Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Zigmas Zinkevicius
Lietuviu˛ etnogenez˙e ir Gudija
Lithuanian Ethnogenesis and Byelorussia
The monographies The Origin of the Lithuanian language (1984) and The Origin of the Lithuanian Nation (2005), as well as a considerable number of articlesZigmas Zinkevicius 30 refer to the Lithuanian ethnology. New inferences have been
drawn implying significant generalizations. The most important are going to be discussed in this paper. Most issues are the results obtained by of combining historical
(diachronic) linguistics and scientific data of archaeology, allowing to define more
precisely chronological framework of formation of Lithuanians as a separate ethnos
and to identify the area of that ethnos, especially the eastern border in the early period of formation. To this end the genetic relation of Lithuanians with the former
eastern Baltic tribes become clearer. Of significant importance is the fact that it is already possible to elucidate the ethnogenetic anity of Lithuanians and Byelorussians,
to define the basic points of Byelorussians’ origin and at the same time to bring out
the process of slavonification of Lithuanians (Balts) as well as the influence Eastern
Christianity had on this process. Historically inconsistent theories that distort the
role of Lithuanians and Byelorussians in forming the old-time state of Lithuania are
to be disposed.
Key words: Ethnogenesis, contacts of languages, relations of Balts and Slavs,
substrate.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Vadim Šadyro
Балто-славянские этногруппировки на территории
Белорусского Подвинья во второй половине I тысячелетия н.э.
(лингвоархеологический аспект)
The Balto-Slavic Ethnic Groups in the Territory of Belarusian Podvinie
(Basin of the Dvina River) in the Second Half of the First Millennium A. D.
(an archeolinguistic aspect)
The processes of the great migrations of peoples affected also the territory of Belarus, including areas close to the Dvina River. These movements initiated the formation of the ethno-cultural groups which over time constituted the fundaments of
the Belarusian nation. Archaeology notes a number of changes in the material culture of the populations living in this territory. All changes fixed in archaeology took
place due to various mutual cultural influences and transfers of groups of people.
The author attempts to identify the names of tribes which, in his opinion, inhabited areas along the Dvina River. Among them are the Kryvichy (Kryvy), Polotcans,
Latgalians and, possibly, Selonians and Narvians.
Later he discusses the opinions of a number of scholars on relevant ethnonyms
and their etymology and comments on the credibility of their evidence. He emphasizes the presence of many Lithuanian words in the Belarusian language. Linguists
have noted also Latvian isoglosses on the Dvina and beyond the Dnieper. In connection with archaeological evidence, this fact provides evidence of the geographical
distribution of Baltic tribes in these areas in the past.
In a similar way the author deals with other ethnonyms. Generally, an analysis of ethnonyms denoting the Belarusian people of the area along the Dvina in the
early Middle Ages indicates the complexity of ethnic and cultural relations in this
region. One can assume that Slavicization, which took place here, embraced the Baltic peoples and, in part, Baltic and Finnic peoples.
The author is well aware that the identification of ethnocultural groups inhabiting Belarusian territory on the Dvina River in the early Middle Ages is very dicult.
He believes that only extensive study of the problem, combining archaeological, ethnographic, linguistic and anthropological data, as well as data from other related
disciplines, may help to resolve the question.
Key words: Balto-Slavic Ethnic Groups, Territory of Belarusian Podvinia (Basin of
the Dvina River), Kryvishy (Kryvy), Polotcans, Latgalians, Selonians, Narvians.
Second Half of the First Millennium A. D., archeolinguistic aspect.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Edvard Zajkovskij
Балто-славянскиe контакты в цeнтральной и восточној Бeларуси
в срeднeвeковъe (по данным архeологии и письмeнных источников)
Baltic-Slavic contacts in the Central and Eastern Byelarussia
in the Middle Ages
(on the basis of the archeological research and writtensources)
In the beginning of the Common Era, the tribes of Balts lived on almost entire modern territory of Belarus. The resettlement of the Slavs and their movement
northward began from the middle of the first millennium AD, but as early as before
VIII-IX century AD, they have not yet opened up the greatest part of Belarus. If in
some places the Slavicization of the Balts tribes was completed at the end of the first
millennium AD, in other places it was under way in the late Middle Ages, even in
the XIX century.
This article focuses on the materials about the “enclaves” of the Balts, which
were long preserved in Central and Eastern Belarus. In particular, such “enclaves”
existed in the vicinity of Gayna and Oboltsy, where in the Great Lithuanian Principality, in 1387, after the adoption of Catholicism, the first churches were built. The
Balts anthroponomy of the considerable part of the population of Oboltsy can be
traced on the basis of the written documents dating back to a period of mid-XV –
late XVI century. The fact that these Balts were not the Middle Age resettlers from
Lithuania is proved by the existence of burial mounds (kurgans) dating back to the
XI–XII centuries which were stone-faced, a feature typical for the Balts. In addition,
during the archeological excavations specific, Balts things were discovered.
According to the 1596 inventory of the Seltso estate (which is located in the
neighborhood of Gayna), the author could trace the Balts’ anthroponims of certain
farmers, besides the names of a great number of people were of the Catholic origin. In the neighborhood of Gayna, near the villages of Aynarovichi, Khoruzhantsy,
Chyrvony Bor, Selishche, and Sukhaya Gora the stone-faced burial mounds were
preserved. In the Middle Ages, the Balts settlements stretched from Gayna toward
Radoshkovichi and Ivenets, which is proved by the numerous Balts’ oykonomy. In
Rakov, back in the second half of the XV century, there lived the people who had
Balts names and in the late XVI century, according to the Dekshnyany inventory
(Dekshnyany is located close to Radoshkovichi), the population was divided into
the Orthodox and Catholics and quite a few from the Catholics had evident Balts
anthroponims. Grand Prince Aleksandr Kazimirovich, in his ocial letter of 1501,
granted the right to the Bishop of Vilno to appoint Roman Catholic priests who
“spoke the Lithuanian language” in Radoshkovichi and Koydanovo. Close to Rado-
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
szkovichi, in the vicinity of the villages of Anusino, Borzdyn and Devichya Gora, the
archeologists studied the burial mounds/kurgans dating back to the late XI – early
XII centuries, the said burial mounds were stone-faced and a zoomorphic bracelet,
typical for the Balts, was discovered in one of the said kurgans. The Baltslanguage
speaking enclave was also located in the vicinity of the town of Dokshitsy, where
numerous Balts oykonims were registered and similar Balts oykonims were also recorded southward from Minsk, close to Kletsk and Kopyl. It is typical that the greatest part of the late Middle Ages Balts’ enclaves existed in the neighborhood of the
Main European water border. The author believes that this medieval Balts’ settlement was not part of the Lithuanian ethnic group, but represented the ancestors of
the population of the Bantser archeological culture of the third quarter of the first
millennium AD. The author also launches an attempt to connect the relic Balts enclaves with the spread of ethnotoponims of the Latygol, Lotva, Litva-type. It is not
ruled out that in the beginning, Latygol was used to name the northern part of the
area of the Bantser culture while “Litva” ethnotoponims designated the western border of annalistic Lithuania.
Key words: Belarus, Balts, Slavs, contacts, the Middle Ages, archeology, written
sources.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Saulius Ambrazas
Lietuvių etnogenezės preoblema žodžių darybos požiūriu.
The problem of origin of the Lithuanian nation from the standpoint
of word formation
The greatest part of derivational features common to Lithuanian and Latvian
was inherited from Proto-Baltic. Only some of them may be ascribed to exclusive
East Baltic innovations. Besides, there are dierences in the realization of them.
In Latvian the sux *-u-mo- (but not the sux *-i-mo- in the contrast to Lithuanian) was widely used in the formation of nomina actionis. It is also noteworthy that
the formation of Latvian nomina actionis was aected most radically by the adjectival
sux *-no- rather than *-mo-.
A number of East Baltic innovations (cf nominal diminatives with *-ťen-o-, *-ťako-, *-ťe-ko-) cover not all territory of Lithuanian, but usually the eastern part of it
which is supposed to be the mother land of the Lithuanian nation.
On the other hand, a number of derivational isoglosses link the Lithuanian language to Old Prussian and oppose it to Latvian, cf nomina collectiva with *-ť.-no-;
nomina agentis with *-i-ko-, nomina attributiva with *-in-ť.-ko-, *-e-no-, *-ťat-io-,
* o-. Some of these isoglosses might reflect the influence of West Baltic tribes (they
were very early drawn into the processes of European civilization) upon the Lithuanian language (especially upon its western and southern dialects) in the ini- * *-ťo-li
* o-; nomina qualitatis with *-ť.-bťe, *-ť.-s-tťa, *-is-ko-; diminutives with *-o-l-i * o-,
*-i-s-t-i tial stage of its development.
Key words: Lithuanian language, Baltic languages, Lithuanian nation, ethnolinguistics, word formation (derivation).
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Danguolė Mikulėnienė
Del vakaru baltu itakos vakariniu lietuviu tarmiu kirciavimo sistemai
Concerning the Influence of the Western Balts on the
Accentuation System of Western Lithuanian Dialects
The hypothesis is based on the old and more This article discusses the nature
of the tonemes of stressed syllables typical of the western area of Lithuanian. With
respect to the intonation curve these tonemes are in contrast to the corresponding
tonemes of the dialects of Eastern Aukđtaitian (often also of Latvian). In the author’s
opinion, the main reason of this discrepancy could be the development of the Baltic
*ei (<*ťe recent Lithuanian dialect data. For example, such relics as sviekas St Lith
svi.ekas ‘well, sound’, sviekat. St Lith sveikata ‘health’, etc. in the Zietela subdialect
can be accounted for only by the substratum of the western Balts (Prussian or more
probably Yotvingian); cf. sve..kas, Latvian sv.iks ‘idem’.Danguol˙e Mikul˙enien˙e 96
Thus, this ‘reversal’ of the toneme curves in western Lithuanian dialects is to be
treated as a part of the linguistic legacy of the western Balts.
Key words: accentology, Western Balts, tonemes, dialectology.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Jťuratė Sofija Lauciūtė
Apie dar viena senosios baltiškos leksikos šaltini
About one more source of Proto-Baltic vocabulary0
Within the framework on project of the common-Baltic dictionary in the University of Klaip˙eda the present author has made an eort to look for the new sources
of Baltic vocabulary.
The studies by V.Toporov, J. Otkupshchikov, R. Ageeva and V. Sedov show that
in the collection of common Baltic vocabulary can be included the lexical Baltisms,
Slavic hydronyms and place names of Baltic origin which have cognates in at least
one living Baltic language. For example, the Proto-Baltic character of Lith. alka and
Latv. elka show the Prussian place names and river name Alkin in the Oka river basin in Russia. The hydronym Kal~ná cf. Lith. kálnas, Latv. kalns also may be the relict of the Balts who lived in the Oka river basin.
On the other hand, Baltic words, which have equivalents only in same East Slavic languages, can be also interpreted in the context of Slavic invasion into the Baltic
territory, cf. Lith. loma ‘a depression in a field, valley, pit’ and Rus. dial. (Pskov, Tver
and elsewhere) lámy, lam´y ‘a meadow grown over with stunted forest, bushes sometimes flooded’, lom ‘swamp’, lom´y ‘a meadow with floods’.
Key words: Proto-Baltic vocabulary, hydronyms, substrate, Balts in the East.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Oleg Polkov
Московская лингвистическая школа и традиции
современной балтистики
The Moscow Linguistic School and Tradition
of Modern Baltic Linguistics
The global political and economic changes over the past 15 years have had negative consequences on the development of many academic sciences. Linguistics, like
many other humanitarian disciplines, faces many problems in the changed world
and tries to accommodate itself to the realities of nowadays. The solving of existing problems seems to be impossible without taking into consideration the experience gained by many linguistic schools. In this connection the experience of the
Moscow linguistic school is one of the most valuable. The linguistic science here has
flourished under dierent political regimes and in dierent economic situations. This
linguistic school was created by Filip Fedorovich Fortunatov (1848-1914). Its appearance and development in many aspects is connected with the appearance and development of Baltic linguistics.
The article briefly reviews the contribution made by F. F. Fortunatov and his
school to dierent aspects of Baltic linguistics. The analysis of their works shows that
many scientific principles of this school have been elaborated and formulated on
the ground of investigations into, primarily, Baltic languages, especially Lithuanian.
Another reason for the success of this school can be connected with its interdisciplinary activities and some extralinguistic factors. F. F. Fortunatov and his fellows
were able to create a flourishing atmosphere of investigations aimed at cooperation
with dierent scholars irrespective of their nationality, religion and personal convictions. The Moscow linguistic school is also famous for introducing ethical principles123 Moskovska lingvistiqeska xkola i. . . into academic activities. In this connection the further study of its dierent and unique experience seems to be especially
important at the present time.
Key words: Moscow linguistic school, F. F. Fortunatov, Baltic linguistics, extralinguistic factors, ethical principles in academic activities.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Jťuratė Dulkienė, Dalia Pakalniđkienė
Principles for the selection of a common Baltic lexicon
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
In der linguistischen Literatur sind einige umfangreichere oder knappere Listen
der allgemeinbaltischen Wörter veröentlicht worden, aber ein ausführliches Register
der allgemeinbaltischen Lexik fehlt bis jetzt.
Im Baltistischen Zentrum der Universität Klaip˙eda wird eben ein Wörterbuch
der allgemeinbaltischen Lexik zusammengestellt. Der vorliegende Artikel erörtert
die Auswahlprinzipien und dieses Wörterbuchs.
Allgemeine Lexeme
In das Wörterbuch werden alle Lexeme registriert, die in mindestens zwei baltischen Sprachen vorhanden sind. Derzeit sind etwa 3600 allgemeinbaltische Formen rekonstruiert.
Den größten Teil des Wörterbuchs bilden die Lexeme, die in den beiden ostbaltischen Sprachen (Litauischen und Lettischen) zu finden sind – man hat etwa 3000
solche Formen rekonstruiert, wie *dir-u -—a Acker: lit. dirva „Ackerland, Boden,
der bearbeitet wird, Feld“; lett. dirva „Acker“ (vgl. aber a.pr. acc. sg. samyen „den
(bearbeiteten) Boden, Acker“).
Man findet mehr als 100 Wörter, die das Preußische und das Litauische, aber
nicht das Lettische haben, z.B. *dang-us „Himmel“: a.pr. dangus „Himmel, Gaumen“; lit. dangus, dángus „Himmel“ (vgl. lett. debess „Himmel“).
Die gemeinsamen Lexeme, des Preußischen und des Lettischen, die aber
im Litauischen nicht zu finden sind, bilden etwa ein paar Dutzende, z.B., *garm—e „Wärme, Hitze“: a.pr. gorme „Hitze“; lett. garme „Wärme“ (vgl. lit. ka~rštis
„Hitze“).
Und etwa 500 Lexeme sind in allen drei baltischen Sprachen vorhanden, z.B. *u
ard-/*u ird-as Wort, Name: a.pr. wirds „Wort“; lit. va~rdas „d.s.“; lett. v—ards „d.s.“.
Das Wörterbuch unterscheidet sich von den anderen etymologischen Wörterbüchern in dem, dass hier in der Liste der allgemeinbaltischen Lexeme nicht alle
verwandten Wörter registriert sind, sondern nur richtige En t s p r e c h u n g e n ,
dieJťurat˙e Dulkien˙e, Dalia Pakalniđkien˙e 132 hinsichtlich der Derivation adäquat
sind, und in ihrer Semantik und formalen Struktur einander entsprechen.
Von den weiteren Bildungen (verstarrten Partizipformen, Deminutiven,
regelmäßigen deverbativen oder deadjektiven Abstraktbildungen u.ä.) werden nur
diejenige präsentiert, die als Beweismittel für die Rekonstruktion eines verschwundenen oder nicht dokumentierten allgemeinbaltischen Grundworts dienen, z.B. *kait„heiß, warm werden“: a.pr. *kait- (: prakaisnan „den Schweiß“); lit. ka.isti „warm,
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
heiß werden (von den Nichtlebewesen), trocknen“; lett. k.ist „warm, heiß werden“.
Für die Rekonstruktion der Appelative sind Orts- und Personennamen wichtig, z.B.
*blus-ťa Floh: a.pr. *blus- (: Bluskaym); lit. blus. „Floh“; lett. blusa „d.s.“.
Formale Struktur der Entsprechungen
1. Äquivalente. Als Äquivalente gelten die allgemeinbaltischen Wörter, die gleichrangig in ihrer Derivation (Primärwörter oder Ableitungen), adäquat in ihrer
morpho(no)logischen Struktur und gleich oder ähnlich in ihrer Semantik sind. Man
findet etwa 300 allgemeinbaltische Wörter, die als Äquivalente betrachtet werden
können, z.B. *ang-is „Schlange“: a.pr. angis „Schlange“; lit. ang.s „d.s.“; lett. u.dzis
„d.s.“; *bit-ťe „Biene“: a.pr. bitte „Biene“; lit. b.t˙e, bit.s “d.s.“; la. bite, bitis „d.s.“.
2. Entsprechungen mit morphonologischen Abweichungen. Einige allgemeinbaltische Wörter, die in ihrer Derivation, Struktur und Semantik gleichrangig sind,
unterscheiden sich doch voneinander durch ihren Wurzelvokalismus, d.h. in den
einzelnen baltischen Sprachen ist die Stufe des Wurzelvokals bei diesen Entsprechungen unterschiedlich, z.B. *reis-/*ris- „-binden“: a.pr. perrťeist „zubinden“, senrists „verbunden“; lit. r.đti „binden, schnüren“; lett. r..est „zubinden“; rist „binden“.
3. Entsprechungen mit Abweichungen in der Struktur. Das sind abgeleitete
Wörter, die in ihrer Derivation gleichrangig sind, aber die Struktur ihrer Suxe unterscheidet sich. Meistens haben sie dieselbe oder ähnliche Bedeutung und das historische Verhältnis ihrer Derivationsaxe ist augensichtlich, z.B. *mťak-ť.-/-in- „lehren,
etwas jemandem beibringen“: a.pr. mukint „d.s.“, 3. sg. mukinna „lehrt“; lit. mókyti,
móko, mók˙e „lehren, unterrichten, bilden, schulen“; mok.nti, mok.na, mok.no „lehren“; lett. mťac.t, mťacu, -.iju „d.s.“; mťacinťat „d.s.“.
Semantika. Einige allgemeinbaltische Wörter entsprechen völlig einander in
ihrer Semantik, z.B. *dťum-as, -ai Rauch, Qualm: a.pr. dumis [dťum@s] „Rauch“;
lit. dťumas, dťumai „d.s.“; lett. dťumi „d.s.“. Aber es gibt Lexeme, deren Bedeutung
in den baltischen Sprachen nur ein Sem oder einige Seme verbindet. Sie werden als
Entsprechungen nur dann betrachtet, wenn in ihren Bedeutungen ein gemeinsames
Archisem zu rekonstruieren ist, z.B. *drug-ť.s „das, was zittert“ ! „Falter, Schmetterling“, „Zittern“: a.pr. drogis „Schilf, Schilfrohr“; lit. drug.ys “Zittern, Beben“;
„Schmetterling“; lett. drudzis „Zittern“.
Die Erstellung eines Registers der allgemeinbaltischen Lexik ist eine komplizierte Arbeit. Oft sind die Lexeme in der linguistischen Literatur unterschiedlich interpretiert, die Sprachwissenschaft wird stets mit den neuen Tatsachen und Quellen
bereichert, deswegen müssen die Auswahlprinzipien und die allgemeinbaltische
Lexik auch dauernd korrigiert, vervollständigt und präzisiert werden. Aber ein Register der allgemeinbaltischen Lexik, das nicht erwägt wird, ist auch kaum denkbar.
Key words: Balts, vocabulary, semantics, selection, equivalents, correspondences.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Rolandas Kregždys,
Were the Baltic and Slavic names of the “Filix” fern taboo?
SANTRAUKA
Praneđime nagrin˙ejamas baltuž ir slavuž kalbuž paparcio pavadinimuž đaknies
baigmenuž -t-/-d- ižvairavimo prieţastys. Iđkeliama hipotez˙e apie lie. Papa.rtis
priklausyma determinatyviniams dťuriniams: bl.-sl. *pad- „dirva” + bl.-sl. *partťa
„sparnai, plunksnos”. Teigiama, kad skirtinga „papartiž” reiđkianciuž leksemuž
konsonantin˙e đaknies struktťura nulemta ne tabu fenomeno, bet asimiliacijos
veiksnio. Rekonstruojama protosemema „plunksnos/sparnai ant ţem˙es (dirvos)”.
a type compounds; taboo. Key words: progressive/regressive assimilation; consonantal root structure; determinative composite (compound); tatpurus
Key words: progressive/regressive assimilation; consonatal root tructure; determinative composite (compound); tatpurusa type compounds; taboo.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Maria Teresa Lizisowa
Konfrontacja pojec prawnych w słowniku Konstantego Szyrwida i w
Statutach Litewskich
Confronting juridical terms of the dictionary of Konstantinas Szirwydas
and of the Statutes of the Great Duchy of Lithuania
The objective of the present research is to reconstruct the system of juridical
terms in the language of 16th century Lithuanian legislation and then, to confront
the textual realization of a pattern with the general social understanding of these
particular terms, at the beginning of the 17th century in the Great Duchy of Lithuania. The prototypes of categories of establishing interpersonal relationships (law,
guilt, court, authority) as well as the prototypes of categories of the classi- fication of
a deed within interpersonal relations (LAW, DEBT, GUILT, HARM), researched in
the context of a legislative act reflecting the awareness of legislators and the intellectual elite, are not adequate to the examples of the prototypes of categories certified
by the Polish-Latin-Lithuanian dictionary according to the actual state of the common language. European juridical terms, taken on as a part of the Renaissance currents, were adopted to suit the local conditions of political and social life. Multilingualism of linguistic resources makes it considerably easier to identify the terms and
to observe semantic reallocations of juridical terms in a given category.
Key words: juridical terms, polish northeastern dialect, prototypes of categories.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Bronius Maskuliťunas
Refleksyvumo raiška Jokūbo Morkūno Postilėje (1600):
santykis su originalu
The Expression of Reflexivity in Jokūbo Morkūno Postil (1600):
the Relation with the Original
The paper analyses the expression of reflexivity in one of the largest Lithuanian
writings of the 16–17th c. — the so-called Jokťubas Morkťunas’ Postil (MP). In the
sermons of the examined source, the model of expressing reflexivity characterized
by the usage of a reflexive pronoun, neutral in relation to a person, number and gender clearly predominates. The predominance of such model I constructions differentiates the MP from other writings of the period; however, the comparison of the data
of Morkťunas’ Postil with the correspondences of the original — with the Polish text
of Mikoůaj Rej’s Postil (RP) — allows us to state definitely that such expression of reflexivity is not a direct merit of the translator of Calvinist Postil. The majority of the
reflexive constructions of MP sermons coincide with the RP constructions. Usually
in places where Rej uses reflexivity expression model I inBronius Maskuliťunas 172
his text, Morkťunas employs the same model, while constructions of model II, when
non-reflexive pronouns are used reflexively in the area of first and second person,
comparatively seldom found in Rej’s text, are also translated by Morkťunas by using
model II constructions. Consequently, while investigating the expression of reflexivity in old Lithuanian writings and stating in this context that the language of the sermons of Morkťunas’ Postil is especially valuable in terms of the abundance of reflexive constructions of model I, the tribute should, first of all, be given to Mikolaj Rej.
Key words: Old writings, reflexivity, Jokťubas Morkťunas, Mikolaj Rej.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Juozas Karaciejus
XVIII a. raštų kalba: bažnytinio stiliaus formavimosi išdava
ar rašomosios kalbos nuosmukio rezultatas?
The written Lithuanian language of the eighteenth century: the
consequenceof the formation of the church style or of the decay of
thewritten language
The language of the eighteenth-century Catholic writings is given a negative
assessment in nearly all the works devoted to the history of the written Lithuanian
language. The main reason of such evaluation is a great number of Slavisms found
in them. Researchers usually present lists of such loanwords. In this study these lists
were reviewed and collated with the lexis of the authors of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. A more detailed analysis of the Slavisms showed that about 90 per
cent of these borrowings had been used by the authors of the two previous centuries.
A comparison of the two editions of Broma atwerta ing wiecznasti by M. Alđauskas
(in 1753 and 1759) revealed that the loanwords of the first edition were replaced by
Lithuanian words in 94 cases in the second edition; and a reverseXVIII a. Raštu˛
kalba: bažnytinio stiliaus formavimosi išdava ar. . . 179 substitution was observed
only in four cases. This situation leads to the conclusion that the underlying reason
for this prolific use of Slavisms was not merely the spread of the Polish language and
the denationalization of the Lithuanian clergy. The author of this article is inclined
to believe that a significant factor could have been the desire of the authors of Lithuanian writings to create a church style diering from the spoken everyday language.
To this end the eighteenth-century writers profusely used Polish words only adapting them to the rules of Lithuanian grammar.
Key words: Lithuanian 18th-century writings, loanwords, Slavisms, church
language.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Svetlana Vlasova
Роль категории определенности.неопределенности в развитии
прилагательного в древнерусском и литовском языках
The Role of the Definiteness / Indefiniteness Category
in the Development of Adjectives in Old Russian and Lithuanian
The author makes an attempt to clarify the basis of the development of simple
and pronominal forms in the Lithuanian and Russian languages, as their primary
meanings were identical. The Uspensky Codex (dating to the 12th–13th centuries; referred to as UC thereafter) is analysed in the article, as simple and pronominal forms
of adjectives were still used at that period to express the definiteness/indefiniteness
category. Comparison of Modern Lithuanian and Old Literary Russian language
texts allows distinguishing phonetic similarity existing between pronominal forms
of adjectives in both the languages and predetermining their similar functioning.
The author proves in the article that pronominal forms used in the UC, similarly
to those of Modern Lithuanian, have two basic functions, i.e. distinctive and directive. Due to inseparable pronoun-adjective joining, close and complex relations have
developed between the meaning of definiteness and the semantics of dierent groups
of adjectives. It is often the very lexical meaning of the adjective that individualises
an object, distinguishes it out of the class of other same-class objects and enables
marking it as a known object, thus making it definite. Distinctive semantics of adjectives would often determine sole usage of pronominal forms. Therefore, pronominal
forms started displacing simple forms, and adjectives of some classes are totally devoid of simple forms. In modern Lithuanian, an interrelation is also noticed between
the possibility of making pronominal forms and classes of adjectives. It should be
noted that this relationship is reciprocate in Old Russian and Modern Lithuanian.
The category of definiteness is constantly expressed in the UC using pronominal
forms in the cases where it has already been previously expressed with the help of
other devices, i.e. demonstrative and possessive pronouns, proper names or lexical
word meanings. This tendency has resulted in spreading of pronominal forms, and
they became primary forms in Russian. It is vice versa in Lithuanian: when definiteness is expresses using lexical devices (e.g. relative, diminutive and compound adjectives), such forms are not used or used constantly (with proper names, demonstrative pronouns and appeals). For this reason (neutralisation), simple forms started
dominating in Lithuanian over pronominal ones.
Key words: definiteness/indefiniteness category, simple and pronominal adjective forms, adjective form semantics, 12th–13th century Uspensky Codex, contrasting with Lithuanian.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Zofia Sawaniewska-Mochowa, Anna Zielinska
Sposoby wyrazania grzecznosci w korespondencji szlachty litewskiej
(XIX–XX w.)
Ways of expressing politeness in the Lithuanian nobility correspondence
(XIX–XX cent.)
A letter as a linguistic statement, quite strongly conventionalized by means of its
assignment to patterns and norms of social behaviour, is a valuable source helping in
a description of linguistic etiquette in such a culturally dierentiated Europe’s region
as the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (contemporary states of Lithuania and Belarus).
Although now there is no such a formally distinguished social class as ‘traditional
nobility’, however in fact in the mentioned region still exists the group of people that
identifies with the nobility culture.
Our paper deals with polite phrases used in the correspondence of the Lithuanian obility in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, especially with addressing
expressions applied in inscriptions (addresses), salutations (welcoming) and subscriptions (conclusion, signature).We were interested mainly in two basic questions
1) vitality of Old Polish politeness patterns and titles in researched letters (conservative elements in polite phrases),
2) evolution of politeness models that were shaped in the noble communities
(innovative forms in polite phrases).
Analyzed letters (133 texts and 55 addresses on the envelopes) were classified according to two criteria: relation sender-recipient and message’s content. We divided
material into two basic big groups: private letters and ocial letters. In each of these
groups letters are distinguished, paying attention to the relation sender-recipient,
on the basis of character of partners: equal or unequal (because of diversity in terms
of age, holding public oce, social position and attractiveness, wealth). Considering
communicative function, letters are divided into relating (sender presents recipient
a story about dierent events) and illocutive (sender wants to reach intended aim). In
fact a lot of letters had mixed character (relations and informations are accompanied
by requests and thanks).
Analysis of polite phrases in dierent types of letters proves that relation senderrecipient and letter’s content can wield big influence on the choice of adequate linguistic forms expressing politeness.
Key words: nobility, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, linguistic etiquette, letters, polite phrases.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Vilija Sakalauskienė
Leksiniai slavizmai pietinių vakarų aukštaičių šiaurinėje šnektoje
Slavic Loanwords in the Northern Sub-dialect of the Southern Part of
West High Lithuanian
Lexicon is the most fluctuating language layer; it changes along with the improving and changing life. All borrowed word-stock has several different synchronic
layers. The majority of loanwords of the 20th century are of Russian origin. Going back into the past, for the identification of the language source, old writigs and
the analysis of their borrowings is of utmost importance. From that period we have
more loanwords from Byelorussian or Polish and fewer from Russian.
Currently loanwords are more frequent in spoken rather than in written language. There are just a few Slavic loanwords widespread in old texts and transferred
into the standard language. More and more old Slavic loanwords have been ousted from the dialects under the influence of the standard language. In the 16th or
17th centuries the situation was slightly different. The greatest part of old Lithuanian
writings in this period are translations from Slavic languages and they reflect not
only Slavic loanwords, used in spoken language, but also new borrowings. Hence
chronologically the inventory of Slavic loanwords in old texts overlaps with the inventory of Slavic loanwords in dialects. Moreover, the West High Lithuanian dialect
took its final shape only at the end of the 17th century.
300 old Slavic loanwords, which are still used in the dialect of Zanavykai, cover
a fairly limited variety of semantic groups and show the character of linguistic contacts in the middle of Lithuania.
Key words: Lithuanian language, dialectology, lexicology, dialect, borrowings, Slavic
loanwords.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Brigita Bušmane
Славизм kāpousti в названиях латышских блюд
(этнолингвистичeский аспeкт)
Latvian Traditional Dishes (an ethnolinguistic aspect)
Cabbage belongs to the most ancient and widespread vegetables in the popular
nourishment. In Latvia, they started to plant head-cabbage in the 11th century A. D.
Data of Latvian folk-songs and popular believes as well as the use of the word
kāpuosti among names of a traditional dish prepared on the occasion of swine
slaughtering (e.g., a(p)bē¦du kāpuosti, cūku kāpuosti, verbatim “swine cabbage,”
sietalkāpuosti, verbatim “fattened pig’s cabbage”) are testifying the significance of
cabbage in popular nourishment since old times.
The Standard Latvian word kāpuosts was borrowed from Old Russian капуста
simultaneously with the appearance of this plant before the 13th century.
In Standard Latvian, but more frequently in regional sub-dialects, names for
various cabbage dishes are formed using the word kāpuosti (in the plural). They are
mainly composite names with this word as the independent component, established
due to a metonymical meaning transfer ‘product’ → ‘dish’. The depending component
of composite names for dishes performs the differentiating function while comprising
several information about this product (its features, preparing, etc.). Under semantic
aspect, they have to be classified in 4 main groups: 1) names that contain in their 1st
part a noun differentiating the dish upon the product (e. g., mugurkaula kāpuosti, verbatim “backbone cabbage,” lapu kāpuosti, verbatim “leaf cabbage,” galviņu kāpuosti,
verbatim “head cabbage”), 2) names with reference to a feature or property of the dish
in their 1st part (e. g., salde¦nie kāpuosti – cf. salde¦ns ‘sweet’, šķīstie kāpuosti – cf. šķīsts
‘watery’, baltie kāpuosti – cf. balts ‘white’), 3) names whose 1st component includes
reference to an action performed when preparing the dish (e.g., sutinātie kāpuosti,
štuovē¦tie kāpuosti – cf. sutināt, štuovēt ‘to stew’), 4) names containing reference to
the preparing period, or intention, of the dish (a(p)bē¦du kāpuosti – cf. a(p)bē¦das
‘swine slaughtering’, šķirību kāpuosti – cf. šķirt ‘to divide’, šķirties ‘to separate’).
In Latvian regional sub-dialects the word kāpuosti also denotes a dish made of
other vegetables (e.g., biešu kāpuosti, verbatim “beet cabbage,” balandu kāpuosti, verbatim “garden orach’s cabbage,” skābiņu kāpusti, verbatim “sorrel cabbage”).
Semantic and word formational equivalents in Latvian and Slavic material are
testifying the antiquity of the borrowed word kāpuosti in Latvian, as well as giving
evidence of common linguistic phenomena in these languages.
Key words: dialectology, lexicology, semantics, traditional dishes, popular believes
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Nijolė Cėpienė
Lietuvių kalbos germanizmų atėjimo keliai
Ways of Germanisms into Lithuanian
Already the first Lithuanian writings and old dialects contain a number of words
adopted from other languages. Researchers often disagree on the ways of their entering the Lithuanian lexicon. Some of these loanwords must have come directly from
the Germanic languages, mostly German, while others were received from the Slavic
languages, mainly Polish, Belarusian or some other language. In this context the
problem of the intermediary language is often pertinent. In his book, Die Germanismen des Litauischen. Teil I: Die deutschen Lehnwörter im Litauischen, K. Alminauskis recorded 2,770 words; of that number about 130 loanwords are of uncertain
origin. Sometimes the ultimate form of the borrowing does not help in determining its origin, because the phonetic and morphological structure of the German and
Slavic base forms is fully or nearly identical, e.g. Lithuanian laterna, German Laterne, Latin laterna; Lithuanian gruntas, Middle Low German grunt, Polish grunt.
These Germanisms are not old borrowings in the Slavic languages, they passed into
Polish in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Thus the Lithuanians and the Poles
could have adopted them approximately at the same time. Some of them, lacking
Polish phonetic and morphological features, could enter the Lithuanian language
directly from the Germanic languages. Their sources could be various: the language
and dialects of former East Prussia, Low German of Livonia, Baltic German (Baltendeutsch) language, Low German of Hansa merchants, and lastly the German language used in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Some words could enter Lithuanian
via writings, in the translations of religious texts. It is also probable that some of
them were taken over into Lithuanian directly from Latin through the works translated from Latin. They were not used in the spoken language, nor were they found in
dialects. As Lithuanian written records are of comparatively late origin, the article
presents some information on the history and ethnicities of Prussia. They must give
a better understanding of German dialects as a source of numerous German borrowings in Lithuanian.
Key words: loanwords, Germanisms, etymology, East Prussia
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Roman Roszko
O polskich i litewskich zaimkach – wykładnikach nieokreśloności
w języku polskim i litewskim
On Polish and Lithuanian pronouns - expressions of indefiniteness
The author discusses issues related to the study of definiteness/indefiniteness in
natural language. He also presents the benefits of applying contemporary theoretical confrontative research on definiteness/indefiniteness and identifies the obvious
limitations of the traditional approach to definiteness/indefiniteness based on morphological categories. The article emphasises the advantages of theoretical contrastive studies which use the interlanguage as a common semantic platform of meanings for languages under comparison.
The author briefly outlines the semantic category of definiteness/indefiniteness.
Interested readers are referred to the author’s other publication released in 2004.
The article then continues with a discussion of selected Lithuanian pronouns (tam
tikras; kaţ -. . . ; . . . nors; bet . . . ) which express vagueness: existentiality and generality. The pronouns are given an unambiguous quantifying interpretation and then
juxtaposed with their Polish equivalents. The clearly visible dierence between the
Lithuanian and Polish expressions of vagueness is stressed. Namely, the Lithuanian
forms ensure unequivocal expression of various quantifying meanings (existentiality presupposing oneness, existentiality proper, customary generality and generality
proper) while the Polish equivalents allow a quantifying understatement. For example, the Polish series of pronouns with the ax -s may express existentiality proper,
for instance in this sentence: (a) Cos lezy na stole, zdejmij to. [There is something
on the table, take it o]. However, it may also express customary generality, as in this
sentence: (b) Kup cos na obiad [Go and buy something/anything for lunch]. In the
Lithuanian language the meanings discussed in (a) are delivered by a series of pronouns with the ax kaţ- (Lithuanian: Kaţkas yra ant stalo, nuimk.) while the meaning
(b) is delivered by particle nors (Lithuanian Nupirk ka nors pietums.)
In author’s opinion, the absence of simple Polish®Lithuanian equivalents is the
cause of language mistakes (calques) in the speech of Poles who learn Lithuanian.
This is illustrated with several sample sentences which may not only disrupt communication but are likely to lead to grotesque situations as well.
Key words: theoretical contrastive research, interlanguage, semantic category of
definiteness/indefiniteness, scope quantification, contrastive polish-lithuanian
description.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Juozas Jurkėnas
Взаимоотношeния балтийских и славянских языков в свeтe
ономастичeских исслeдований
Relation Between Slavic and Baltic Languages in the Light
of Onomastic Research
The article is an attempt to compare results of some fundamental onomastic
studies with some hypotheses on this problem.
On the basis of an analysis of hydronyms Ch. Kraz concludes that in the territories which were once occupied by German, Celtic, Italian (with Venedian), Illyrian
and Baltic tribes there the so-called ‘Old-European’ hydronyms, common in form
and the nature of their origin
W.P. Schmid calls attention to the fact that these old hydronyms, found in different parts of Europe, almost as a rule have equivalents in the Baltic areas.
The Polish linguist Tadeusz Milewski divides archaic anthroponimic systems
into two groups – the Eastern baga and Western teutā. To the teutā group he classifies also German, Celtic, Illyrian and Baltic anthroponomical systems. Accordingly,
what Milewski marks with the symbol teutā, in Ch. Krauze’s terminology is termed
the Old European onomastic community.
An analysis of onomastic material studied by the above mentioned scholars thus
supports an argument confirming the hypothesis proposed by V. Pisani and J.W.
Otkupszczikow. The Slavic languages have been shaped on the basis of dialects closely resembling the Baltic ones. A group of dialects that would become the Baltic dialects, situated in a periphery, might have completely fossilized and preserved many
archaic features (= elements of ”old European” type). In the territories that would
become the Slavic territories changes were more dynamic. A big role was played here
by the Iranian element (= peculiarities of the baga group).
Key words: onomastic, hydronyms, Baltic languages, Slavic languages
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Anatolij Nepokupnyj
Балто-слов`янский суфiкс збiрностi –or-/arь
Balto-Slavic collectivity suffix -or/-arь
While working over the Russian variant of the common Slavic dictionary (“Etymological Dictionary of the Slavic Languages. Common Slavic lexical stock” – EDSL
in abbreviated form) its compilers were gradually coming to the conclusion that in
the common Slavic language there existed the lexical-semantic group of names of
trees, bushes and grasses containing the collectivity suffix -arь, namely: *bъtarь
‘weed(s)’(EDSL III 1976 240), *kustarь ‘bush’ (XIII 1987 135), *lĕščarь ‘hazel’
(XIV 1987 262), *liparь ‘lime forest’ (XV 1988 118 - 119), *listarь ‘foliage’ (XV 143)
and some other. At the same time as far back as 1971 I. Duridanov finally formulated
in his article “Collective nouns in -ar in the names of plants in Serbo-Croatian and
Bulgarian place names” that semantical word-formative thesis which the authors of
EDSL will individually be still coming nearer to. But unlike the latter the Bulgarian researcher considered besides common Slavic version also the probability of the
foreign influence trace on the investigated by him territory limited by South Slavic
region of the Balkan (Peninsula) (the basis of the Morava and the west of Bulgaria in
landmarks Kiustendil – Sofia) (cp. Latin rosarium ‘rose garden’).
Quite a few facts from the North Slavic region have already been given in the
materials of the EDSL: *bъtarь – also Russian (dialectal), *kustarь – exclusively Russian and Byelorussian (dialectal in both cases), *listarь – also Russian (dialectal).
Besides isolated examples also continuous area of sought-for formation use speak in
favour of the common Slavic version. Cp. the map of the old unmown grass names in
“Lexical Atlas of Byelorussian dialects” (V 1 1993 № 278), where the contradistinction of the forms віш and вішар takes place. The latter of the forms is localized to the
east and the west of the former, that is in theoretically more archaic regions.
Nevertheless the weightiest argument serving as evidence of just common Slavic character of the collectivity suffix -arь is the presence of its correspondence in
Baltic languages. As far back as 1913 K. Buga pointed out that dendronyms béržas
‘birch’ and líepa ‘lime’ gave names to the lake Béržoras and two villages Lieporai
Lithuania. The author of there lines got the clue to the interpretation of the pointed
out forms created from dendronyms when he paid attention to the fact that under
1331 one and the same mountain in Prussia had two word-formative variants of the
name: Leypiten and Lepare. Cp. In modern Lithuanian collectivity suffix -ytė and
actually registered appellative liepýtė ‘lime bushes’. Hence, we have the names of two
Lithuanian villages Lieporai as well as Balto South Slavic lexicalword-formative isoglottic line Lith. Lieporai – Serb. липāр ‘lime grove’.
Key words: collectivity suffix, vegetation names, region, common Slavic language,
archaism, loan-word.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Kazimieras Garšva
Baltų ir kalbų rytinės sienos raida
The Development of the Eastern Border of the Baltic
and Slavonic Languages
The studies of place names show that the north of Belarus can be divided into
the following areas: 1. from the present border of the Republic of Lithuania to the
line Pliusy, Zaracha, Delek, and Kazeny, where 90% to 60% of oikonyms of Lithuanian origin can be found; 2. up to Druja, Miory, New Pogosts, and Jody districts inclusive (60%-20% of Lithuanian oikonyms); 3. up to Verchnedvinsk, Germanovich,
and Glubok districts (5%-1% of Lithuanian oikonyms); 4. up to Obole, Ula, Obolcy,
Tolochin, where Lithuanian oikonyms, hydronyms and antroponyms are found; 5.
up to Smolensk district in Russia.
In the above mentioned areas even in the parts of the same district the number
of Lithuanian and Baltic place names is unequal. The bigger concentration of Lithuanian place names shows that more Lithuanians lived there and they lived there for
a longer time (districts of Ikazne-Jody, Perebrode, Druja and others).
The place name kumsa “Kamša” in the parish of Ikazne and the harder consonants enable us to draw a conclusion that people there spoke in the same dialect of
Vilniškiai up to now spoken 10-20 kilometers to the west and north-west. BraslavOpsa region where there are found balú.ndiške “Balandišk˙e”, kumpi.nei “Kampiniai”, šalakú.ndzei “Šalakandžiai”, etc. There you can find the unquestionable examples of consonant hardening: dvarchany “Dvarcionys”, parshali “Paršeliai”, etc.
People used the Dz—ukai dialect not only before the a-type vowels (Gaucy, Gedze,
Giraucy, Girnuci, Labucy) but also in some places before the i-type vowels (Bardzilava, Grodzishki). The Byelorussian and Polish languages could stimulate the keeping of the Dz—ukai dialect, and the Russian language — keeping of c and dž (Driguchi, etc.).
In the environs of Aina-Radashkovichy, the family names with the ending -is
were known not only in the 16th century (Shikucis) but in the 19th and 20th centuries as well (Meszkis, Szedzianis). So we can suppose that the remains of the Lithuanian language were found there at least up to the 19th century. People spoke the
Vilniškiai dialect (skrundz “skrandis”, Shikucis “šikutis”), and the consonants were
made harder irregularly (Szareiko “Šereika”, but Szedzianis “Šedenis”, Viazewicz
“V˙eževicius”).
Key words: borders of the Baltic and Slavonic languages, hydronyms, oikonyms,
Surnames, substrate of the Baltic languages
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Maria Vakulič
До iсторiï одного прiзвища: Ейсмонт та Есимонтовський
To History of One Surname: Ейсмонт and Есимонтовський
Baltic antroponymy is widely spread on the territory which was the part of the
Grand Lithuanian Duchy, especially in its Ukrainian part. This fact is confirmed
by the memorial edition of the “Ukraine’s Book of Memory” which sets the lists
of Ukrainian soldiers that were killed in 1941–1945. As there are no other largescale antroponymical sources, it has become a powerful source of antroponymical
findings.
Having worked up the “Ukraine’s Book of Memory,” one finds out a region, where
in the early 1900s the concentration of people with the Lithuanian surname Ejsmont
was set (Zhytomyrs’ka Oblast’, Khmelnits’ka Oblast’). The author’s field investigations have shown that the modern antroponym is localized in the same territory (but
native speakers take it as an Austrian or a Jewish one). Such zoning of the surname is
interpreted as a result of migratory movement of impoverished Polish gentry in the
14th–16th centuries after Ukraine has become a part of Polish Commonwealth.
Since the 17th century, along with Ejsmont, the documents set the family of
Esymontows’ky, Cossack gentry of Chernihiv. The duality of the Baltic name, functioning on the East-Slavonic basis, illustrates the opposition of presence/absence
of the connective vowel -i- in disyllabic Lithuanian antroponyms (Ejs-mont/ Es-imontows’ky).
K. Buga points out that oikonyms arising from dibasic surnames often function
in plural. The realization of this model is traced in Lithuanian-Byelorussian boundary. It is confirmed by M. Fasmer and “Słownik geograficzny królestwa Polskiego”:
village Ejsymonty Wielikie/ Ejsmonty Wielikie (Bogorodyts’ka Volost’ Grodnens’ky
Povit), village Ejsymonty Malye/ Ejsmonty Malye (Maloberestovyts’ka Volost’
Grodnens’ky Povit), village Ejsymonty / Ejsymonty Nadtobolskie (Vertslyashkivs’ka
Volost’ Grodnens’ky Povit). Compare with modern antroponyms: village Ejsmanty Wyalikiya (Berestovyts’ky Rayon Grodnens’ka Oblast’, Belorus’) and village Ejsmanty (Vertslyashkiws’ky Rayon Grodnens’ka Oblast’, Belorus’) (1982). Given proper nouns, as the surnames, spread in the Ukrainian territory, are the evidence of
the process of loss of the connective vowel -i- (as possible method of onym’s shortening): at first, single falling out of the connective vowel and simultaneous functioning of both phonetic variations (Ejs-y-monty/ Ejs-monty), and subsequently, its
disappearing.
Furthermore, in word-formative context, the spatial modification of derivative
structure of the proper name is traced. The family of Ejsymontows’ky had founded
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
a village Symontowka (Mglynovs’ky Povit Chernyhivs’ka Guberniya, nowadays –
Brans’ka Oblast’, Russia). In the course of time, it has consequently come into the
line of Ukrainian derivational suffix antroponymical oykomyms: Domontowka
(Skvirs’ky Povit Kyivs’ka Guberniya), Korbutowka (Zhytomyrs’ky Povit Volyns’ka
Guberniya), Montwidowka (Kupyans’ky Povit Kharkivs’ka Guberniya), Gedrimowka (Odes’ky Povit Khersons’ka Geberniya) (Change of derivational type:Pluralia tantum ! binomial stem + -ow- + -k-).
Consequently, a peculiar “corridor” of the proper name’s spreading (and correspondingly, the probabilistic migratory way of its bearers: Lithuania — Grodnens’ky
Rayon—Chernihivshchyna) have appeared. Furthermore, the way of “coming”of the
Baltic lexeme to Ukrainian language space is traced (probably, in the process of moving away from the Lithuanian boundary and the forms of Pluralia tantum; at first,
there could be forms of Domontowo, Korbutowo — nowadays there are such settlements in Ukraine and Belorus’ — and *Esymntowo; afterwards Domontowka, Korbutowka and *Symontowka appeared as secondary settlements).
As a result, the origin decoding of Symontowka (and other antroponymical
oykonyms) becomes easier (or more difficult?) because of the village proprietors —
the family of Esymontowsky. Most likely, the form of the surname, in its turn, Do
stor = odnogo przviwa: E*smont ta Esimontovs~ki* 299 has become the result of antroponymical derivation (compare: Radywylows’ky Radywylow).
Key words: anthroponym, oykonym, connective vowel, Pluralia tantum, model with
suffix
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Aleksandras Adamkovičius, Kazimieras Garšva
Dysnos apskrities lietuviškos kilmės tikriniai vardai
Proper Names of Lithuanian Origin in Dysna Region
From 1500 gathered oikonyms in Dysna region there about 100 (6.6%) place
names of Lithuanian origin. Really there are more of them: part of them became
more Slavonic, they were translated so it is more difficult to recognize them. In the
areas nearer to the Republic of Lithuania and Breslav there are more Lithuanianisms, e.g. in the parish of Ikazne (District of Teterkovka) and among the names of
present villages the Lithuanianisms make a quarter (25%) more: Aukšlys (Uklia),
Bijeikiai (Bijeiki), Dervaniškiai (Dervanishki), Kamša (Kumsha), Kliausai (Kliavsy),
Pasiutiškės (Posiutishki), Pažardžiai (Pozhardje), Petkūnai (Petkuny), Sparūnai
(Sporuny), Šakalynė (Shokoleushchina), Šiaulėnai (Shauliany), Varai (Vary), etc.
According to the data of the visitation of Breslav deanery there was written in
Polish that there were in Druja these clearer oikonyms of Lithuanian origin: Arshele “Aršeliai”, Druja, Jaja “Jauja”, Jodkovshchyna “Juodkynė”, Obolonie, Poviacie
“Pavietė”, Pupinovo, Pushkele “Puškeliai”, Raksniovo, Rovbie “Raubiai”, Stashule
“Stačiuliai”, Svilkovo, Shalcinovo, Sharkele “Šarkeliai”, Vaise “Vaisiai”, Viata “Vieta”,
Zubry “Zubrai”.
Between Verchnedvinsk and Polock there could be such Lithuanian place names:
Kaziulynė (Kozulino), Žiaunava (Zhevnovo), Raštava (Rashtovo), Ežynė (Azino),
Daugnoriai (Dochnary). In the eastern part of Belarus among Polock, Vitebsk and
the border of Russia and Belarus there are also some hydronyms and oikonyms of
Lithuanian origin (namely Lithuanian, not Baltic) that are found in the territory of
Russia as well: Šerkšniai (Shershni), Ūdvietė (Udviaty), Usviečiai (Usviaty), etc.
In the district of Sharkovshchina there are more than 20 oikonyms that have
a Lithuanian root or suffix: Abalojn (cf. obuolys), Biarnaty (cf. bernas), Gernuty
(<Gernučiai), Girsy (cf. girdėti), Jody (<Juodžiai), Kausheleva (cf. kaušas), Kaukli (cf.
kaukti), Labuti (<Labučiai), Svily (Svilai, 3 places), Sharkovshchina (cf. šarka, Slavonic soroka). Oikonyms Bialiany (<Bielėnai), Galava (cf. Galas), Pramiany (cf. piemenė)
have suffixes -any (<-ėnai), -ava, -eik- (<-eikiai), -uk, -ut.
There are more than 20 family names in the district: Kukut’ (<Kukutis), Labut’
(<Labutis), Protas, Vazgird (<Vosgirdas), Zhingel’ (<Žingelis), etc. Some villages were
named after the family names. It is an interesting fact that the family name Protas
(oikonym Protasy) has retained the ending -as.
Key words: Dysna region, ethnogenesis, hydronyms, oikonyms, surnames
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Audrone Šaltanyte
Славянские элементы в литовских фамилиях
Slavonic Elements in Lithuanian Surnames
The process of formation of Lithuanian surnames is a long and complicated phenomenon. Lithuanian surnames which were formed of baptismal names are among
the most predominant ones. Forms of baptismal names varied in different regions
as they depended on the language which was the sources of origination; moreover,
names were adapted to phonetic and morphological system. The biggest influence on
Lithuanian baptismal onomastics was made by Slavonic Christian names. Majority
of contemporary Lithuanian surnames are of Slavonic origin or came through the
Slavonic languages. Surnames were formed not only of canonical baptismal names,
i.e. from various Slavonic forms of the same baptismal name – both Polish and Eastern Slavonic, though very often surnames were formed of popular folk variants with
both Slavonic and Lithuanian patronymic suffixes as well. Jonas, Jon-aitis, Jon-elis,
Jonel-aitis, Jon-auskas, Jon-avičius, Ivan-auskas, Ivan-avičius,Ivan-ovas, Ivaš-ka, Jasas, Jas-aitis, Jas-auskas, Ans-iukevičius, Van-ickas, Vašč-iūnas and other.
Key words: surname, Slavonic baptismal name, folk variant
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Vasilij Staričenok
Основные типы заимствований в белорусско-литовско-польском
пограничье
The fundamental types of borrowings in belarusian-lithuanian-polish
frontier
One can single out lithuanisms & polonisms, a considerable part of which has
been consolidated in the Belarusian language & it’s functional styles & has passed all
the stages of semantic adoption.
Polysemants within frontier region feel on them the influence of dierent dialectical systems components, & it is reflected in the character of their modifications.
Depending on their correlation with primary sources we can distribute borrowings
into 4 fundamental groups: a. borrowings with identical correlation of lexicalsemantical variants (LSV) that practically copy the semantics of foreign units, b. borrowings with relations of non-coincidence (in such a case LSV of sources on Belarusian
ground are lost, forgotten & therefore within semantic structures of polysemants
new LSV, previously unknown, are stated), c. borrowings with relations of crossing
(semantic structures of such polysemants in Belarusian dialects & sources do not
coincide at all, because, as a rule, only a part of LSV, but not the whole, is adapted,
so new LSV, usually of local character, appear on it’s base), d. borrowings with relations of inclusion (in such a case a word in Belarusian language & its Polish or Lithuanian equivalents dier in quantity of LSV: in one case a foreign word keeping certain
meanings of origin language on belarusian ground develops new LSV, so it increases
the semantic paradigm; in the other case a borrowing in Belarusian language loses
some LSV & narrows it’s semantic extent).
Key words: borrowing, lithuanisms, polonisms, frontier, polysemy
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Vera Astreika
Формирование зональной группировки белорусских говоров и
проблема славяно-балтских языковых отношений
Forming Zonal Grouping of Belarusian Dialects and Problem of Slavic
and Baltic Language Interaction
Cultural and historical interaction of Belarusians and their ancestors with
neighbouring Slavic and non-Slavic ethno-national communities for various historical periods is the main reason of formating the zonal grouping in Belarusian. The
Slavic (later on Belarusian) and Baltic language contacts and correlations take the
most important place in this process. The article first deals with the role of Baltic
ethnic and lingual component in forming Belarus zonal linguistic landscape on the
whole and every dialect zone of Belarusian in particular. In the work reasons and
main ways in development of zone language phenomena of Baltic origin are noted
and their general geolinguistic characteristics are given. The investigation is first of
all grounded on geolinguistic methods, elements of descriptive and analitic, contrastive-comparative and etymological ones are also used. Analysis of peculiarities
of presented language facts geography in Belarusian, comparative study of isoglosses
and their next interpretation, comparison of linguistic data with historical and archaeological ones helped not only to reveal principal historical and genetic factors
in forming zonal structural and territorial groups in Belarusian, but to reconstruct
common picture of Slavic and Baltic ethnical and language interaction in Belarus in
the past. It’s very important for solving the problem of Belarusian dialectal continuum formation and the origin of the Belarusians as a separate Slavic nation. So the
following conclusions were made. Most of the Baltiсisms (lexical, grammatical etc.)
in Belarusian are zonal phenomena. These are registered mostly within the northwest dialectal zone, which is a part of the modern Baltic and Slavic contact area.
Some other zone isoglosses were formed as a result of areal moving from the contact
zone. But geographical distribution of the Baltizms is often linked to the chronology
of their appearance in Belarusian or its predecessor. A lot of the language facts are
the evidences of early contacts of the ethnogenetic dialect base of Belarusian with
different Baltic dialects. There are substratum phenomena or Baltic loans adopted in
the late Proto-slavic period among them.
Key words: linguistic landscape, dialect zone, Slavic and Baltic language interaction,
contact zone, language substratum, areal development
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Ol'ga Poletaeva
Синтаксис говоров белорусско-литовско-латышского пограничья
The Syntax of Dialects of Belarus – Lithuania – Latvia Frontier Area
The article gives an insight into some specific features of the language spoken
in the Braslov and Postav areas of the Vitebsk region. The author analyzes syntactic constructions to demonstrate major tendencies in the development of modern
dialects as well as identifies the factors due to which specific syntactic dialectal features are still used in the language spoken by the younger generation. These factors
include:
a) the marked semantic nature of the analyzed constructions;
b) their innovative nature;
c) the common Baltic-Slavic and West-Eastern Slavic linguistic area.
The author attempts to trace changes in the dialect spoken by the inhabitants
of the area in their development and for this purpose compares the one registered
in “Dyjalectychny atlas belaruskaj movy” (1963) (Atlas of Dialects of the Belarusian
language) and the materials of the author’s research done during the period between
1994–2002.
The author establishes connections between the syntactic constructions and the
areas where they are widely used. There are constructions the existence of which
substantiates the theory about three chronological layers representing three transitional periods in the development of the dialects: the Baltic-Slavic, the West-Eastern
Slavic and the Russian-Belarusian layers.
The syntactic constructions observed in the vertical syntactic fields of the predicate, the subject and the object lead us to recognize a peculiar linguistic status of the
area explored.
Key words: linguistic situation, vertical syntactic field, areals of syntactic constructions, relict constructions, innovation constructions
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Krystyna Rutkowska
Dawne pożyczki litewskie i ich funkcjonowanie w gwarach polskich
z okolic Trok
Old Lithuanisms in the Polish Dialects of Trakai Region
The article analyses lexical Lithuanisms in the Polish dialects of Trakai region.
The aim of this research was to show some aspects of archaic Lithuanian loanwords
functioning such as: sphere of usage in certain semantic groups; their constant or
occasional usage; their independent functioning or usage side by side with other languages borrowings. Up to now only a small group of widely spread words has been
defined. As a rule, these are words which don't have any Polish eqiuivalent. They
name people's physical appearance (kliszawy, łępaty, murzaty;), their characteristic
actions (kuciniać, rozkiereczyć się), as well as plants (burkulki, łębiaki, jurginia), atmosphere phenomena (odliga, burbułki), etc. However, most Lithuanisms are used
occasionally only in conversations about past life and old rural work (poszor, rezgini, płaskoni, szamocha, szylnik, skaracz). There is now doubt that these words occupied a certain place in the dialect in the past, while nowadays they are disappearing
completely or are used equally with native Polish lexis or other languages adoptions,
exx: bronkt : orczyk; waga : brzozna; kudra : bizulka; szwilpiki : kakory. The article
also analyses amorphous lexis and onomatopoeia functions in the Polish dialects of
this region, exx: szkir, juksz, put'-put'; gargać, krektać.
Key words: Polish dialects in Lithuania, language contact, lexic, lithuanisms
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Dorota Krystyna Rembiszewska
Wpływy litewskie w „Słowniku dialektu knyszyńskiego”
Czesława Kudzinowskiego.
Baltic influences in "Dictionary of Knyszyn Dialect"
by Czesław Kudzinowski
The article presents ‘Baltisms’ present in the “of Knyszyn Dialect” by Czesław
Kudzinowski (not yet in print), in the collection comprising more than 5 500 words
recorded during several decades (of the first half of the 20th century) by Czesław
Kudzinowski, a linguist born in Wodziłówka near Knyszyn, Podlasie Region. The
town of Knyszyn is situated close to the zone of Lithuanian dialects (in the
North) and the Easter Slavonic dialects (in the East). Its Western border touches the
Mazowsze region.
The analysis involved words which are considered undoubtedly to be the words
borrowed from the Lithuanian language. Those were: bo ‘to meddle, complicate’, de.
rsac ‘(on a cart on a bumpy, uneven country road:) to bump’, dulki ‘a dust produced
by crops handled in barn’, ´ge.nac ‘to cut off the side
shoots from a withe’, jegla ‘a fir-tree’, kizuk ‘a foal’, krusna ‘a mound of stones
collected from a ploughed field at its side’, kulsa ‘a hip’; kump ‘a ham’, kumsci ‘handful of something’, kursac ‘incite, push’, łupa ‘a lip’, musy ‘lees’ o metal bar connecting a shaft with the cart axle’, pakule ‘marsh’, sakal ‘a wood log’, spyl, spe. l ‘splinter’,
sfiren ‘a granary’, spurc ‘a kid, urchin’, zagar. Most of the words mentioned here was
noted to appear in broader area, and is common for the area of the former Grand
Duchy of Lithuania, and thus appears in the Polish, Byelarussian and sometimes in
Ukrainian dialects, as well as in the dialects of Central Great Russian dialects of the
Western Strip.
Key words: linguistics, dialectology, Baltisms, Podlasie, Knyszyn
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Asta Leskauskaitė
Pietvakarinio Lietuvos paribio šnektos ir slavų kalbos
The Periphery Subdialects of Southwestern Lithuania
and the Slavic Languages
This article deals with the relations between the southwestern Lithuanian subdialects and the neighbouring Slavic languages. In terms of sociolinguistics, Lithuanians predominate in this area. The speakers of the Slavic languages are in the
minority. They speak their native tongues (Polish, Belarusian, and Russian) and
Lithuanian, but their command of its local subdialects generally is rather poor, with
the exception of some forms.
Quite a number of new linguistic phenomena have originated in these subdialects under the influence of the Slavic languages: diphthongization of the vowels ė
and o, monophthongization of ie and uo, velarization of the consonants r, š, ž, c, and
Z and the related backing of front vowels, lengthening of unstressed short vowels,
shortening of unstressed long vowels, toneme dephonologization, the use of morphemes, peculiar to the word formation of the Slavic languages etc.
Some of the Slavic language speakers of this region learned Lithuanian at school,
but they talk with a conspicuous accent, sometimes use forms of the local dialect
dzūkai. Their Lithuanian language has these characteristic features: using e or ie instead of ė, ie and monophthongization of uo, lengthening of stressed and unstressed
short vowels, shortening of unstressed long vowels and diphthongs, velarization of
consonants, change of stress place, etc.
Key words: language contacts, peripheral dialects, phonetic features, vocabulary,
derivational formants.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Markus Roduner, Tobias Privitelli
Der Genitiv Des Agens / Experiencers In Litauischen
Und Russischen Dialekten
The Genitive of the Agent and Experiencer in Lithuanian
and Russian Dialects
This paper deals with Lithuanian and north western Russian syntactic constructions which consist of an agent in the genitive and a past passive participle as predicate, the latter often combined with a patient in the nominative, for example:
Lithuanian: Visos mūsų namų durys tik jo
all our house door.NOM only he.GEN
padaryta make.PPP. N. SG, N
“He's made all doors of our house on his own.”
NW-Russian: Cломала ногу, так меня нога сломано.
break leg
like thisI.GEN leg.NOM
break.PPP.N.SG
“I've broken my leg, I've broken my leg like this.”
The authors discuss the typology of such sentences on the basis of dialectal recordings collected by them on several expeditions to Lithuania and north western
Russia. For a diachronic explanation they consider Schmalstieg's interpretation of
the phrase as a reflex of an Indoeuropean ergative construction, as well as Holvoet's
hypothesis of its adnominal origin. In contrast to them, the authors point to the impersonal trait of the construction, which is underlined by the fact that its neuter participial predicate, in general, doesn't agree with the nominative object. It can be seen
as an analogy to impersonal Baltic Finnic expressions in which a formally passive
participle attained an impersonal meaning.
In the Lithuanian examples possessive pronouns (such as mano, tavo) appear
as agents, rather than the expected personal pronouns in the genitive (like manęs,
tavęs etc.). This gives evidence of the „possessivity“ of the phrase. The Russian evidence differs from the Lithuanian one, inasmuch as it shows different types of nonagreement, and agents with and without preposition. On the other hand, many Lithuanian examples may be interpreted as evidentialis, a trait almost unknown to the
Russian phrases. However, the constructions of both dialect groups share a possessive, perfect and resultative semantic.
Key words: the Genitive of the Agent and Experiencer, Lithuanian dialects, Russian
dialects
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Nijolė Tuomienė
Dėl prielinksninių konstrukcijų plitimo periferinėse varanavo šnektose
On the Use of Prepositional Phrases in Peripheral Dialects of Varanavas
The paper discusses cases of prepositional phrases used in the Lithuanian dialects of Ramaškonys, Rodūnia, Žirmūnai, and Plikiai in the territory of the district
of Varanavas, Belarus. It is an attempt to identify possible reasons for their spread,
substitution of ‘pure’ cases by prepositional phrases. The author’s claims are based
on the ideas expressed in the last book by V. Ambrazas.
Isolated Lithuanian territories in the district of Varanavas have been put in a
complicated sociolinguistic situation: bilingualism and trilingualism have been almost completely ousted by Byelorussian dialects. The Lithuanian language is retreating into passive use. In present dialects of Varanavas very frequent prepositions
ant, dėl, in, po used in combination with the case tend to acquire more concrete
meanings, especially in sentences. Many of them are analogous to those found in the
neighbouring Slavic languages and thus are often alien for Lithuanian. The impact
of standard Lithuanian cannot be totally disregarded either.
Lithuanian and Slavic languages which often come into close contact tend to develop the same patterns and constructions. Local Byelorussian seems to promote the
development. Quite a few lexical and grammatical borrowings have been used in the
dialects of Varanavas since very old times. It promotes and speeds up the use of alien
syntactic models in Lithuanian. The process of borrowing is not limited to a couple
of different patterns; often syntactic rules can be adopted as well. Also, old constructions can acquire completely new semantic content. Prepositional phrases have not
completely ousted the old non-prepositional phrases which are characteristic of the
dialects of Varanavas. The prepositional phrases have been adopted and used not instead of the ‘pure’ cases, but rather alongside with them.
Key words: isolated Lithuanian dialects, prepositional phrases, language interaction
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
BjÖrn Wiemer
Осушeствлeниe согласных в „мовe простой” как показатeлъ
измeнeний в условиях контактов
The Realization of Consonants in “Mova Prosta“ as an Indicator of
Changing Contact Conditions
This article critically discusses the variation in the palatal vs. velar pronunciation of dental plosives and fricatives in the so-called ‘Mova Prosta’, an unduly poorly
described Belarusian rural vernacular which must have arisen as a result of intensive and long-lasting contacts with speakers of Lithuanian and Polish, added in the
last decades by heavy influences from Russian. The primary aim of the article is to
demonstrate that, according to our knowledge of data up to date, a Lithuanian substratum of Mova Prosta has been retreating. To this goal data from three different
periods are examined: end of the 19th century, the 1950s-70s, and the most recent
time (1990-2004). The result of the analysis of data on the level of phonetics and phonology confirms the assumption that since the end of the 19th century the contact
conditions for speakers of MP have changed. The data of MP from different regions
where it is used are homogeneous with respect to the palatal—velar opposition and
the phonetic realization of the palatal consonants under discussion. This is striking
if we take into account the generally unstable character of most of MP’s structural
peculiarities and the dynamics of their variation caused by different contact conditions (kinds of multilingualism).
Key words: Belarusian, dialectology, dialect mixing / dialect levelling, contact linguistics, Baltic-Slavic region, Circum Baltic Area, phonetics / phonology, structural
variation, multilingualism
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Małgorzata Ostrówka
Nazwy stopni pokrewieństwa w polszczyźnie łotewskiej
The Names of Degrees of Relationship in the Polish Dialect of Latvia
The purpose of the work is to present the names of degrees of relationship within family that are used in the active layer of the lexicon of Poles in Latvia as well as
to find whether, and if so, to what degree, those names differ from the names that
function in the general contemporary Polish language.
The material was analysed by applying a number of methods: 1. defining the
designation and studying of names referring to it, 2. defining the name and studying
the designations that it designates. Also, the cognitive approach was applied – diachronic findings that referred to the Polish language and Baltic and Eastern Slavonic
languages were compared to synchronic ones, and those in turn were compared to
the findings of research in Latvia. Thus each entry in the study is bi-bipartite – at
first, a short etymology of the name is given, next examples from the Latvian Polish
are given together with the context and, inasmuch as it is possible, their Baltic (Lithuanian, Latvian, Latgalian) and Eastern Slavonic equivalents follow.
The work includes also the basic entries from the dictionary for the degrees of relationship (for instance, pokrewieństwo rodzinne [same blood -family relationship],
powinowactwo rodzinne [spouse originating family relationship], pokrewieństwo
pełne i niepełne[full and partial family relationship]), as well as features associated with the names of degrees of relationship (relativism, correlativism, supletivism,
constancy, and universality).
The analysis brings forth the following conclusions:
1. the names of family relationships that are in use among Poles in Latvia are in
most cases identical with those used in the general Polish; sometimes phonetic differences occur (for example, pronunciation of the soft l in every position – [’adul’a,
semi-soft consonants s’, z’, c’, [’) , also some morphological differences occur (for
instance, the ending of Instrumentalis singularis z mamoj instead of z mamą );
2. some of them are innovations introduced to the Polish language under the
Eastern Slavonic influence – dziadzia in place of wujek [uncle], stryj, przyjaciel
rodziny, plemienik, plemienica to mean bratanek [brother's son], bratanica [brother's daughter], siostrzeniec [sister's son], siostrzenica [sister's daughter], papa – in lieu
of tata;
3. most of those names constitute the common Indo-European heritage – from
the domain of the tribal period based on matriarchal system the following names are
derived: matka [mother], ojciec [father], brat [brother], syn [son]; and others, such
as: dziecko [child], rodzice [parents] dziadkowie [grandparents] and pradziadkowie
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
[great grandparents] come from later periods, hence difference between the roots of
Polish names and, for instance, Lithuanian or Latvian names .
In order to obtain the full description how the names of relationship function
in Latvia, more detailed questionnaire study is needed.
Key words: Latvia, the Polish language in Latvia, degrees of relationship
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Kararzyna Węgorowska
Ekspresywizmy dodatnie utrwalone
w pamiętnikach byłych mieszkańców Kresów północno-wschodnich
Positive Expressivisms Recorded in the Diaries of Former Residents
of Poland’s Northeastern Border Areas
The article deals with some emotionally colored words and word combinations
which existed in the idiolects of the residents of Poland’s northeastern border areas
in a period of 1918-39. Positive emotionalisms, which are presented and analyzed
herein, make up two groups:
1) the diminutive forms; 2) the hypocoristic words.
The diminutive forms are typical for the appellatives referring to people - duszeczka, panoczek; the house – kąteczek, sionka; household outbuildings – odrynka,
świronek; houseware – samowarczyk, kilimek; culinary products – chłodniczek, bulionczyk; and animals – kabanek.
Hypocoristic words, however, distinguish persons who are determined by the
appellatives, e.g.: babciuchna, papańka, and by anthroponims, e.g. Adamko; Edek,
Edzia, Edzieńka, Edka; Werunia, Nineczka.
.
In addition, the author has analyzed how specific northeastern positive expressivisms are formed. Thanks to carefully selected citations, she also emphasized the
role of the context and the con-situation which supported the use of the positive
expressivisms.
Key words: the Polish northeastern dialect, positive expressivisms, appellatives,
anthroponims
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Anna Stafecka
Названия пчелиного улья в говорах латышского языка:
этнолингвистический аспект
Names of Bee-hives in the Dialects of Latvian
The article deals with names of bee-hives, their origin and distribution in the
dialects of Latvian. As far as the first bee-hives were in the hollowed out trees the appellative (bišu) kuoks ‘bee tree’ probably reflects the more ancient meaning of this
word. (bišu) kuoks is widespread throughout Latvia.
The next stage of development in the bee-keeping were so called block-hives.
Their names in the dialects of Latvian are: auls, avelis, avilis, bluķis, gulinis, klucis,
kuozavs, (gulins) kuozuls, pulcinis, struops, truops. Nevertheless, these names are
used to denote modern up-to-date bee-hives which sometimes are called skapītis
‘locker’, mājiņa ‘a little house’.
The appellative (bišu) struops, being a word of Standard Latvian, is widespread
throughout Latvia. It is used in Latgale, too, although in some subdialects it has penetrated under the influence of Standard Latvian.
The wariant truops occures mainly in the Eastern part of Latvia (in Vidzeme
and in a little compact area in the Eastern part of Latgale).
The apellatives auls, aulis are registered in some vernaculars of Kurzeme and
Vidzeme, the variations avelis and avilis are common mainly in Southern and Western Latgale as far as in Selonian vernaculars of Zemgale.
The name pulcinis is known mainly in some Western subdialects of Latgale.
German loanword klucis is common mainly in Western part of Latvia, bluķis –
in Eastern reģions of Latvia.
The Slavic loanword kuozavs and its variant kuozuls is widespread in the Central and Northen areas. Other variant names of Slavic origin are rare: domiks, kaloda, ležaks.
The names of bee-hives reflect the development and change of the meaning of
the words.
The examined material allows a conclusion that the names of bee-hives are
mostly of Indo-european and Baltic origin, although some borrowings from Slavonic languages occur. Words of German origin are rare.
Key words: dialects of Latvian, bee-hives
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Edmundas Trumpa
Rišlios kalbos balsių spektrai Pelesos šnektoje
The Spectra of Vowels in Connected Speech in the Subdialect of Pelesa
The Lithuanian subdialect of Pelesa is located in the southern area of the Southern High Lithuanian (Aukštaitian) dialect (Voronovo district, Grodno oblast, Belarus). This paper deals with the acoustic features of the allophones in connected
speech, and their relationship with the stress and with the adjacent consonants in
this subdialect.
A common characteristic of all vowels of the subdialect is their fronting after
palatal consonants and their velarization if preceded by back ones. In connected
speech the unstressed variants of vowels are more close than the stressed ones. An
exception is less close variants – they become more open in unstressed position.
Besides, the unstressed close non-labial vowels are pronounced more back (more
close vowels – less back, and more open ones – more back).
The unstressed open vowels are pronounced more fronted. The corresponding
labial vowels are fronted only slightly; at the same time they are less labialized.
Key words: phonetics, vowel spectra, dialect, Pelesa
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Danuta Roszko
Formy perfectum i ich funkcje w litewskiej gwarze puńskiej
The perfectum forms and their functions
in the Lithuanian dialect of Punsk
In the Lithuanian dialect of Punsk and in literary Lithuanian simple and compound verbal forms are distinguished. Simple dialectal forms (iterativum—the past
iterative tense, praeteritum — the past non-iterative tense, praesens and futurum)
reflect the situation known from the literary language. The dierences, however, are
found in the compound forms. In the literary variant those are forms of perfectum
and inchoativum. The Lithuanian dialect of Punsk has no inchoativum forms.
The paradigm of dialectal perfectum forms diers from its literary counterpart in
two respects. Firstly, there is no copula in the dialectal forms of perfectum praesenti
for the 1st and 2nd person, both singular and plural. In the literary language the role
of copula is played by a finite form of the verb bťuti (‘to be’).
Secondly, the Lithuanian dialect of Punsk allows the use of a finite form of the
dialectal verb tur˙ec (literary: tur˙eti) ‘to have’ as a copula.
Two essential meanings of the dialectal perfectum are distinguished in the Lithuanian dialect of Punsk: a temporal and a modal one. Temporal meanings are further divided into resultative ones (e.g. dialectal Iđlavus padlagi. — I have washed the
floor. (+ result: the floor is now clean)) and experiential (asserting)
ones (for instance, dialectal Ađ buvis Vokietijoj. — I have been to Germany. (+
experience: I know how people live there, I know what cities and villages look like
etc.). The modal functions, in turn, comprise the following meanings: imperceptive
(the speaker reports information while expressing doubts as to its truthfulness), hypothetical (the speaker says that P is possible) and conclusive (based on physical
results the speaker says that P is possible).
Recently, an influence of literary norms on the dialectal form of perfectum has
been observed. This includes the use of finite verb forms of the dialectal verb bťuc ‘to
be’ and the literary bťuti ‘to be’ in the function of a copula in the 1st and 2nd persons
singular and plural, as well as replacement of dialectal participle forms with their
literary equivalents.
Key words: lithuanian subdialect of Punsk, verbal forms, semantic category of time,
modality.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Janina Macukonienė, Žaneta Markevičienė
Būdvardžių ypatumai Lenkijos lietuvių šnektose
Peculiarities of Adjectives in Lithuanian Local Dialects of Poland
The dialects and subdialects isolated from mainland dialectal areas with national borders always tend to have specific features. They retain diverse lexical and grammatical archaisms and contain interesting innovations typical of their territories.
The aforementioned peculiarities are also typical of the Punsk and Sejny local dialects in Poland. They have retained nominal endings of adjectives in more cases than
other dialects and have not changed them to pronominal endings (e.g., piktu “angry,
dat. sing.”, linksmu “cheerful, dat. sing.”, etc.). They have also better retained some of
u-stem adjectival cases (e.g. šaurum “severe, instr. sing.”, smarkus “intense, acc. pl.”,
etc.). The most prominent difference between these local dialects and mainland dialects of the Lithuanian language is declension of pronominal adjectives. Thus masculine gender pronominal adjectives of Sejny and Punsk regional dialects acquire
the permanent all-paradigm fragment -uj- (e.g., gerujo “the good one, gen. sing.”,
gerujam “the good one, dat. sing.”, gerujį “the good one, acc. sing.”, etc.). Such a declension is absent in other Lithuanian dialects. Feminine gender pronominal adjectives mostly gain the permanent all-paradigm fragment -oj- (geroja “the good one,
nom. sing. f.”, gerojos “the good one, gen. sing. f.”, gerojai “the good one, dat. sing.
f.”). All the eastern and southern dialects of Lithuania have high-level disappearance
of the said adjectives. When a paradigm partially disappears and some of the elements are still retained, attempts can be noticed in a language to reconstruct it. Yet,
it is usually highly different from its predecessor paradigm.
Key words: language contacts, adjectives, morphology, Punskas, Seinai
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Mirosław Jankowiak
Białorusini na Łotwie – współczesna sytuacja socjolingwistyczna na
przykładzie rejonu krasławskiego
The Belarusians in Latvia – Contemporary Sociolinguistic situation as
exemplified by the Kraslava Region
The purpose of the article is to present the results of the research carried out
locally in 2004 and 2005 and covered the Belarusian inhabitants of three Latvian
counties at the border with Belarus (Kapława, Indra and Piedruja) as well as the
town of Krasław. The inquiries were performed with the biographic method that
bases on the casual, informal conversations which are only slightly controlled by the
researcher and referred to the sociolinguistic situation and to the national identity
of the Belarusian minority. The research revealed existence of a considerable difference in the national identity of the Belarussians who lived in the area, the result being influenced by the place of the interviewer's birth and his or her earlier residence
(Eastern Belarus, Western Belarus and Latvian Belarusians).
The sociolinguistic situation was in turn studied with the method of domain,
and pointed to the fact that different languages function in various domains of life:
within the sphere of a family and the neighbourhood (Belarussian dialect and the
Russian language), at work (Russian, Latvian), religion (Polish, Russian and Latvian/
Latgalian), at school (Latvian and Russian) and other formal situations (Russian and
Latvian). The research showed that the Belarus dialect and the Polish language in
its variant from the North part of Kresy (which is known to some of the population
there) give way to two other languages, namely Russian (the sphere of family and
neighbourhood, formal situations, religion) and Latvian (formal situations, school,
partially religion).
Key words: Latvia, Kraslavas Region, Belarussian ethnos, national identity,
sociolinguistics.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Nijolė Merkienė, Genovaitė Kačiuškiene
Явления взаимодействия литовского и русского языков:
социолингвистический аспект
The Phenomena of Interaction of Lithuanian and Russian Languages: the
sociolinguistic aspect
The present paper reveals the cases of the Lithuanian and Russian language interaction. The examples are based on all language strata: phonetics, lexicology, morphology, and syntax in the oral and written modes by the Lithuanian and Russian
students. Those stratum are affected by the sociolinguistic situation in Lithuania:
the demographical composition revealing the different conditions of the contrasts
in both languages, the status of the Lithuanian language as the state language, the
functional distribution of the both languages (native and non-native), the processes
of emigration and immigration, the reduction of the Russian language functioning,
and the increasing influence of the western languages. The sociolinguistic interpretation of the phenomena is presented as well. Not only the differences between the
languages, but also the sociolinguistic factors (i.e., an intensity of the both language
usage, the linguistic experience in the professional area, etc.) are highlighted in the
present paper. The method of correlative analysis was applied in the present study.
Key words: the method of correlative analysis, the functional distribution of languages, Lithuanian language, Russian language.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Daiva Aliūkaitė
Tarminio kalbėjimo kultūrinis aspektas
A cultural aspect of speaking a dialect
All human beings are subjects of their culture, and language is central to their
cultural identity. Standard languages do not possess any representative and expressive reality; meanwhile the dialects, in contrast, can be analyzed in terms of cultural
perspectives, since any reality is related to place, world concept, epistemic competence, etc.
Drawing on theoretical insights and research strategies of perceptual dialectology this article deals with the following issues: (a) the dialectal representation of regional culture, and (b) the dialectal background as a way of identifying the speaker
by other participants of the discourse. It is common knowledge that each isogloss,
each local unit consists of smaller dierentially marked units. Consequently, every individual can be geographically localized on the basis of certain peculiarities of his/
her speech with respect to the
habitation or at least to the place of origin on the one hand, and on the other, the
speaker can be attributed to a certain local culture and its linguistic stereotypes.
The latter statement of the article acknowledging that the dialectal expression
enables the participants of the discourse to characterize the speaker is based on the
data of a perceptual questionnaire. It is noteworthy that appraising dialectal speech
ordinary people (na?ve interpreters) identify it as partly understandable, not quite
correct or neither correct nor incorrect, very attractive or sometimes attractive. Dialectal speech is defined locally and socially, there are no hard and fast rules for treating a particular speech as dialectal, and its usage is tolerated both in private and
public discourse. On the one hand, dialectal speech is associated with old people,
with villagers; on the other, it is linked to expressive, emotional, traditionconscious,
original, and daring people.
Key words: perceptual dialectology, dialectal speech, expressiveness, culture
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Ilja Vasiljevič Lemeškin
Dar kartą apie Sovijaus vardo etimologiją
Once Again on the Etymology of Soviius
The name Soviius was attested in Chronograph in 1262. There are three etymologies of this name: (a) Jonas Basanavičius and Norbertas Vėlius derive it from the
Lithuanian pronoun savas ‘one’s own’; (b) Algirdas Julius Greimas relates it to the
Lithuanian verb šáuti ‘to shoot’, and Bronislava Kerbelytė reinforces this interpretation by folklore evidence; and (c) Vladimir Toporov traces this name to Proto-IndoEuropean *sāue- (*sū-, *sue-) ‘the sun’.
A more thorough examination of the fifteenth-century Archival copy (kept in
the Russian State Archive of Early Acts, Moscow) and of the sixteenth-century Vilnius copy (Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences, Vilnius) reveals a previously overlooked fragment of the text about Soviius. This paper presents a textological analysis of the Soviius legend.
Key words: Soviius, etymology, textological analysis, dativus absolutus
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Rimantas Balsys
Lada (Didis Lado) baltų ir slavų rašytiniuose šaltiniuose
Lada (Didis Lado) in Baltic and Slavic Written Sources
The article discusses the nature of written Baltic and Slavic sources whichreference Lada and Ladona (and also other forms of this theonym) and attemptsto answer the question of this deity’s authenticity in the pantheon of the Baltsbased on
the work of earlier investigators and ethnographic, folklore, historical andlinguistic
material.
The problem of Lada’s authenticity has intrigued/interested investigators of
theancient religion and mythology of the Balts from the first half of the 19th centuryuntil the present time, although they have evaluated the references to this deity
indiverse ways.
A portion of Lithuanian investigators of mythology have treated Lada (Ladonas)
critically.
Another group of investigators has harbored no doubts on the authenticity
ofLada (Ladonas).
The opinions of investigators from other countries has also diverged on thequestion of the reliability of the sources, and subsequently on the authenticity ofthe
deity Lada (Ladonas).
There are those who believe these deities the creation of J. Dlugosz himself,taken
from the refrains of songs. For this reason, most likely, Lada and Ladonas arenot
mentioned from the middle of the 20th century on in descriptions of the Slavicreligion, reasoning that controversy still exists in regard to deities such as Lada.
Belarusian investigator N. Nikolski considers Lado the Slavic god of
weddings;Bulgarian investigator T.Koleva calls Lada the Slavs’ goddess of weddings anddomestic harmony; J. Miroliubov states Lada is the ancient Slavic deity of concord,peace, domestic bliss, generosity and fertility, because it used to be
said uponfinding footprints in the dew of the field that „Generous Lada has passed
through,the harvest will be abundant“.
It has to be admitted that many investigators (and even in the second half ofthe
20th century and beginning of the 21st century) have confined themselves tosuperficial and uncritical retelling or free interpretation of sources from the 15thand 16th
centuries, or to the writings of mythologists and ethnographers (usuallyromantics)
from the middle of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, withoutproviding
any clearer arguments witnessing to or negating the authenticity of Lada (Ladonas).
Thus is one forced to begin at the beginning, i.e. to return to the writtensources of
the 16th and 17th centuries.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Conclusions 1. The question of the authenticity of the deities (Lyada, Dzydzilelya)referenced in the written sources of the Slavs remains unsolved.
2. In liberal anthologies of Slavic written sources, Lada and Ladonas are ascribedto the Balts as well. In reality the Baltic sources only provide evidence thatthere were rituals during the performance of which sacred songs were sung with
therefrains lado, laduto.
3. Uncritical usage of 16th century written sources and the works of mid-19thcentury ethnographers (romantics) has allowed investigators to interpret ledu˛
dienos(“days of ice, hail“) rituals as the adoration of winter goddess Lada.
4. The refrain lado (in its various forms) in the written sources of the Balts andSlavs as well as in folklore serves the functio of exalting, welcoming and honoringthe
deity, and later also the secular ruler. The main performer of the ritual.
Key words: Lada, Lithuanian mythology, theonyms of Balts and Slavs.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Andrej Prohorov
О типологической близости легнд о происхождении
Турова и Вильни
About the Typological Similarity of the Legends about the Foundation
of the Towns of Turov and Vilnius
The legend about the foundation of Vilnius / Vilnius is well-known and the
scholars have paid much attention to this legend. The oral legends about the foundation of Turov, ancient Belarusian town were fixed only in the end of the 19th and
the beginning of 20th centuries. On the contrary, they have never been a subject of
scientific research.
Turov is the former capital of the Dregovichi Slavic tribe. The legends tell that
Duke Tur reached a forest country abundant in wildfowl and slew the aurochs. During his night dream here he saw himself at a raised cart and decided that it was a sign
to build a capital town at this place. The Duke ordered to dig out the Tur-well and to
throw up the Tur-hill, on which the fortified center of the medieval Turov was settled
down. According the legends the Tur-well has gold, silver and copper bottoms. The
world will be destroyed and covered by water in the case of a destruction of this construction, when the last well bottom will break.
There are some arguments which can specify an ancient origin of the Turov legends. The mention under the year 980 in "The Primary Chronicle," as well as the oral
legends link the foundation of the town with Duke Tur. The important argument
is that in the beginning of the last century inhabitants showed some objects, mentioned in the legends, on the concrete topography of Turov. The name Tur is carried
with the well, the dell, sometimes with any, unknown now river. The legends connect
directly such the most popular and steady toponyms with the activity of Duke Tur
such as the Tur-well and the Tur-hill. The brief forms of the toponyms – Tur – certainly specify its ancient origin. At last, the oral tradition represents the archaic preChristian, pagan motives, which have analogs in folklore and fairy tales. Despite of
a fragmentariness of the Turov legends we can notice the stability of oral tradition.
Moreover, the oral tradition is alive and modifies till now.
The complex of the legends keeps constant and very indicative structure which
we could present as a macrotext for analysis. An integral part of this macrotext is the
topography of Turov.
It is possible to pick out few representative features in these foundation legends, which are always connected with mythological and cosmological motives and
played an important role. Duke Tur acted as a creator of a sacral-ordered space in
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
wild lands. Thus, during the building of the town a world axis with the Tur-hill and
Tur-well was created. Destruction of this axis should destruct the whole world.
The sacral character of the Duke’s actions is also emphasized by a propheticaldream, which is a divine oracle simalteneously. This fortune-telling clearly predeterminedthe great future of new town. The time and the place of this oracle arealso
important: a foundation of the town on a place of successful hunting is veryfrequent
motive in many mythological traditions. Thus, the dream of Duke Tur ona cart, lifted into the air, gets quite unequivocal sense of his communication withdivine forces.
The image of a cart seems unclear, in contradiction to the Duke’ssocial status. But
the Arabian traveller ibn Jakub (sulfurs. X century) approved,that kings of the Western Slavs travelled on the big four-wheel vehicles. The wheelvehicle was a symbol of
royal authority in many Indo-European traditions: Iranian,Celtic, German, etc.
We could suppose that the motives of the Turov legends show us, that the Slavicmythology (at least partly) during the pagan period had the cosmological complexabout the foundation of cities, in which towns become the centers of a universe
andDukes were also considered sacral creators of such ordered universe.
The similar structural components of Turov legends and Vilnius one are visible:it
is hunting of the Dukes in wild and plentiful of game places, murder of anaurochs,
a prophetical dream on a place of hunting at mountain or on a lifted cart,a prediction in a dream for a great future to a town, construction of a town on thisplace in
execution of a prediction.
Both legends are illustrated by the toponymics of the towns. Sometimes, thenames of the toponyms are similar, such as Turja-hill in Vilnia and Tur-hill inTurov.
Both legends stress the vertical structure of the towns — top-bottom: Turhill— Turwell, Upper castle — Shwintorog sanctuary. The distinctions betweenthe Vilnius
and Turov legends are presented only in the secondary details and donot touch integrity of mythological structure.
As a result it is possible to speak about typologically affinity of the sense andstructures of the legends about Turov and Vilnius foundation. It should be noted,that
the Turov legends remain simplicity and archaic features simultaneously. Suchclose
structural and typological similarity of Vilnia and Turov legends is a heritageof cultural coexistence within the borders of the single common state — the GreatDuchy
of Lithuania.
Key words: oral legend, mythology, town foundation, cosmological motive,Dukes
power.
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Galina Kutyriova-Czubala
Этномузыкальныe признаки миграций на зeмлях Бeларуси (к
изучeнию полигeнeза Бeлорусов)
Ethno-musical Features of Migration in Belarus Territory (from research
on polygenesis of the Belarusians)
Traditional Belarusian folklore (songs sung at harvest, in particular) reveal layers of melodic mono- and polilexis. Respectively, those create special Jones – the isolates of the melodic relics that have been preserved by the original folk living in the
area. There are also other zones – of the mixed, contaminational lexicon. Thus, the
directions of migration and contact places of the three primordial areas of harvestmelodic types. Research in and on the zones of mixed lexicon brings abort a question of appearance or non-appearance signs of assimilation and signs of inter-ethnic «assimilation-resistance» in the musical-singing language. The author presents
a variety of cultural-lexical cross-interference and interaction of the Uhr-Belarus
ethnic groups. She defines co-relations, Baltico-Slavonic «shares» in formulation of
singing-melodiaic language of the Belarusians.
Ad-stratic feature of the singing-melodiaic language is a result and, obviously,
an evidence for the tri-ethnic composition of the old harvest-singing Belarusian culture. The melolexical data, namely, directionality and isomels’ density, existence of
areas where «archaisms are conserved » and the existence of touch-contact zones –
can be preliminarily correlated in terms of stratigraphy, and thus the time correlation is also possible, with the following:
1. archaeological cultures (Polesie, Soże and Niemien-Dźwina melolexes – and
the culture zones of Miłograd, Zarubiniec and the one of the Hatched Ceramics
culture); 2. linguo-dialectological division (entire Nemen and Sozh izomels, including the migration current , – vs. the zone of central-Belarussian dialects ); 3. ethnographic phenomena (female costume).
Key words: Belarus, migrations, polygenesis, folklore, isomels
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Giedrė Barkauskaitė
Slavų šokamojo meno įtaka lietuvių choreografiniam folklorui
An Influence of Slavonic Dance Art to Lithuanian Choreographical
Folklore
The first information in written trout Lithuanian choreography has been traced
in the 11th century. An early written mines, where we could find any record on choreography, are very poor. Lithuanian choreography can be better reconstructed by
the writings of the end of the 19th century and the first part of the 20th century. It is
claimed that European choreographic art was influenced by other cultures at different times: up till 17th century European choreographic art was influenced by Italian
and Spanish, up till 18th century – by French and English, and in the 19th century
– by German and Slavonic dances. While exploring Lithuanian choreography of the
20th century, many elements of choreography with Slavonic origin were noticed.
At the beginning of the 20th century a new branch of choreography called a
National-dance was formed. National-dance takes its origins from authentic Lithuanian choreography. The choreography of National-Dance is influenced by choreography of other countries: In Lithuania national-dance was influenced mostly by Russian choreography. The way of forming Lithuanian national-dance can be explored
while investigating unique cultural phenomenon in Lithuania – the Song Festivals.
The Dancing Day program of the Song Festival clearly illustrates peculiarities of
national-dance at different times. National-dance has originated on a basis of an authentic Lithuanian dance which existed at the turn of the 20th century. While investigating Lithuanian national-dance an influence of the choreography of other countries can not be found. While analizing a repertoire of the Dancing Day at the Song
Festivals, any other kind at Slavonic choreographic influence except polka, upon
national Lithuanian choreography can be hardly traced. An ethnochoreographical
analysis showed that Lithuanian national-dance differs from its antecedent ethnic
dance, because two of these choreographical genres embodies an absolutely separate
lexis.
Key words: choreography, Lithuanian dance, folklore, Slavonic influence
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Dalia Senvaitytė
Mitopoetinis pasaulėvaizdis: pirminių gamtos elementų sąsaja su
žmogumi
The Mythical Worldview: Primary Elements
of Nature and a Human Being
The very typical peculiarity of the mythical worldview according to V. Toporov
is the constructing of oppositions that could spread in diverse code systems and in
different hierarchical spheres. Universal categories of that worldview are the primary elements of the nature – fire, water, air, and earth – that were assumed as the most
important essentials of the entire World. Those primary elements designate not only
separate phenomena but also mix in various parts of the World, in different objects
of the nature and even in human beings.
This article shows the correlation between those primary elements and the human being provided by Lithuanian and Russian data. Just as in other cultures, surviving data on Lithuanian and Russian folk traditions, as well as the data of these
languages provide testimony that the primary elements of the world appears virtually everywhere. They are representing both the beginning and the end of the world
and the human being; they are important force, unifying separate parts of the world
into a singular entity. Those fundamental elements indicate the vital energy of human beings, their inner personal characteristics, emotional states, and health. The
metaphors show that the special intensity of emotions and hot-temper are determined by fire element. Forfeiture of the balance of those elements causes dysfunction – illnesses, negative or unstable emotions and the like.
Key words: Mythical worldview, primary elements, anthropogony, cosmology
Acta Baltico-Slavica 30 – Summaries
Asta Višinskaitė
Tikėjimų apie susapnuotus mirusiuosius funkcijos
Functions of Beliefs about the Dead in Dreams
The aim of our article is to analyze the purpose of beliefs about the dead seen in
dreams, and to pick out the most characteristic meanings of dream interpretations.
The Lithuanian material has been compared to that of Latvian and Polish.
On analyzing the data available, it turned out that beliefs about the dead in
dreams can be oriented to the future and to the present. The main function of the
first group is to inform people about the future. Meanings of dream interpretations
on the dead can be negative, neutral (weather change), and positive. Beliefs oriented
to the present are related to the image of souls performing penance. Their destination is to organize human behaviour: to pray for the dead, ask Mass, give alms to
beggars, or to seize this activity.
In Lithuania, since the mid-20th century, dreams about the dead have been
treated neutral, whereas in Latvia and Poland - negative. In the cause of time, neutral interpretation became more and more popular, and negative or positive attitude
grew weaker. So the difference between interpretation of the dead of Lithuanians
and Latvians / Poles still increased. Such results of the comparison show a certain
difference in our and neighbours’ intelligence, determining existence of diverse individual value systems, sometimes causing different actions and behaviour while
facing analogous phenomenon.
Key words: the dead in dreams, beliefs, functions