for
mutually beneficial, self-supporting collaboration between actors. This
process needs to be launched at an early stage of long-term development
cooperation.
By virtue of its economic strength, South Africa is the commercial
entry point for, or the bridge to, many African countries. Sweden has
close bilateral ties with South Africa, and Swedish enterprise has a good
reputation in the country. Cooperation between the Swedish Trade
Council and South Africa’s Department of Trade & Industry aimed at
establishing sustainable, long-term ties in the fields of trade and
technology, but also at institutional level, can be developed further.
There are also grounds for testing new types of collaboration with South
Africa, such as tripartite or multipartite cooperation in various forms.
31
An account of the Government’s commitments with regard to the Skr. 2007/08:67
promotion of bilateral trade, new business starts and Swedish investment
in Africa is given in Section 4.7.
In the sphere of trade, regional integration and business development, the
Government intends:
–
to work actively in all contexts to promote open trade, including
increased participation in international trade and greater access to
EU markets for African countries, support wider African
membership of the WTO and encourage greater exchange
between African countries and the OECD,
–
to support African efforts to achieve better trade terms and
conditions, regional integration and harmonisation, a better
investment climate, enhanced production capacity, diversification
and reduced dependence on raw materials; and to encourage the
development of other conditions for economic growth and
participation in the global economy,
–
to seek to ensure through the EU that implementation of the EPA
process promotes development and supports Africa’s integration
agenda, using the work of the regional negotiating groups as
building stones,
– to promote the business and investment climate in its strategy
decisions, based on African growth strategies as they relate to
macroeconomic stability, better debt management capability,
productive employment and private sector development,
–
to include trade and regional integration in bilateral development
assistance and support to regional organisations to a greater extent
than at present, either in the form of a sector in its own right or as
an integral part of priority sectors in the focus countries,
–
to support African trade policy expertise in areas such as trade
procedures, trade and climate, technical standards, sanitary and
phytosanitary regulation, and capacity building to promote
industrialisation and the development of local capital markets,
microcredit institutes and guarantee systems, including those
specifically targeting women,
–
to help Africa strengthen its judicial sector and develop stable,
effective and harmonised rules for trade and business activities;
intellectual property rights protection, investment rules, customs
systems and standardisation,
–
to intensify efforts to combat corruption, fraud, money laundering
and organised crime,
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–
to seek to develop the dialogue between government and Skr. 2007/08:67
enterprise in Africa and Europe by means of appropriate
continental and regional networks, including the EU-Africa
Business Forum,
–
to support – as part of actor-driven cooperation – collaboration
between different areas of Swedish and African society, including
public actors, NGOs, the business community and its trade
organisations, cultural institutions and sports federations, with a
view to establishing self-supporting, long-term ties,
–
to deepen cooperation in the economic field through the work of
the Sweden-South Africa Binational Commission (BNC).
4.1.2
Agriculture
In many African countries, agriculture and its associated industries
constitute the largest economic sector and the engine of the economy in
general. In addition, a number of African countries are deeply dependent
on their fishing industries, both from a trade perspective and in terms of
their industrial significance. Agricultural development is of crucial
importance to a country’s poverty reduction prospects and food supply.
Besides producing food, agriculture and forestry are also a potential
source of renewable energy and renewable raw materials and can thus
contribute to sustainable development.
No other sector is extensive enough to spearhead a broad-based growth
process, although this presupposes increased productivity and investment
along with better outlets for agricultural products. Local markets and
appropriate infrastructure must be available so that poor farmers can
market their produce. Greater access to international markets by farmers
in developing countries presupposes free trade, lower tariffs and the
phasing out of trade-distorting subsidies. It is of the utmost importance
that the development of African agriculture helps ensure a reliable food
supply in Africa. Due consideration must also be given to the fact that
many of Africa’s poorest countries will to some extent be dependent on
food imports for the foreseeable future. Outside support will be needed if
the countries are to benefit from improved trade regulations and thereby
develop their agricultural potential.
The roles of central government, civil society and the market need to
be reviewed. Issues requiring special attention in the drive to promote
agricultural development include the importance of factoring in the
impact of climate change on farming – and vice versa – and of taking the
knowledge and needs of the farming community into account. Particular
attention should be paid to women farmers. Rising world market prices
for agricultural products mean increased profits for agricultural
producers, and these funds can be used for investments that help boost
productivity and rural development. The links with environment and
climate are set out in greater detail in Section 4.5.
In the sphere of agriculture, the Government intends:
33
–
to cooperate with African countries in supporting sustainable Skr. 2007/08:67
agriculture and agricultural reforms aimed at boosting
productivity and ensuring a secure food supply, and in combating
desertification and the depletion of farming soil. This includes
supporting the African agricultural programme CAADP, creating
greater scope for action by NGOs such as farming associations,
promoting the development of legal systems, funding agricultural
research, developing innovation systems and supporting African
coordination of research systems,
–
to support, in line with stated ambitions, initiatives that assist
African enterprises in the agricultural sector to process their
products, and thereby promote greater self-sufficiency,
–
to focus attention on the role and opportunities of women in
agriculture, and on related areas such as access to legal systems,
ownership, leasing and use of land, the ability to obtain loans and
credits, and access to marketplaces,
–
to continue Swedish efforts to promote free trade and reduce
protectionism in agriculture and to actively seek further reform of
the EU Common Agricultural Policy towards a more marketoriented regime. A further aim is to seek – via the EU – a farreaching agreement on agriculture within the WTO,
–
to pay due attention to sanitary and phytosanitary standards in
order to help boost the competitiveness of African fishery,
farming and food products.
4.1.3
Energy and infrastructure
Increased access to and use of energy are essential to the achievement of
sustainable economic growth and development goals, including the
Millennium Development Goals. Africa has a plentiful supply of fossil
fuels and a largely untapped potential in terms of renewable energy.
Measures that encourage greater and more efficient use of renewable
energy and enable countries to exploit fossil resources more effectively
should accordingly be given prominence among Sweden’s energy
commitments in Africa, along with the need to increase the energy
supply.
The energy partnership between the EU and Africa established at the
2007 summit embraces common interests such as a secure energy supply,
access to energy services and sustainable and efficient management of
energy resources. Europe can benefit from African energy exports, and
Africa can benefit from European technological and financial support in
the energy sector. Global climate change and its harmful effects require
joint action, particularly in the energy field.
One of the cornerstones of the partnership is the establishment of a
political dialogue on access to secure energy supplies. This dialogue
supplements initiatives already under way and is planned jointly by the
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EU and the AU, in close cooperation with the New Partnership for Skr. 2007/08:67
Africa’s Development (NEPAD), the Forum of Energy Ministers of
Africa (FEMA), the ADB and the World Bank. Regional cooperation
both within Africa and between Africa and the EU is encouraged.
Sweden takes part in EU activities relating to energy, the environment
and infrastructure investment. Sweden is also involved in development
cooperation programmes in the energy sector with a number of countries,
and cooperates with other donors and development banks, in regional as
well as national programmes.
Swedish enterprises are well equipped to supply environmental and
energy technology skills in order to develop Africa’s potential for
exploiting renewable energy sources such as biofuels. In this connection,
Swedfund and the Swedish Export Credits Guarantee Board can help
boost cooperation between the development and business communities,
particularly in the case of small and medium-sized enterprises.
Continued expansion of African infrastructure is crucial to the
continent’s future. Natural resources and human capital must be linked so
that they may subsequently be coupled together both regionally and
globally. This would in turn help link countries and regions together, not
only economically and socially but also politically, as has happened and
is happening in Europe.
Infrastructure investment in Africa is being stepped up through the
efforts of the 2006 EU-Africa Partnership for Infrastructure with its
related trust fund and of the Pan-African Infrastructure Development
Fund, which focuses on developing secure communications and
infrastructural services across the continent and throughout its regions.
The Government supports these arrangements as well as the ADB’s
emphasis on infrastructure projects as a means of promoting regional
integration and service provision.
The transport corridors that can and must be created will lead to the
establishment of regional road and rail networks. Once these have been
supplemented by increased and upgraded port capacity, improvements in
sea and air travel safety, and the removal of non-physical obstacles that
impede the free movement of goods, services and people, the region will
be able to play an active and progressive part in globalisation. Moreover,
expansion of the rural road network will stimulate economic activity and
poverty reduction, and make it easier for social services to reach people
in need. The successful linking of countries’ electrical power systems,
which must be reliable and efficient as well as environment-friendly, is a
precondition for the development of other forms of infrastructure.
The importance of telecommunications for private sector development,
particularly in rural areas, is considerable. There are good examples of
enterprises in very remote areas, previously cut off from the integration
process because of their geographical location, that have used
telecommunications to become actors outside their own immediate area.
With suitably designed official support from Sweden, the involvement
of Swedish enterprise in these fields could achieve greater prominence
and contribute significantly to infrastructure development in sub-Saharan
Africa. Swedish enterprises and institutions also possess valuable and
relevant know-how and expertise in the mining sector.
35
The Government’s energy-related environmental commitments are set Skr. 2007/08:67
out in Section 4.5.
In the energy and infrastructure spheres, the Government intends:
–
to support, with the aid of local enterprises and through publicprivate partnerships, the creation of conditions for increased
investment in energy infrastructure conducive to energy efficiency
and renewable energy solutions,
–
to seek to ensure, within the framework of the EU’s Africa policy
and development bank programmes, that due consideration is
given to the consequences of climate change so that energy
systems in Africa are sustainable in the long term,
–
to encourage African oil- and gas-producing countries to widen
development-oriented use of oil and gas revenues,
–
to emphasise, in cooperating with African countries, the
importance of a) transparent and responsible governance in the
country’s energy sector, and b) stable, effective and harmonised
regulations aimed at improving opportunities for private
investment,
–
to support cooperation in the energy sector between private and
public Swedish and African actors, where the Swedish resource
base in this sector matches African needs in the same area,
–
to support, in its capacity as a board member of the ADB and the
World Bank, further projects and programmes designed to
improve infrastructure in the transport, water and energy sectors,
–
to include in cooperation strategies provision for investment in
infrastructure in African countries, including roads and
waterways, with a view to promoting rural development, trade and
integration.
4.1.4
Research
Basic research capacity is a precondition for poverty reduction and social
development in Africa. Research and higher education give people
resources of their own with which to define, analyse, develop and
evaluate methods and solutions for dealing with the challenges facing
their societies. International cooperation is a key component of research
development. The interplay between research and innovation also
contributes to economic growth.
The declaration adopted at the conclusion of the 2007 African Union
(AU) summit pledges increased national investment in African
universities and science and technology training programmes. The aim,
36
which is high on African leaders’ agendas, is to persuade young Skr. 2007/08:67
Africans to become researchers and remain in their native countries.
Sweden contributes to development in this area by supporting research
and higher education primarily in countries with which Sweden is
engaged in long-term development cooperation or selective cooperation.
The aim of Swedish support for research and increased research capacity
in Africa is to help develop knowledge and expertise that countries can
use in their efforts to achieve the Millennium Development Goals and
respond to the challenges of environmental degradation and climate
change. Particular attention is to be focused on opportunities for women
to undertake research.
From a regional perspective, resources are needed to facilitate
cooperation between researchers at national universities and research
institutes. The Government is looking to intensify exchanges with
researchers in Africa. The Nordic Africa Institute is an important actor in
this regard. The EU Seventh Framework Programme for Research and
Technological Development addresses this need, e.g. through research
projects that specifically target the concerns of African and other
developing countries.
It is essential to support Africa’s own research development, e.g. by
promoting initiatives designed to create forums for collaboration between
the research, business and government communities. This type of
network, largely absent at present, is essential if African countries are to
improve research results, master new technologies and develop products
and solutions.
In the research field, the Government intends:
–
to support research and capacity building with the emphasis on
funding for project-based research, national policy development,
research administration at universities, research funding schemes,
postgraduate and teacher training, and infrastructure,
–
to seek agreement, both within the EU and bilaterally, on the need
to build research capacity and the importance of adopting a broad
approach to this issue,
–
to strengthen thematic cooperation between researchers and
institutions through continued support to regional and pan-African
research bodies. The development of regional initiatives for
research financing (research councils) will be monitored with
possible funding in mind,
–
to support, in line with the EU’s Africa policy and the joint EUAfrica Action Plan, the development of information and
communications technology (ICT), focusing in particular on
research-related and other education-related activities.
37
4.2
Peace and security in a new regional context
Preventing and managing conflicts in Africa and supporting countries
that have experienced conflict and begun peaceful reconstruction work
are major priorities for the Swedish Government and a primary aim of
the Joint EU-Africa Strategy. Strengthening human rights, gender
equality, the role of women, democratic structures and the security
sector, particularly the judicial system, are key elements in conflict
prevention, crisis management and peacebuilding in Africa. Also clear
are the interrelationships between environment/climate, rivalry over
natural resources and security.
In Africa, the international community’s efforts to help maintain
international peace and security have suffered a number of setbacks. The
Rwanda genocide, exceptional in the scale of its devastation, was a case
in point. The situation in Sierra Leone and Liberia in the 1990s and in
Somalia today illustrate the difficulties that peace efforts face in certain
regions and the immense human suffering that armed conflicts bring in
their wake. At the UN summit of 2005, the world’s leaders voiced their
backing for the ‘Responsibility to Protect’ principle, which establishes
the obligation of states to protect their populations against genocide,
crimes against humanity, war crimes and ethnic cleansing. In many parts
of Africa, much remains to be done before the principle is translated into
practice, as the humanitarian disaster in Sudan’s Darfur province has
shown.
Responsibility for ensuring peace and security and protecting the
African population lies first and foremost with African governments.
This includes the commitment to respect international law, human rights
and democratic governance, all of which are of direct relevance to peace
and security. Fuelling ethnic divisions and xenophobia in particular can
have disastrous consequences. Here, deeper integration between ethnic
groups and nation states is vital, and a responsibility for African leaders.
Africa’s assumption of responsibility is growing steadily, not least
through the efforts of regional organisations to develop their own
capabilities and through increased African ownership of conflict and
crisis management. In the field of peace and security, the AU and
subregional organisations such as ECOWAS and SADC have made clear
progress. However, there are still problem areas that regional
partnerships are not yet capable of tackling, let alone solving. In addition
to established organisational structures, the political will to solve
conflicts is of paramount importance.
The role of the international community is to support and encourage
African assumption of responsibility. However, the international
community – Sweden included – needs to increase its efforts, and
international commitment on behalf of the victims of armed conflict must
be intensified and made more effective.
It is important to adopt a comprehensive, integrated approach to
measures in the field of peace and security. Peace support and
peacekeeping measures must be combined with measures to strengthen
human rights, the judicial system and civil society, as well as initiatives
targeting the role of women, reform of the security sector, disarmament,
the reintegration of former combatants, reconstruction and democratic
Skr. 2007/08:67
38
development. The ability to prevent genocide and other serious abuses Skr. 2007/08:67
must also be strengthened, and action must be taken to combat impunity
surrounding such crimes.
Where Sweden’s Africa policy is concerned, this involves a broad
commitment, presence and dialogue before, during and after crisis
situations. In this connection, particular attention should be focused on
the participation of women in peacekeeping processes and on the
vulnerable situation of children in periods of conflict. Another aspect of
Sweden’s commitment is the interrelationship between environment,
climate change and refugee flows in the wake of conflicts. Half of all
conflict and post-conflict countries ranked as priority recipients of
Swedish development aid are found in Africa.
Africa’s political integration and the African peace and security
architecture are laying the groundwork for more advanced Swedish
initiatives. The Government sets high standards for Swedish participation
in international operations promoting peace and security in Africa.
Swedish troops, police officers and civilian staff have taken or are
currently taking part in UN peacekeeping missions in, among other
places, Liberia, Sierra Leone, the Ivory Coast, Sudan and EthiopiaEritrea, and in EU peacekeeping missions sanctioned by the UN in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo and in Chad. Swedish diplomatic
efforts to help solve conflicts in Africa are a matter of priority. For
example, Sweden is taking an active part in efforts to solve the border
conflict between Ethiopia and Eritrea on the basis of international law,
and to overcome deep antagonisms in Somalia.
The importance of long-term prevention as part of development
cooperation is reflected in Sida’s increased focus on peace and security.
Greater political and financial preparedness is not only needed when
disasters occur, but also when the conditions for peaceful development
are being established. In bilateral and multilateral development
cooperation with Africa, the Government is seeking to ensure that both
conflict risks and grounds for conflict are identified, prevented and
combated as far as possible.
In addition to development assistance, Sweden provides extensive
humanitarian assistance. Aid is disbursed through the UN’s humanitarian
organisations – which act as primary aid channels and coordinators – via
the Red Cross and Red Crescent, and through NGOs. In addition, the
Swedish Rescue Services Agency provides Swedish personnel with
special technical skills, primarily to UN humanitarian organisations
requiring assistance.
The EU is an important actor in the foreign and security policy field,
and has a wide range of instruments at its disposal. It is able to act
consistently and coherently in matters of mutual interest through its
Common Foreign and Security Policy and European Security and
Defence Policy. Peace and security are a primary goal of the 2007 Joint
EU-Africa Strategy. Particular importance is attached to the promotion of
peace, security and stability in the African and European continents and
the need to intensify cooperation on common and global peace and
security challenges.
The EU’s first military peacekeeping mission in Africa was undertaken
in support of the UN in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2003,
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an operation in which Sweden took part. Since then, Sweden has Skr. 2007/08:67
participated in five civil and military EU operations in Africa. Sweden is
working actively to develop and, in line with Swedish priorities, help
shape European foreign, security and development policies vis-à-vis
Africa through better coordination of EU instruments and institutions and
closer coordination in the field. An integrated EU office for the AU has
been established in Addis Ababa.
Security policy issues are also on the agenda of the Cotonou
Agreement dialogues. The Government is pressing for the EU to adopt
an increasingly active role as a political actor by means of diplomatic
initiatives, including the use of EU Special Representatives, Council
conclusions, statements, representations and, in extreme cases, sanctions.
The EU can also employ development assistance and trade policy
instruments in its peacekeeping and peacebuilding efforts in Africa.
Greater coherence across policy areas is of the utmost importance since
the threats to peace and security are not exclusively military in character.
To enhance cooperation on global peace and security challenges, the
EU and Africa must work together to promote and follow up
commitments in multilateral, regional and national forums. In addition,
the EU and Africa need to exchange knowledge and information on
global security factors such as climate, environmental degradation, water
resources and epidemics, and engage in closer dialogue on crises and
conflicts in other parts of the world. Under the Joint EU-Africa Strategy,
Sweden is an active partner in efforts to widen support for national
security sector reforms in Africa.
The Government is pressing, both in the EU and bilaterally, for longterm predictable financing of Africa’s ambitions regarding conflict
management, crisis management and reconstruction. The EU wants to
increase its support for African capacity building and the peace and
security architecture, particularly the AU, and to help prevail on other
international partners to support African-led peace operations. Its
involvement will include education and training support linked to the
development of the African Rapid Response Force.
The EU must press for rigorous implementation of UN Resolution
1325 on women, peace and security, and Resolution 1612 on children in
armed conflicts. The question of the role of civil society in peace and
security issues is to be addressed and pursued jointly by Africa and the
EU, a decision squarely in line with Sweden’s Africa policy.
The UN and its various bodies play a key role in Africa’s future and,
by extension, in Sweden’s Africa policy. The UN is of central
importance due to its ability to gather the international community
around joint efforts in Africa and to take internationally approved
measures, ranging from mediation and sanctions to military
operations.The UN bodies responsible for monitoring respect for human
rights are important contributors to the work of prevention. The UN has
undertaken numerous peace initiatives in Africa, and in recent years has
further strengthened its capacity in this area by establishing a Support
Office for mediation purposes and the UN Peacebuilding Commission.
Much of this activity takes place in Africa.
The UN also supports AU peace support capacity building. The UN
Security Council holds annual talks with the AU Peace and Security
40
Council (PSC), and exchanges take place between the two Skr. 2007/08:67
organisations’ secretariats. The UN peacekeeping operation in Darfur
2008 (UNAMID) demonstrates the need for further development of
forms of cooperation between the AU and the UN. The UN provides
special training aimed at strengthening the AU’s own capability in key
functions. Sweden supports this initiative through the Folke Bernadotte
Academy
and
the
Swedish
Armed
Forces
International
Centre/SWEDINT.
Dealing with the threat to peace and security posed by terrorism calls
for a broad spectrum of civil capacity-raising initiatives and close
international cooperation. It requires a long-term perspective and a focus
on young people’s situation and on breeding-grounds for violenceoriented radicalisation and terrorism. Sweden is working to strengthen
the ability of African countries and regional organisations to deal with
and prevent terrorism in the long term. The AU and organisations such as
IGAD play an important role here.
Efforts to reduce access to and trade in light arms in Africa remain a
Swedish priority. Small arms and light weapons are responsible for most
deaths in conflicts today. The widespread access to such weaponry may
also increase the use of child soldiers. Mine-clearing operations as part of
the work against small arms and light weapons are an increasingly
pressing issue, particularly in post-conflict countries where mines
continue to claim lives even after other weapons have fallen silent.
The increased involvement of the World Bank and the ADB in
countries emerging from conflict is a significant development. Important
measures include capacity-building initiatives and debt arrears clearance
to help reduce the burden of debt. In addition, the World Bank is
cooperating with NEPAD and others on peace and stability initiatives,
and is working with the UN system to analyse needs in connection with
reconstruction efforts in post-conflict countries.
The presence of domestic and international enterprises before and after
conflicts can have a favourable impact inasmuch as they represent
opportunities for people to improve their livelihoods. Similarly, cultural
cooperation in various forms can help build bridges between different
sections of the population in the aftermath of a traumatic conflict.
In the sphere of peace and security, the Government intends:
–
to support, in collaboration with African institutions and
countries, the favourable development of the African security
architecture; and to work actively to ensure that African peace
initiatives on the continent take deeper root and have greater real
impact,
–
to contribute to UN and EU peacekeeping initiatives and
interventions in Africa by various means, including the provision
of military and civilian personnel; and to strive for the efficient
and effective use of resources and coordinated civil and military
action wherever Sweden is a participant,
41
–
to closely monitor developments in the AU and regional Skr. 2007/08:67
organisations, and prioritise Swedish support for the efforts of
these bodies to prevent conflicts, reform the security sector and
promote democracy, and for AU peacekeeping activities,
–
to seek to ensure that greater weight is attached to the obligationto-protect principle in Swedish foreign policy and the actions of
the EU,
–
to attach particular importance to the gender equality and child
rights perspectives for peace and security in Africa in bilateral and
multilateral work; and to prioritise efforts to implement UN
Security Council Resolution 1325 on women, peace and security
and Resolution 1612 concerning children in armed conflicts,
–
to promote closer interaction between policy areas – security,
development, international law and human rights – in peace
support efforts in Africa. Swedish knowledge-building
programmes and increased participation by Swedish NGOs and
institutions in the conflict and mediation sphere will be
encouraged and supported,
–
to step up cooperation with Africa on links between conflict and
environment-related problems, focusing in particular on the risk
of shared but scarce resources fuelling existing antagonisms, and
on opportunities for transforming conflicts over resources into
responsible cooperation,
–
to help strengthen the protection of civilian populations in conflict
situations, inter alia by seeking to ensure that the obligation-toprotect principle is applied in practice,
–
to support the work of international tribunals and national efforts
to prosecute serious abuses, including genocide, crimes against
humanity and war crimes; and to build up sustainable societies
based on the rule of law,
–
to strengthen the capacity of African states to prevent terrorism –
on the basis of a regional perspective; and to promote better
understanding of how development cooperation can counter the
emergence of breeding-grounds for terrorism,
–
to contribute to the development of the European Union as a
foreign and security policy actor in Africa,
–
to seek to ensure that the UN Peacebuilding Commission in its
work with African countries becomes an effective instrument in
preventing relapses into conflict; to continue to support the UN’s
capacity for conflict prevention and mediation in Africa; and to
step up cooperation with African countries within the UN
framework,
42
Skr. 2007/08:67
–
to support efforts in partner countries to deal with mines, and
implement the 2001 UN Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat
and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons,
–
to intensify collaboration with African countries on joint training
in conflict and crisis management. Important actors in this
connection are the Folke Bernadotte Academy, the Swedish
Armed Forces International Centre/SWEDINT and the Raoul
Wallenberg Institute,
–
to develop tripartite cooperation with African countries such as
South Africa with a view to strengthening African security
capacity and African interventions in the sphere of conflict
prevention and peacekeeping,
–
to further strengthen Nordic cooperation on African issues with a
view to improving coordination, planning and information
exchange in support of African capacity building, and boosting
Nordic participation in programmes and projects in Africa.
4.3
Democracy and human rights – conditions for
progress
The promotion of democracy and respect for human rights is not only a
development goal in itself but also a precondition for equitable and
sustainable development. The obligation to combat all forms of
oppression, and promote democracy, respect for human rights and
international law is a cornerstone of Swedish foreign policy.
In accordance with Sweden’s policy for global development, Swedish
policy on Africa must be informed by the rights perspective. This means
that all development must be centred on the rights and freedoms of the
individual. The rights perspective is based on the common values
outlined in the international conventions on human rights: the principles
of non-discrimination and equal treatment, and citizen participation. The
basic freedoms – freedom of opinion, freedom of religion, freedom of
association and assembly, freedom of expression, freedom from torture
and slavery, etc. – are integral to these conventions, and safeguarding
them is a key element of all political development, in Africa and
elsewhere. Long-term sustainable development and growth presupposes
that governments also respect economic, social and cultural rights, such
as the right to education, food and health, without discrimination.
Thus democracy, human rights and a stronger rule of law are basic
principles of and criteria for Swedish development cooperation in Africa
and key components of Swedish security policy, trade policy and
political dialogue with each country. An important part of Sweden’s
long-term efforts to promote respect for human rights is its active support
for the abolition of capital punishment.
Efficient public institutions are vital if democracy and respect for
human rights are to be guaranteed. Democracy needs committed
43
stakeholders and strong domestic institutions capable of both channelling Skr. 2007/08:67
and managing conflicts of interest peaceably and effectively and of
upholding such principles as the equal worth of all, transparency,
participation, predictability, justice and equality before the law. The
foundation of democratic governance is a democratically elected,
properly working parliament. In many African countries, parliaments are
still far too weak and dependent on the executive branch of government.
Promoting the development of representative, strong and independent
parliaments must accordingly be a policy priority in efforts to strengthen
and deepen democracy.
Thus the promotion of democratic governance includes actions that not
only strengthen the ability of public institutions to arrive at and
implement policy decisions in a democratic, transparent and responsible
way, but also help reduce corruption. It also includes actions that
guarantee freedom of expression, freedom of assembly and the right to
information. Finally, it embraces actions that guarantee the full
participation of all citizens in society on equal terms and their enjoyment
of all human rights without discrimination. Marginalised groups and
groups previously excluded from public power and influence – whether
due to race, ethnicity, sex, disability, sexual orientation, religion, age,
social position, origin, political or other opinions, or on other grounds –
must be included if democracy is to be broad-based and legitimate.
Cooperation on respect for human rights is of course based on the
commitments in this area made by Sweden and African partner countries.
The UN mechanisms for human rights play an important part in
monitoring compliance with these commitments and in supporting
improvements and reforms.
In this connection, it is also vital to support the regional institutions
that have now been established, primarily within the AU framework, for
the protection of human rights. The establishment of the African Court
on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the continuing development of the
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights have contributed to
a climate of increased respect for human rights in Africa. The extent to
which these institutions are able to act and to gain respect and support for
their decisions and actions will be decisive for their future significance
and impact. To succeed in their endeavour, they will need adequate
resources and skills. However, the political will must also be present.
Sweden can contribute by supporting these institutions.
The promotion of democratic systems of government and respect for
human rights are key components of the Joint EU-Africa Strategy. The
aim of the partnership between Africa and the EU in this area is to
facilitate an open, broad-based dialogue on human rights, including the
full enjoyment of such rights by women and children, and on democracy
and democratic governance. The object is to enable both continents to
more easily define problem areas, arrive at joint solutions and implement
special initiatives aimed at promoting democratic development and
respect for human rights. Swedish skills and know-how can make a
substantial contribution here.
In addition to this new partnership, the EU can also bring to bear the
various political instruments available to it within its foreign and security
policy, development aid and trade policy frameworks. Under the
44
Cotonou Agreement, the institutionalised dialogues provided for by Skr. 2007/08:67
Articles 8 and 96 provide an important forum for presenting and
exchanging views and opinions on progress in advancing human rights
and democracy. The human rights clause in the agreement provides for a
halt in cooperation and the opening of consultations in cases where
respect for human rights is absent or wanting. In addition, the EU has
drawn up a number of guidelines for action in key human rights areas,
designed to serve as a guide and help coordinate efforts.
In order to improve knowledge and understanding and to draw on past
experience, the Joint EU-Africa Strategy calls for intensified exchanges
between institutions and other actors working in the field of democracy
and human rights in Africa and Europe. This includes such bodies as the
European Court of Human Rights and the African Court for Human and
Peoples’ Right, as well as national institutions in member states.
Swedish institutions working for the development of democratic
institutions and human rights in Africa have long been involved in
exchange programmes with countries in which Sweden is active, and
these will continue. Some will be coordinated with those of other EU
countries.
Another priority of the Joint EU-Africa Strategy is support for the
African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM) and for the African Charter on
Democracy, Elections and Governance. Additional support is to be
provided through dialogue and cooperation for the purpose of
implementing the recommendations that emerge from the APRM
process. The AU and both regional and national institutions are to be
strengthened. Civil society can be strengthened in terms of its capacity
for election monitoring and active involvement in electoral processes.
The EU member states need to coordinate their activities more
effectively so that they can coherently and consistently highlight the
importance of democracy and human rights in national, regional and
international forums. To intensify dialogue at global level, joint positions
and special initiatives must be adopted and implemented in forums such
as the UN Human Rights Council and the General Assembly’s Second
and Third Committees. An anticipated result of such a course is the
ratification and implementation of further international and regional
conventions in the human rights area.
Sweden provides extensive support to UN bodies and programmes that
operate in Africa and whose actions have a bearing on democracy and
human rights. For example, Sweden is supporting the work of UNICEF
on children’s rights, the work of the UN Development Fund for Women
(UNIFEM) on women’s rights, and the efforts of the UNDP to promote
democratic governance. In addition, Sweden supports the Office of the
UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, which seeks to promote
respect for human rights in Africa and which in recent years has stepped
up its presence in the field. Further Swedish support is provided to the
technical aid programme of the UN Office on Drugs and Crime
(UNODC), directed at countries wishing to incorporate the provisions of
the UN Convention against Corruption into national legislation and to
take measures to implement the convention.
Corruption is not only a direct hindrance to development and
prosperity; it is also a significant factor in preventing people from having
45
their rights respected and safeguarded. The fight against corruption is Skr. 2007/08:67
therefore crucial to the overall effort to strengthen democratic
governance in Africa. It is a key element in the partnership with Africa
and Swedish development aid programmes in the region, and in
Sweden’s political dialogue with each country. At the very minimum,
coherent Swedish, European and international action must include further
measures to ensure that development funding and aid for trade do not
contribute to corruption. Active efforts on the part of civil society and the
business sector to detect and counter corruption in their own activities
and in those of public actors are crucial in this respect. Sweden is also
working through the multilateral development banks to promote
democratic governance and combat corruption in Africa. At the centre of
this endeavour is the mechanism for resource distribution that takes
account of factors such as how far a country has progressed towards
good governance.
In the sphere of democracy and human rights, the Government intends:
–
to work to ensure that democratic development in Africa is further
disseminated, deepened and consolidated, and that setbacks are
overcome, through support to parliamentary and party systems,
civil society and free media; and to promote good public
administration and combat corruption in Africa. Particular
attention is to be given to the participation of women in political
decision-making processes,
–
to actively oppose discrimination in the enjoyment of human
rights, whether due to race, ethnicity, sex, disability, sexual
orientation, religion, social position, origin, political or other
opinion, or other grounds,
–
to address violations of human rights in bilateral dialogues with
individual countries, through the EU and within the UN and
regional organisations, in order to respond to the problems,
initiate dialogue and find solutions,
–
to work proactively to ensure that human rights and democracy
issues inform EU contacts with Africa in all policy areas,
–
to promote the development of representative and efficient
parliaments,
–
to seek to promote respect for democratic principles and human
rights in countries that lack democratic rule and/or are in a conflict
or post-conflict situation. This includes supporting and working
with human rights advocates and civil society,
–
to promote favourable developments in countries that have
achieved a good level of democracy and respect for human rights;
and to examine the prospects for inter-country partnerships on
important democracy and human rights issues,
46
Skr. 2007/08:67
–
to press for the abolition of capital punishment by focusing as a
first step on the death penalty in Kenya, Tanzania and Zambia.
This issue must be raised in connection with exchange visits, in
bilateral dialogues and development cooperation efforts, and
through opinion-making and other appropriate measures,
–
to offer Swedish support to and cooperation with national human
rights institutions, based on an analysis of the areas and countries
in which Sweden can best make a contribution,
–
to be prepared to increase cooperation with regional human rights
institutions such as the African Court on Human and Peoples’
Rights and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’
Rights,
–
to proactively support intensified dialogue between the EU and
Africa in international human rights forums, with a view to
developing common positions and initiatives where possible,
–
to press for closer collaboration with those UN bodies which are
working to achieve greater respect for human rights in Africa,
including the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights.
4.4
Gender equality – development on equal terms
The participation of women and their enjoyment of human rights is an
essential precondition for sustainable economic, democratic and social
development and for the achievement of the UN Millennium
Development Goals. The promotion of gender equality, therefore, is both
a goal in itself and a means of increasing the effectiveness of
development aid and contributing to sustainable democratic development
and peace in post-conflict countries.
Gender equality must be a central feature of the political dialogue
between Sweden and partner countries. Strategies for all partner
countries in Africa must reflect a gender equality perspective, either as a
sphere of cooperation in itself or as an integral part of efforts undertaken
in other sectors. In terms of the Government’s organisational strategies
for multilateral organisations, gender equality is to be a theme that runs
through all cooperation with African countries and all Swedish
commitments in international and regional organisations operating in this
area, including UNAIDS, the FAO, the Global Fund to Fight HIV/AIDS,
Tuberculosis and Malaria, UNECA, the African Development Bank and
the World Bank.
Sweden and the EU must continually follow up the commitments
established in the Joint EU-Africa Strategy to the effect that a gender
equality perspective is to inform all strategies, policy documents,
programmes and documents in the administrations of both parties. This
applies for example to peace and security. The Government intends to
take steps to expedite implementation of UN Security Council Resolution
47
1325 on women, peace and security in European security and defence Skr. 2007/08:67
policies and support African peacekeeping forces in the gender equality
area. It also applies to a great extent to democratic governance and
human rights and to gender and gender equality considerations in the
environment and climate sphere.
The following are special priority areas in the Government’s Africa
policy:
Increased participation of women in public processes, including general
elections and political decision-making at all levels. Swedish policy will
focus on strengthening women’s ability to exercise their vote and stand
as election candidates; and on increasing participation by women in
political assemblies and decision-making forums.
Women and security, including the fight against gender-related
violence. Sweden has adopted a national action plan for implementation
of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 on women, peace and security.
This will now be implemented at national, regional and international
level with the dual aim of promoting the active participation of women in
conflict management and peacemaking processes, and of seeking to
ensure that a gender equality perspective informs military and civil
conflict management efforts. This initiative is a central plank of
Sweden’s policy for Africa.
Economic growth and development Women’s participation, right of
ownership and employment, private sector development and women’s
entrepreneurship, and trade and market reforms in pursuit of a fair and
gender-equal labour market are all of crucial importance to economic
growth. Central areas of Swedish involvement are trade and regional
integration and cooperation aimed at a) supporting the ability of women
farmers to contribute to a secure food supply, b) supporting women
entrepreneurs and the export of agricultural produce, and c) helping to
improve women’s access to physical and economic infrastructure.
Sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR), including
HIV/AIDS. This area includes better education, information and advisory
services for women and young people, better access to maternity care
and contraceptives and efforts to secure access to safe and legal
abortions, as part of a comprehensive programme in which information
and preventive action are of particular importance. The SRHR issue is
crucial to African countries’ prospects of achieving the Millennium
Development Goals and must be pursued more vigorously to ensure
better access to sexual and reproductive healthcare as a means of
reducing maternal mortalities, unwanted pregnancies, female genital
mutilation, and the spread of HIV/AIDS.
In the gender equality sphere, the Government intends:
–
to focus on Sweden’s special priority areas in bilateral relations
and multilateral cooperation, inter alia by intensifying efforts to
gain support for these priorities in the EU and the UN, and to
48
establish a place for them in bilateral dialogues and in
development cooperation with African countries,
–
to further develop Sweden’s role as a prime mover in efforts to
secure the implementation of the commitments in Security
Council Resolution 1325 on women, peace and security,
–
to support African organisations and networks focusing on
women’s enjoyment of human rights, women’s entrepreneurship
and the greater participation of women in public processes,
–
to draw attention to and spread information about progress in
Africa towards women’s rights through the adoption of the
Protocol on the Rights of Women in Africa (2005), supplementing
the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, and the UN
Convention for the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW); and to seek to ensure that progress is consolidated and
that commitments are honoured,
–
to support the implementation of African instruments for better
health and enhanced health systems, particularly where these
relate to sexual and reproductive health, such as the Maputo Plan
of Action on Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights for
2007–2010 and the Johannesburg Africa Health Strategy for
2007–2015.
4.5
Environment and climate – national, regional and
global challenges and opportunities
Safeguarding the environment and sustainable exploitation of natural
resources are fundamental to the ability to fight poverty in Africa and
attain sustainable development on the continent. The interrelationship
between environment, climate change and conflicts is becoming
increasingly clear. Environment and economy are intimately connected
in all parts of the world, not least in Africa.
If people are to lift themselves out of poverty, protect their
environment and combat the adverse effects of climate change, a high
rate of economic growth with broad positive knock-on effects, social
security and political participation will be necessary. All policy areas
need to work together to achieve sustainable development.
Environmental considerations must be mainstreamed into all bilateral
and multilateral development cooperation programmes, the poverty
strategies of developing countries, security policy, commercial ventures,
international trade, global political cooperation, etc. Environment and
climate change are a top priority issue in Sweden’s international
undertakings and its policies for Africa.
Moreover, Sweden has strong traditions, an extensive bank of
resources and skilled industries in many sectors directly linked to the
quest for sustainable development in Africa. The UN Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) lists water and sanitation, human
Skr. 2007/08:67
49
health, agriculture and rural development, biodiversity, forestry and the Skr. 2007/08:67
preservation of marine environments as areas of particular importance to
Africa. Here and in other areas, such as biological research, renewable
energy, environment-friendly technology and chemicals control, Sweden
is well placed to contribute and to work with African countries in
developing joint projects and programmes of mutual benefit.
The impact of Sweden’s Africa policy increases by vigorous and
coherent action, bilaterally, at EU level, and in the UN, the World Bank
and other multilateral forums. Thanks to a rapidly growing awareness in
relations between the EU and Africa of the strategic and long-term
significance of environment and resource issues, Sweden has a good
chance of being able to move these issues forward at EU level in the
future.
The Joint EU-Africa Strategy adopted in 2007 emphasises the mutual
benefit to be gained by both Europe and Africa from closer cooperation
on environmentally sustainable development and climate change issues.
A number of specific goals were established in the joint action plan
adopted at the same time, including the development of cooperation on
climate change, joint moves to combat soil erosion and desertification,
and efforts to improve security of food supply in accordance with the UN
Millennium Development Goals.
In general, the Joint Strategy emphasises that the aim of these priority
efforts is to support the African countries in their endeavour to achieve
all the Millennium Development Goals by 2015. How the environment
and natural resources are managed will have a direct bearing on the
prospects for success. Sustainable agriculture is essential if the number of
hungry is to be halved, in accordance with the 1st Millennium
Development Goal. The goal of achieving a sustainable environment
specifies that the number of people without access to clean water and
sanitation is also to be halved by 2015. At present, much remains to be
done if this target is to be met.
In its conclusions on the promotion of African agriculture, the EU has
emphasised the importance of deeper cooperation with Africa at regional
and continental level. Key elements here are a stronger focus on the
agricultural sector in national development, greater coherence with other
policy areas, enhanced generation of knowledge and information,
improved trade, more sustainable use of natural resources, better animal
husbandry and better risk management.
Sweden for its part welcomes these conclusions, and the Government
will continue to press for greater coherence in the EU’s Common
Agricultural Policy. The Government also welcomes the linking of EU
efforts to the CAADP, a sign of much-needed African leadership. At the
same time, it takes the view that further reform of the EU’s agricultural
policy in a liberal market direction is vital to the task of promoting
African agriculture.
In addition, there is a need for a closer dialogue between the EU and
Africa on the subject of water and sanitation. The challenges and
problems surrounding the water issue are clearly cross-border in
character and need to be tackled in an integrated way. Efforts in this area
must build on joint international undertakings. The aim is twofold: to
secure sound management of water resources at national and regional
50
level, and to ensure access to clean water and sanitation. The Skr. 2007/08:67
Government attaches particular importance to gender equality aspects in
the water sector and to its wider development dimensions, not least
because the responsibility of women and girls for water supply often
prejudices their own chances of development.
Both the UN and multilateral institutions such as the World Bank are
intensifying their work in the environment sphere in general and on the
climate issue in particular. Sweden is continuing to press for the firm
integration of climate change into the activities of the development banks
in Africa, and is acting within the UN framework to give environmental
dimensions even greater prominence in programmes undertaken on the
continent.
Greater efforts are needed in a wide range of environment-related
fields if Africa is to successfully combat poverty and achieve sustainable
development. On the other hand, the continent’s vast wealth of natural
resources represent a great and partly untapped potential. Africa’s
biodiversity, marine riches, fossil fuels and minerals, and its sun, wind
and water, are all resources which, if exploited in an equitable and
sustainable manner, can bring a high level of prosperity to its population.
The continent’s land-based industries and fisheries are a key source of
problems and solutions surrounding climate change, energy supply and
the management of African natural resources.
The responsibility for exploiting these riches in a manner compatible
with sustainable development lies first and foremost with Africa itself.
African ownership of development processes is crucial in this respect; at
national level, the environment and economic dimensions must be dealt
with in an integrated way and foresighted measures must be devised to
ensure efficient and effective management of natural resources, the
establishment of sustainable production systems and adaptation of
societies to anticipated climate change. Modern environmental laws,
strong institutions, public awareness of environment issues, efficient
monitoring systems and a judicial system that effectively prosecutes
environment-related crimes such as unlawful logging or emission of
pollutants all need to be further developed in African countries.
Initiatives and investment from the rest of the world can and should help
in this respect.
From Sweden’s viewpoint, the global importance attached to the
environment and the climate issue on the one hand and the priority given
to African development on the other represent two sides of the same
coin. Thus care of the environment and the sustainable use of natural
resources are a central, overarching goal of Sweden’s Africa policy.
Policies must reflect the complex reality that is the African
environment and the vulnerable situation in which many people on the
continent live. Issues include the impact of climate change on living
conditions, the depletion of arable land through drought and torrential
rain, the dependence of safe food supplies on fresh water and
biodiversity, the importance of sound chemicals control to clean water
and a healthy environment, the importance of water to people’s health,
hunger and lack of livelihoods as a cause of urbanisation and its
attendant insanitary slum environments, the impact of coastal settlements
on the marine environment, the felling of forest due to a lack of
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alternative energy sources for households, and the contribution of forest Skr. 2007/08:67
clearance to global carbon dioxide emissions. All these aspects interact
and necessitate an integrated national and global policy approach.
Global warming is emerging as an increasingly crucial factor in
Africa’s future development. Although a lack of data and Africa’s widely
varied climate make precise forecasts difficult, it is clear that the
implications are enormous and that Africa’s ability to adapt must be
strengthened rapidly.
The Government intends to encourage greater involvement on the part
of Swedish enterprises in Africa’s environment. Opportunities for linking
African and Swedish research more closely will also continue to be
studied, along with the establishment of additional international training
programmes in the fields of energy, natural resources, environment and
climate.
In the climate area, the Government intends:
–
to support African skills enhancement and capacity building as a
way of helping countries to counter, anticipate and plan for the
impact of global warming. This includes adopting a wide range of
measures, from incorporating climate aspects into African
development and poverty strategies to establishing effective early
warning systems and integrating a disaster prevention perspective
into development cooperation,
–
to seek to ensure that international initiatives in Africa focus more
attention on the climate dimension. The conclusions due for
presentation in 2009 by the International Commission on Climate
Change and Development, a body established by Sweden, are
intended to contribute to ‘climate-proofing’ development in poor
countries, focusing in particular on the need to adapt to climate
change. Sweden must take the lead in promoting climate-friendly
development cooperation and strive for climate-friendly aid
delivered through multilateral channels such as the World Bank
and the African Development Bank,
–
to intensify cooperation with the African countries in multilateral
forums on joint support for the development and implementation
of an efficient international climate regime after 2012, and to help
strengthen African capacity in international climate negotiations,
–
to help develop the Kyoto Protocol’s project-based mechanism
(the Clean Development Mechanism, CDM) and to step up project
funding as a means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and
contributing to sustainable development in developing countries.
Africa’s ability to benefit more fully from opportunities afforded
by the CDM and other mechanisms should be strengthened, e.g.
through skills development programmes,
–
to facilitate the transfer and application of environment-friendly,
low-energy technology and renewable energy by promoting
52
favourable trade terms and a favourable investment climate, in
order to reduce the impact of climate change.
Skr. 2007/08:67
In order to contribute in a broader sense to the sustainable use of natural
resources and environmental care in Africa, the Government further
intends:
–
to prioritise initiatives for sustainable use of forest resources,
biomass replanting and the promotion of land and water
conservation, devoting special attention to development aspects
and minority interests. The importance of forests in reducing the
greenhouse effect is a matter requiring urgent attention. The same
applies to research and funding targeted at biodiversity,
–
to support African efforts to achieve the UN goals on access to
clean water and basic sanitation. Action to improve water
management and conservation is to be supported, along with
regional cooperation and the building of institutions for joint,
long-term administration of Africa’s many cross-border water
resources,
–
to assist the countries of Africa – by strengthening their
environment management capacity and other means – to meet
their commitments under international conventions and
agreements on the environment, particularly as regards
desertification, biodiversity and chemicals. Collaboration in the
EU and the UN is vital in this regard,
–
to intensify dialogue and cooperation with African countries in
support of national governance and policy development; and to
step up support for knowledge and skills enhancement and
institutional reforms in the environment field. This includes
assisting bodies such as the AU and NEPAD, and supporting
regional environmental initiatives,
–
to support increased local processing, sustainable forms of
extraction, democratic ground rules for protecting and exploiting
natural resources in mineral-rich countries in Africa, clearer
international rules and transparency, and closer dialogue with the
business sector and civil society.
4.6
Development opportunities for the individual
The freedom and rights of the individual lie at the heart of Sweden’s
policy for Africa. Opportunities which enable people to lift themselves
out of poverty so they can contribute to sustainable development and
participate fully in the building of African society, both economically
and politically, must be encouraged. Across the African continent, there
is a general need for improvements such as better health for women, men
53
and children, longer school attendance and access to higher education, Skr. 2007/08:67
and more productive, diversified employment opportunities.
4.6.1
Health
HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria are the diseases that claim most
lives in sub-Saharan Africa. Non-communicable diseases, however, are
becoming more common and are adding to the health burden. Although
whole societies are affected, and the social and economic effects are
likely to endure, it is the poor who suffer most.
One basic problem is the lack of adequate conditions for hygiene.
Many African countries are experiencing shortages of clean water,
proper drainage and safe food supplies. Other factors that aggravate the
health picture are access to sexual and reproductive care and treatment
and gender inequality. The adverse health situation is basically
attributable to inadequate health systems. The poorest countries also tend
to lack systems for identifying and reporting new health hazards and for
instituting measures and reporting on their progress.
Health belongs on the broad development agenda. It must also figure
as a matter of course in policy priorities, plans and budgets formulated at
national level. Work in the health sector must be viewed from a longterm perspective. This applies in particular to work undertaken at the EU,
where an action plan has been drawn up for better health support
embracing a number of spheres, including aid to health staff.
Better health trends in Africa are both possible and necessary. Health
issues have assumed increasing prominence on the global political
agenda, not least as a result of the Millennium Declaration. In many
cases, the international community and the African countries themselves
have the expertise to deal with the problems and thereby prevent the
downward spirals associated with neglected health systems. Sustainable
health systems must be built up and the health sector developed if the
brain drain among health staff is to be stopped and people in need are to
be reached with medicines and vaccines. Political will and leadership are
as important as knowledge sharing and new resources in this respect. The
health of women and children must be properly addressed, and the
interrelationship between environment and health must be integrated into
healthcare planning in particular. Thus efforts to improve public health
must also include targeted health promotion programmes, and in many
cases structural measures as well, in areas outside the health sector itself.
Sustainable agriculture, better road safety, a sustainable urban and
residential environment, and policies that reduce the demand for tobacco
and alcohol are important issues in this respect. The same applies to
sound animal husbandry practices and animal health. It is well known
that many communicable diseases are transmitted from animals and
appear where animals and humans live in close proximity.
By tradition, Sweden is a major bilateral and multilateral actor in the
African health sector. The Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness is more
concerned with the public sector than private actors. Partly as a result of
this, the integrated approach required in the health sector cannot be fully
achieved, since important actors will be missing. An important task will
54
therefore be to help bring about closer cooperation between all actors Skr. 2007/08:67
and to encourage change in activities undertaken at country level. This
will also necessitate a close dialogue with the governments of partner
countries. The need to base actions on national priorities, plans and
programmes will put the numerous global health initiatives currently in
place to the test. Mandates and roles will need to be distinguished in
order to establish a clearly defined division of tasks and responsibilities.
The World Health Organisation will play a vital role in this respect.
In the health sector, the Government intends:
–
to encourage African partner countries to prioritise sustainable
health systems (the health sector), including preventive health
efforts, in their budget work, on the basis of the Millennium
Development Goals and the right of citizens to achieve the highest
attainable standard of health; and to seek to ensure that global
health initiatives focus on work at country level based on partner
countries’ own plans, priorities and budgets,
–
to draw attention to the interrelationship between health,
economic growth, environment and socioeconomic development –
and thus to the link between health and conflict prevention – in
order to add health issues to the conflict management agenda. The
needs of women should be given particular attention in this
respect,
–
to press for better coordination (global, regional and national) and
efficiency in the health sphere at both normative and operative
levels; to urge international health organisations and their member
countries to intensify coordination and coherence in accordance
with the Paris Agenda; and to give closer consideration to the
involvement of civil society in the health sector,
–
to intensify efforts to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS; and to
seek to ensure that HIV/AIDS issues are more closely integrated
into national health plans and thus into countries’ development
plans and budgets,
–
to continue urging countries to make use of the lessons learned
and experience gained from HIV/AIDS programmes in their work
with other poverty-related diseases,
–
to encourage multilateral actors to prioritise efforts in Africa
aimed at preventing pandemics and, should they nevertheless
occur, at alleviating the effects.
4.6.2
Education
Although progress has been made, millions of Africans still lack access
to education. Education is essential if poor people are to improve their
55
lives through their own efforts. The importance of education for the Skr. 2007/08:67
individual’s chances of developing at the personal level and contributing
to the development of society cannot be overestimated. The level of
education in the population is thus intimately linked to a country’s
overall development and development potential. People’s access to
information and the extent to which they benefit from it equally are
crucial to democratic development in Africa.
A higher level of education also facilitates efforts to promote peace and
conciliation, environmental protection and gender equality. In a
globalised world, access to and familiarity with new information
technology is crucial if Africa and the African population are to benefit
from many of the opportunities and advances that globalisation offers.
In the field of education, the Government intends:
–
to work for universal, free education for all children in accordance
with the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. Girls’ access
to education is to be given particular attention,
–
to encourage the use of rights-based and gender equality-based
systems for learning and teaching, and to support education and
training that advances sustainable development practices,
–
to actively promote access to and reconstruction of education in
conflict and post-conflict countries, where education must be
made available to and adapted to the needs of those who have
missed out on basic schooling during wartime,
–
to seek to ensure that greater attention is focused on the
relationship between education and health, primarily sexual and
reproductive health and rights (SRHR), and HIV/AIDS,
–
to support African countries in their efforts to exploit the potential
of information and communication technology (ICT) to improve
education and make it more effective.
4.6.3
Migration and asylum
As globalisation intensifies, so do the number of people moving across
borders in search of a more secure existence and livelihood. Africa,
Europe and Sweden have a common interest in maximising the
favourable effects of migration, which includes exploiting the attendant
transfer of knowledge and resources. At the same time, joint action is
needed to combat the negative side of migration, namely the exploitation
of people for gain. Human trafficking is one example.
Sweden is proactive in the EU and the international arena, where the
emphasis in the discussion on migration and development is increasingly
on ways to maximise the beneficial development effects of migration.
Migration issues and the link between migration and development are of
56
considerable importance to both Africa and Europe, and will become Skr. 2007/08:67
increasingly so in the future.
The EU’s overarching strategy on migration, the Global Approach to
Migration, is the principal framework addressing the international
dimension of the migration issue. The strategy aims at an integrated
approach across the various policy areas of relevance for migration, and
seeks closer dialogue and operative cooperation between countries of
origin, transit countries and receiving countries.
The Government supports this integrated, broad-based approach and is
contributing to the work of formulating and implementing the strategy,
which needs to strike a balance between West Africa and East Africa.
The Government is also seeking a balance between the strategy’s areas of
cooperation, in particular between efforts to counter illegal immigration
and efforts to facilitate lawful migration to the EU. The Government is
also working within the framework for cooperation between the EU and
third countries to ensure that people are able to seek asylum.
Migration is a priority area in the strategy and action plan adopted at
the EU-Africa summit in 2007. The strategy emphasises the need for
partner countries to work together to strengthen the developmentenhancing aspects of remittances from abroad, to involve the diaspora in
development cooperation, and to ensure respect for the rights of
immigrants, asylum seekers and refugees. African countries of origin,
transit countries and receiving countries should be supported in their
efforts to develop capacity for dealing with migratory flows.
The EU-Africa action plan emphasises the importance of closer
cooperation on international protection. The EU has drawn up regional
programmes to strengthen protection of refugees as a complement to
various forms of EU support to third countries in the asylum sphere.
Sweden has supported the development of such programmes and has
underlined the need to improve and expand protection capacity in regions
of origin. It is hoped that this will also serve as a strategic complement to
humanitarian aid. Pilot programmes have been launched in Tanzania and
other countries.
Human trafficking exploits the weakest groups in society and is an
unacceptable practice which appears to have intensified and to have
become increasingly global in character. It is often mistakenly described
as a European concern with illegal immigrants arriving from Africa and
elsewhere. It should, however, be viewed as a common EU-African
problem, as defined in the action plan adopted at the EU-Africa summit
in 2007.
The root causes of human trafficking must be tackled, not only in
Africa but also in the receiving countries in Europe. Trafficking in
human beings is clearly a product of poverty and the lack of gender
equality and respect for human rights, but it is also a result of demand in
Europe. Sweden must continue to adopt a multidimensional approach to
the task of combating human trafficking.
In the migration sphere, the Government intends:
–
to work actively in the EU for the establishment of further
channels for lawful migration, as these are crucial to future labour
57
needs in the EU and are also an important component in genuine Skr. 2007/08:67
partnerships with third countries,
–
to support the efforts of the European Commission to integrate
migration and asylum issues into cooperation with Africa. The
Commission should also seek to ensure that solutions are
sustainable by supporting measures in host countries aimed at
helping refugees to become self-supporting and to contribute to
development. Similar measures in countries of origin should also
be considered in return migration situations and implemented in
such a way that they benefit refugees, returnees and host countries
alike,
–
to support projects aimed at developing legislation and
administration in the migration and protection field in African
countries, in accordance with international law,
–
to work actively in the UN and EU systems and elsewhere for
priority to be given to finding solutions to protracted refugee
internally displaced persons situations in Africa,
–
to continue to maintain a high profile in the fight against human
trafficking. This means for example that Sweden must seek to
identify situations involving or likely to involve human trafficking
as well as groups of people at risk in Africa, and help prevent such
situations from arising.
4.6.4
Culture
Cooperation programmes in the cultural field can strengthen long-term,
mutually beneficial ties between Sweden and Africa. Cultural
partnerships have an important part to play in promoting deeper Swedish
knowledge and understanding of Africa, and vice versa. Cultural
cooperation and cultural exchange help to create forums where long-term
relations can be established. Thus they represent important instruments
for conveying knowledge and values that promote change and
development.
This kind of cooperation is not only valuable in itself but also
contributes to the fulfilment of foreign and aid policy goals with respect
to human rights, democracy and poverty reduction. It also facilitates
achievement of trade policy goals as well as integration policy goals such
as greater ethnic diversity and enhanced intercultural dialogue. Greater
knowledge and awareness of African countries’ cultural and intellectual
life can enrich our assessment of political, economic and social
developments on the continent. In post-conflict situations, or in
connection with other kinds of profound social change, a broad-based
programme of cultural cooperation with different groups can contribute
to conciliation and understanding between those directly affected as well
as to our own understanding of events. Such programmes also afford
Sweden wider opportunities to play an active part.
58
Extensive cultural cooperation between Sweden and African countries Skr. 2007/08:67
is already under way, e.g. as part of the Government’s development aid
programme. In countries where aid programmes are being phased out,
the ground already laid for further cultural cooperation can serve as a
basis for new cultural meeting places and relations. Cultural cooperation
should involve actors at local, regional and national level.
Initiatives by Sida, the Swedish Arts Council and the National Heritage
Board will continue to play an important role in the cultural sphere. The
Swedish Institute, which is also actively engaged in Africa, has good
prospects of continuing to act as a partner in building democracy and
civil society in the future.
In the cultural sphere, the Government intends:
–
4.7
to enhance interaction between different policy areas with a view
to strengthening cultural cooperation with Africa. Forms of
cooperation in this area, and other criteria, will be developed.
When funding is allocated, it is important to ensure that
precedence is given to the work of NGOs, including the activities
of cultural actors.
Trade and economic cooperation.
Increasingly, Sweden and Africa are establishing partnerships that
emphasise cooperation on equal terms and the pursuit of common goals.
New mechanisms are replacing old ones. Similarly, the Joint EU-Africa
Strategy points to the possibility – and importance – of Europe and
Africa joining together to confront global challenges. These challenges
include ensuring that Africa is incorporated into the global economy in a
positive way and becomes an active partner in the globalisation process.
There are numerous opportunities for Swedish enterprises to contribute
to this development, particularly in the environment, energy and
infrastructure spheres.
The strengthening of economic, commercial and industrial ties accords
the Swedish-African partnership a long-term, forward-looking dimension
of benefit to both sides. In 2006, Swedish exports to sub-Saharan Africa
totalled SEK 13.6 billion, or 1.3 per cent of all Swedish exports. There is
considerable potential for greater economic and commercial cooperation.
Such cooperation also has global implications and can make a
substantial contribution to achieving the Millennium Development
Goals. As part of a Sida-sponsored development programme currently
under way in South Africa, the Swedish Trade Council and Swedish
enterprises with a local presence are establishing special ‘meeting places’
to promote closer ties in a number of spheres besides the commercial
sector. These bring together Swedish and African government agencies,
small, medium-sized and large enterprises, NGOs and state institutions.
The overarching aim of these meetings is to promote economic growth
and create local employment opportunities. This form of cooperation
gives Swedish business an opportunity to boost its competitiveness,
59
growth and productivity in Africa, to the benefit of both sides. Similar Skr. 2007/08:67
partnerships with Namibia and Botswana are being prepared.
Better economic governance and a better investment climate are key
prerequisites as Africa builds up its economy and seeks a place for itself
in the global market. Further development of domestic markets and
regional integration are key components in the search for sustainable
economic growth and development. The driving force in this process is
the private sector, which must therefore be given more attention and
support.
Promoting private sector development in African means creating
investment- and business-friendly environments and promoting a stable
political climate, including democratic reforms. Efforts to strengthen the
judicial system and combat corruption are particularly important in this
connection. These and other initiatives in the same field are to be
implemented as part of long-term development cooperation. Private
sector development requires an integrated, holistic approach to the
question of how different inputs can interact and be mutually supportive
in different phases of development and business cooperation. Integrated
environmental thinking and the participation of women in this connection
are of central importance.
Many African countries need help to improve their production capacity
and create processing industries. It is essential to develop strategies for
economic growth that provide for macroeconomic stability, protection of
intellectual property rights and other relevant laws. Swedish institutions
and agencies have long been active in many of these fields. Their input
can be both broadened and deepened.
Increased commitment to innovation is one way of supporting
development opportunities in the poorest African countries, countering
brain drain and helping to improve the investment climate. A more
dynamic view is needed of the role of entrepreneurship in development,
and greater attention needs to be given to the importance of innovation to
growth. In the longer term, the growth and innovation regions created in
Africa will constitute new markets and growth areas due to their
innovative capacity, entrepreneurship and the presence of small-scale
technology. Areas for investment include energy, environment, climate
and technology. As universities will be playing a key role here,
cooperation in the innovation sphere between Swedish and African
universities and colleges is essential. Such partnerships may be
appropriate objects for government funding, to the benefit of both sides.
For the past five years, Sida, aided by VINNOVA’s experts and
networks, has been engaged in a development programme involving
Tanzanian, Ugandan and Mozambican universities, business clusters and
government representatives. This venture has boosted the
competitiveness of enterprises in the above countries. Similar innovationbased growth programmes have been launched in some fifteen other
African states and are in the pipeline in further countries. Thus
VINNOVA is already playing an important part in the promotion of new
business opportunities in Africa, and its role can be developed further.
Vital tasks in pursuit of human and social development in Africa
include boosting the number of productive jobs and ensuring decent
working terms and conditions. More people must have jobs. Particularly
60
in the case of women and young people, greater access to productive Skr. 2007/08:67
work would improve their situation and have positive social effects on
the community at large. In a number of African countries, women play a
particularly important role as traders and thus as employers or employees
in the private sector. Western aid must contribute to the creation of
meaningful jobs in Africa’s growing private sectors.
Swedish enterprises are well known in Africa for their commitment to
corporate social responsibility (CSR) and ethical standards, both in terms
of their attitude to corruption and their willingness to assume social and
environmental responsibility in the broader sense. Supported by Swedish
aid financing, businesses and union movements in a number of African
countries are involved in workplace programmes focusing on HIV/AIDS,
to cite one example. CSR-related issues have a strong bearing on
development, not least in the private sector. A range of CSR-related
problems concerning matters such as trade in conflict areas, HIV/AIDS
and the like are of immediate concern in a regional perspective. In the
extraction industry – oil, gas and mining enterprises – the ‘immunity’ of
state-owned companies means the outside world has little or no insight
into their operations. This is a further area where CSR-related measures
are needed.
Sweden is playing an active part in the development of international
policy on such issues. In this context, CSR is seen as a supplementary
instrument for promoting an open trade policy. Examples include
Swedish participation in the UN Global Compact and ongoing dialogue
with representatives of African governments, the African Union, the
business sector and civil society. Sweden can thereby help raise
awareness of and compliance with codes of conduct such as the OECD
Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, and contribute to the
application of instruments such as the OECD’s Risk Management
Programme. In a climate of growing international competition, this
commitment could give Sweden a comparative advantage, of benefit to
both parties.
In poor and conflict-stricken societies, private enterprise can not only
promote growth and job creation but also contribute to the development
of democratic governance and managerial expertise. Businesses are
dependent on stable markets that provide conditions for sustainable
trading. Business interests may well coincide with Swedish policy
interests in the quest for development, peace and security in Africa.
Africa needs to build its economic, commercial and industrial
development on among other things further development and processing
of natural resources. Just and peaceful exploitation of African raw
material assets, where the returns benefit both state and citizens, is
crucial to sustainable development in Africa. This is precisely the kind of
area where Swedish enterprise can contribute to African development.
Swedish business skills in sectors such as mining, forestry and energy
correspond well to African needs. It is important to keep in mind in this
connection that not all trade promotes development. There is for instance
substantial illegal trade in Africa in natural resource products such as
diamonds, timber and minerals. This can create and escalate conflicts and
thus weaken vital public services in a country, thus impeding the desired
development. The regulations governing the Kimberley process, which is
61
concerned with the international trade in raw diamonds, and the rules Skr. 2007/08:67
designed to stop the illegal trade in timber must be constantly improved.
Here, Sweden and Swedish enterprise can play an important part via aidfinanced programmes and projects, and thereby support the countries
concerned while strengthening the Swedish brand.
Efficient cooperation between government and private actors in
African markets – between the Swedish Government Offices, the
Ministry for Foreign Affairs, the Swedish Trade Council, Swedfund,
Sida and individual enterprises – is the basis for strengthening the
position of Swedish export companies in the African market. In emerging
markets in Africa, the Government’s promotion funding is of importance
in the face of ever-tougher competition, particularly from India and
China. However, more can be done, for instance through delegation visits
in both directions.
Important synergies can be achieved when government and private
sector actors meet. Interaction between government agencies, enterprises
and individuals, whether on a political, social, commercial or cultural
plane, help deepen bilateral relations. This model is based on the
common interests of a number of Swedish actors – including Sida, the
Swedish Trade Council, Swedfund, the National Board of Trade, Open
Trade Gate Sweden (OTGS) and the Swedish Export Credits Guarantee
Board – in operating in countries of interest to Swedish export industries.
Swedfund’s efforts to promote investment and growth in Africa are
increasing and are expected to continue doing so in the future. Mediumsized enterprises are particularly interesting and important in this
connection, as are small enterprises with cutting-edge skills. The Export
Credits Guarantee Board has noted that interest in Africa among Swedish
export enterprises is growing, a development that will also increase the
board’s own involvement in the region.
Close cooperation between actors on both sides will render Swedish
initiatives in Africa more effective and enable individual actors to
achieve their objectives. Fundamental aims and initiatives must be
predicated on each country’s needs and levels of demand, and be
sustainable in the long term. Supported by Swedish networks, actors and
models, undertakings should link together local parties and gradually
increase commitments via education and training, capacity building and
other types of input of common interest to those involved. Members of
the African diaspora in Sweden – including those operating as
entrepreneurs in both Sweden and Africa – are important actors.
In the field of trade and economic cooperation, the Government intends:
–
to support Swedish-African economic and commercial
cooperation; and to encourage the development of commercially
viable business concepts, giving them the means to succeed on
their own merits. The considerable differences in development,
political stability and potential for private sector growth among
African countries must be taken into account in this connection,
–
to develop, in close consultation with Swedish enterprises, Sida,
Swedfund and the Swedish Trade Council, country-specific
62
‘frameworks’ for a more cohesive programme of Swedish
development and business promotion activities,
5
–
to further develop, as part of Sweden’s global development
policy, instruments that facilitate closer interaction with Swedish
enterprise. This includes action in sectors where Swedish skills
match areas where the needs of African countries are especially
great, such as energy, environment, water, drainage and sanitation,
telecommunications, agriculture, healthcare and sustainable urban
development. The role of women in the development process is of
particular importance in this connection,
–
to develop better support functions to enable Swedish enterprises
to involve immigrants from Africa in their investment and
business activities. Cooperation between African and Swedish
actors aimed at linking education, applied research and product
development – focusing in particular on entrepreneurship and
issues relating to Swedish business and its relevance to poverty
reduction – is to inform Sweden’s policy for Africa,
-
to promote work on corporate social responsibility, CSR, in the
EU and elsewhere,
–
to produce an action plan for the promotion of Swedish
development and investment in sub-Saharan Africa in the future.
Skr. 2007/08:67
Summary and conclusions
Compared with the situation ten years ago, there are clear signs that
Africa is changing for the better. Living conditions have improved for a
large share of the continent’s population. However, there are numerous
exceptions and wide variations. Many people have lifted themselves out
of poverty and oppression. The number of armed conflicts has declined,
there is growing respect for human rights and democracy, and economic
growth for the continent as a whole has increased. Stronger regional
cooperation in Africa and greater African responsibility have contributed
to this promising development.
However, the positive trends often start from low initial levels, and
progress is fraught with difficulties. The current situation in the Horn of
Africa, marked by armed conflict and human suffering, is a tragic
example. In many places, the positive trends are fragile, and progress and
improvement have frequently been followed by setbacks. Major
challenges remain if the UN’s Millennium Development Goals are to be
achieved by 2015 and if the kind of sustainable development that benefits
all African people is to become a reality.
Africa presents a complex face to the world. Overall, however, the
situation at present suggests that the continent’s prospects of realising its
potential are good. In the rest of the world, interest in Africa has kept
pace with the continuing positive trends.
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Increased global demand for natural resources such as oil, gas, Skr. 2007/08:67
minerals and agricultural produce has generated growth and prompted a
growing number of actors to step up their political and economic
involvement in Africa. China is frequently mentioned in this connection,
but countries from virtually all parts of the world are increasing their
presence on the continent. In this sense, Africa has increasingly become a
part of the globalisation process, although it has yet to reap the rewards
in a way that adequately benefits the African population. Stronger
African self-awareness and greater equality in relations with other parties
would indicate that conditions on the continent are improving. A key
challenge for African and foreign actors alike is to promote development
that combines economic growth with further democratisation, greater
respect for human rights, and social and environmental sustainability.
The positive tendencies in the region are gradually changing the way
the rest of the world relates to Africa and cooperates with it. Better use of
the continent’s potential is laying the groundwork for future measures to
combat poverty and promote sustainable development.
It is against this background that the Government is now renewing
Sweden’s policy for Africa. The changes taking place on the continent
and in international conditions and channels for cooperation and aid will
be reflected both in Swedish foreign policy priorities for Africa and the
forms of Swedish-African cooperation.
Sweden’s policy for global development represents both a key point of
departure and a way of ensuring that all commitments are not only
directed towards a common goal but also result in more effective
policies. Sweden is to intensify its focus on long-term poverty reduction
measures and economic growth. Security policy, aid policy and trade
policy actions are all integral and mutually reinforcing dimensions of
Sweden’s policy for Africa.
The Government’s three thematic priorities in its new development
cooperation programme – democracy and human rights, environment and
climate, and the promotion of gender equality and the role of women in
development – are also reflected in the new Africa policy. Since respect
for democracy and human rights is still lacking, efforts in this area will
be stepped up. The implications of climate change, both globally and in
Africa, place considerable demands on the outside world’s environment
and climate policies, including those of Sweden. Gender inequality is an
obstacle to development, and so efforts will be made to strengthen both
the promotion of equality in this area and the role of women.
In foreign policy contexts, too – not least within the EU framework and
in bilateral work – respect for human rights and international law, the
promotion of democracy, and efforts to promote gender equality and
action on environment and climate issues will continue to define Swedish
involvement in Africa.
Sweden’s trade policy and commercial ties with the continent will also
need to be strengthened in view of the significance of African integration
in the global economy and growing international interest in Africa from a
commercial perspective. Greater African responsibility for conflict
resolution and the emergence of a regional security architecture will have
an impact on Swedish and European efforts to promote peace in Africa.
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Changes in the international framework will also affect Sweden’s Skr. 2007/08:67
Africa policy. The need for a clearer division of roles in international aid
efforts along with African support needs, which remain extensive, have
led to a stronger Swedish focus on Africa. The development of the EU’s
strategic partnerships and cooperation with Africa provide an
increasingly important forum – and framework – for Sweden’s Africa
policy.
The aims of Swedish cooperation with Africa are:
–
to support African countries and citizens in their pursuit of peace,
democracy and respect for human rights, and of economically,
socially and environmentally sustainable development,
–
to help Africa play a full and active part in global political and
economic cooperation on common challenges, and
–
to broaden the contact interface between Sweden and Africa, and
to promote both Swedish and African interests.
Peace and security, democratic governance and respect for human
rights, sound macroeconomic policies and better use of resources are
essential for growth that can be translated into welfare and prosperity.
Growth in turn is crucial to effective poverty reduction and sustainable
development. Attaching priority to economic growth and the fight
against poverty is therefore a core element of the Government’s policy
for Africa.
The need for new crisis and conflict management efforts in Africa in
coming years cannot be ruled out. The Government will set aside
resources that will enable future Swedish participation in civil and/or
military operations in Africa. Sweden will also contribute to the
establishment of an African security structure, to capacity building in the
African Union and among subregional actors, and to joint initiatives
within the EU framework.
In the aid sphere, Swedish bilateral commitments in coming years will
focus more closely on Africa. However, under Sweden’s new
development policy, these more extensive commitments will target fewer
countries and sectors. Prominence should be given to areas where
Sweden enjoys comparative advantages in comparison or coordination
with other donors and where these are based on the partner countries’
own situation and needs. Greater concentration will enable Sweden to
become a leading actor in individual countries and specific sectors, and
enhance the effectiveness and impact of Sweden’s commitments as a
whole. Countries in conflict and post-conflict situations are to be
accorded greater priority than before. Concern for democracy and human
rights, environment and climate, and the promotion of gender equality
and the role of women must inform Swedish development cooperation in
all countries.
Trade policy will play a major role in Sweden’s efforts to promote
sustainable development and growth in Africa. Sweden will also press
for the economic partnership agreements between the EU and Africa to
be broad in content, covering trade in goods and services, investment and
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other trade-related issues and including a prominent development Skr. 2007/08:67
component. In addition, Sweden will seek to ensure that Africa enjoys a
bigger share of the benefits of globalisation as a result of an ambitious
outcome of the Doha round of WTO talks. This would pave the way for
increased African participation in international trade.
Sweden intends to focus on private sector development, stronger rule
of law, property ownership issues and the fight against corruption in
Africa. Another important task is to contribute to the development of
innovations, competitive clusters and regional processing of the
continent’s natural resources. Sweden intends to support regional
integration in Africa and increased intra-African trade as a contribution
to higher growth.
Sweden’s Africa policy is broad in both its scope and its aims, so as to
reflect the diversity and variety that characterises Africa, geographically
and over time. A wide range of partnership arrangements are available,
for tailoring programmes and projects to the needs and conditions of
individual countries and for developing cooperation on issues and with
actors across the continent. A distinguishing feature of Sweden’s policy
for Africa is that it has been developed in close collaboration with others
and is being applied via a broad collection of channels and instruments
over and above the traditional bilateral arrangements for cooperation.
Acting as a member of the European Union and encouraging deeper
cooperation between the EU and Africa are guiding principles of
Swedish policy. The EU is a leading security policy actor and a major
donor and trade partner in Africa. Being part of the EU core, influencing
the direction of EU policy and strengthening EU actions in Africa gives
priceless added value to Swedish bilateral policies. The Joint EU-Africa
Strategy and the 2007 Joint Action Plan will accordingly guide Sweden’s
policy for Africa.
Sweden will make full use of the platform that membership of
multilateral bodies provides to ensure an effective Africa policy. The key
institution here is the UN, with its crucially important role as security
policy actor, standard setter and donor. The financial institutions, too,
such as the World Bank and the African Development Bank, are vital
channels. In implementing its Africa policy, moreover, Sweden will
work flexibly in various country constellations. The Nordic countries are
a given and prioritised cooperation group with a long tradition, while
cooperation with states that have stepped up their presence in Africa in
recent years can be developed further. Non-governmental actors such as
voluntary organisations, scientific institutions and associations are
priority partners in Sweden’s Africa policy.
Acting in close collaboration with African partners, Swedish actors in
the economic sphere can help stimulate development to the mutual
benefit and profit of all parties. Facilitating the presence of Swedish
enterprise in Africa can help establish ties and create added value to the
benefit of all parties. The promotion of trade exchange and investment
are vital aspects of the Government’s Africa policy.
On the African side, too, the number and diversity of partners is
growing among both regional institutions and national actors. A
particularly important trend is the increase in regional integration in
Africa and the emergence of the AU and subregional organisations.
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African integration leaves Africa better equipped to deal with peace and Skr. 2007/08:67
security issues and operate effectively in economic and social spheres.
Sweden’s Africa policy will increasingly focus on and support this trend.
Africa is facing a combination of unprecedented opportunities and
formidable challenges. In the course of time, the continent has good
prospects of achieving economically, socially and environmentally
sustainable development and a strong position in a globalised world. The
path to this goal, however, must be smoothed and the process speeded up
through more effective efforts to promote sustainable development and
poverty reduction.
By applying an integrated policy approach, Sweden intends to
contribute to the achievement of sustainable development. African
development remains a common, global – and thus Swedish – concern.
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Skr. 2007/08:67
Abbreviations
ACP
ADB
APRM
AU
BNC
CAADP
CDM
CEDAW
COMESA
CSR
DDR
EAC
EBA
ECA
ECOWAS
EDF
EIB
EPA
EU
FEMA
FAO
GDP
GNI
ICT
IDA
IGAD
IMF
IPCC
NEPAD
NGO
OECD
OTGS
PSC
SADC
African, Caribbean and Pacific (states)
African Development Bank
African Peer Review Mechanism
African Union
Binational Commission
Comprehensive African Agriculture
Development Programme
Clean Development Mechanism
UN Convention for the Elimination of
Discrimination Against Women
Common Market for Eastern and
Southern Africa
Corporate Social Responsibility
Disarmament,
Demobilisation
and
Reintegration
East African Community
Everything But Arms (initiative)
Economic Commission for Africa
Economic Community Of West African
States
European Development Fund
European Investment Bank
Economic Partnership Agreements
European Union
Forum of Energy Ministers of Africa
Food and Agriculture Organisation
Gross domestic product
Gross national income
Information
and
communications
technology
International Development Association
Intergovernmental Authority on
Development
International Monetary Fund
UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change
New Partnership for Africa’s
Development
Non-governmental organisation
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
Open Trade Gate Sweden
Peace and Security Council
Southern African Development
Community
68
Sida
SRHR
SSR
SWEDINT
TRAPCA
UN
UNAIDS
UNAMID
UNDP
UNECA
UNFPA
UNICEF
UNIFEM
UNODC
VINNOVA
WFP
WHO
WTO
Swedish International Development Skr. 2007/08:67
Cooperation Agency
Sexual and Reproductive Health and
Rights
Security Sector Reform
Swedish Armed Forces International
Trade Policy Training Centre in Africa
United Nations
Joint United Nations Programme on
HIV/AIDS
United Nations - African Union Mission
in Darfur
United Nations Development Program
United Nations Economic Commission
for Africa
United Nations Population Fund
United Nations Children’s Fund
United Nations Development Fund for
Women
United Nations Office on Drugs and
Crime
Swedish Governmental Agency for
Innovation Systems
World Food Programme
World Health Organization
World Trade Organization
69
Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Skr. 2007/08:67
Extract from the minutes of the Cabinet Meeting, 6 March 2008
Present: Prime Minister Reinfeldt, Ministers Odell, Bildt, Ask, Husmark
Pehrsson, Leijonborg, Erlandsson, Torstensson, Carlgren, Hägglund,
Björklund, Littorin, Malmström, Sabuni, Billström, Adelsohn Liljeroth
and Björling.
Rapporteur: Minister Bildt
_______________________________
The Government hereby adopts Communication 2007/08:67 Sweden and
Africa – A Policy to address Common Challenges and Opportunities.
70