CENTRE FOR
ARCHITECTURE I THEORY I CRITICISM I HISTORY
ATCH
Author
Macarthur, John
Title
‘Baroque architecture and the system of the arts’
Date
2008
Source
History in Practice: Proceedings of the 25th International Conference of the
Society of Architectural Historians
ISBN
9780958192545
www.uq.edu.au/atch
Baroque Architecture and the System of the Arts
John Macarthur
University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
Abstract
This paper discusses the aims and one of the issues of a larger study of the
20th century historiography of baroque architecture. The larger project will
study the different investments in the baroque as a corpus of exemplary
buildings, and as a problem in the development of architecture. With this aim,
the changing concept of architecture between the 17th and 20th centuries
becomes significant, and the present paper offers a sketch of the context of
architecture within the system of the arts. It argues that one cannot
understand changing concepts of architecture entirely in terms of the internal
development of its problematic. The idea of art, and of the arts, and of
architecture’s place in the arts has changed drastically over the period.
Understanding this historical variation of the concepts is not merely a
methodological issue of the larger study; rather it can tell us something of why
20th century architects were so interested in the baroque, and why the
baroque has remained a point of conflict between architects and architectural
historians.
The architecture of the baroque in 17th century Italy has had a particular, and productive
uptake in modern times. Proponents of modern architecture, notably Sigfried Giedion and
Bruno Zevi, used baroque buildings as exemplifications of qualities such as movement
and spatial expression, which they sought in modern architecture.1 The work of more
recent scholars, including Joseph Connors and Christoph Thoenes, has, however, shown
how anachronistic it is to understand 17th century buildings in this way.2 There was
nothing that answered to the modern concept of space in the 17th century, and nor can
we easily assume that the word architecture has described a common task across time.
Proceedings of the XXVth International Conference
of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand
Geelong, Australia, 3-6 July 2008
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The profession of architecture was just beginning to stabilize at the time. Bernini and da
Cortona made architecture but their trades were as sculptor and painter. Borrromini’s trade
as a mason makes him seem conceptually closer to a modern idea of architecture, but I think
it unlikely that anyone would find a categorical difference between S.Carlino on one hand
and S.Andrea and S.Maria della Pace on the other. The detailed studies of the architecture
of the 17th century show how different architecture was then, and undoubtedly this can help
us to understand the history of architecture. The more fastidious historical research has
shown us the faults and misinterpretations of the earlier, enthusiastic and ideological
histories, but at the same time it has removed some of the ground on which architects found
the past interesting and useful.
Underlying this difference in the historiography of the baroque is another to do with
audiences and institutions. Giedion, Zevi and others, saw in the baroque a set of metahistorical design values embodied in a corpus of historical examples. Their audience was
architects, and their historical work was to separate the examples from their context, so that
their design values would be clear. By contrast, the audience of Connors and Thoenes are
architectural historians and their interest is in showing how architecture developed and
changed. These two aims, to understand the historical development of architecture, and to
construct a corpus of buildings of admirable qualities, ought not to be incompatible, and yet a
conflict between them has marked the 20th century historiography of the baroque.
For example, Giedion’s pairing of the lantern of S.Ivo d’Sapienza with Tatlin’s tower to
explain the movement of Le Corbusier’s architectural promenade nowadays seems quite
risible.3 Giedion was projecting backwards concepts of space, time and architecture that
Borromini could never have recognised in order to imply that modernism was the
unconscious goal of earlier thought. Manfredo Tafuri has named this kind of interested
tolerance of anachronism ‘instrumental’ or ‘operative’ history.4
Proceedings of the XXVth International Conference
of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand
Geelong, Australia, 3-6 July 2008
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Baroque Architecture and the System of the Arts
We ought condemn it because in the course of a present polemic Giedion did not know, or
think to mention, that the lantern was an emblem, possibly of the Tower of Babel and the
corollary of that neglect is to also forget that rhetoric was a fundamental aspect of
architecture for most of the past.5 But this anachronism has fascinated me since I read it as a
second year student and thought that it must be either wildly wilful or neglectful. Giedion was
making modern architecture out of history and if he had been a little more instrumental, less
concerned with the authority of the past, and more with exemplary power of a building that
happened to have been made a long time ago, then he might have a better repute today.
And although I’d like to make a defence of a limited kind of instrumental history, that is not
the task of this paper, which hinges on a simpler point. Space Time and Architecture was
published in 1941, and its anachronisms, and the broader instrumental approach to
architectural history of which it was a part, are themselves our immediate history.
The present paper is an attempt to sketch one of the issues in researching the historiography
of the baroque in the 20th century. Andrew Leach, Maarten Delbeke and myself plan to make
the first comprehensive study of modern writing on baroque architecture that will cover both
the properly historical and the more interpretative and instrumental literature. While we are
not uninterested in the 17th century, our topic is the rise of architectural history in the late 19th
and 20th century, and how architectural history has supported and also challenged the
discipline as a whole. The baroque from Wölfflin, Riegl and Schmarsow, to Giedion and Zevi
was the territory on which ‘space’ emerged as concept broader than the volumetric stylistic
attributes of modernist building.6 And the baroque from Zevi and Norberg-Schulz to Venturi
was the space in which meaning and rhetoric were rediscovered as resources for the critique
of functionalist modernism.7 For Winkelmann, and more systematically Wölffin, the term
baroque, named a site of historical shift, and something of this remains in the 20th century
usage.8 The classicism of the Renaissance has had a similar operative use in modern times,
by for instance, in the works of Wittkower and Rowe.9 However, classicism, has had the
character of a call to order and to cultural memory, while the baroque has been insinuated
into architectural discourse by those wishing to celebrate uncertainty and to press change.
Proceedings of the XXVth International Conference
of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand
Geelong, Australia, 3-6 July 2008
History in Practice
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Baroque Architecture and the System of the Arts
Thus, various accurate and fanciful interpretations of the 17th century have become a
significant part of 20th century history. The present project supposes that contradictory uses
of the past as evidence of architectural values, and architecture’s history, have obscured the
significance of the reception of the baroque in modernism. Rather than to treat such
contradictions as mistakes, the project aims to situate them historically, to understand the
interests and arguments that they served, and to explain their consequences. In this paper I
speak to an argument that I have developed about the importance of systems of the arts, and
which is yet to be tested against the research that the three of us plan to do into the 20th
century literature on the baroque. I claim that to understand these issues we need to allow
not only for the historical variability of the concept of architecture in relation to building,
patronage and the kinds of people who were architects, but also the kinds of definitions of
architecture that have arisen by thinking of it as one art in a system of the arts.
Between the mid-eighteenth and late nineteenth centuries, that is to say during the period
that separates the baroque from modernism, architecture was conventionally placed
alongside poetry, painting, sculpture, music and so on, as one art among a system, or as it
was sometimes put, a division of the arts. I conjecture that among the other sympathies
between the baroque and 20th century architecture is the similarity they have in sitting either
side of the period in which the institutions and disciplines of arts claimed a philosophical
foundation, and developed an institutional structure as Academies. Thus, the baroque
intermingling of trades, media and traditions provide an historical precedent, if not an actual
model, for post-romantic gestamkunstwerk, such as Gropius’s total theatre.10
Nor is it
insignificant that systems of the arts generally ranked architecture quite low, while
modernists sought to make it the basis on which the other arts would be joined.
It is more usual to observe the antipathy of the early 20th century moderns to classicism and
academic institutions in their medievalism. The guild like structure of the Bauhaus curriculum
and the Glass Chain of Taut and Scheerbart refer back to the romantic medievalism of
Goethe, Ruskin and Morris.11 However, I conjecture that the formalism of 20th century
interest in the Gothic takes its agenda from the baroque scholarship. Paul Frankl, Wilhelm
Proceedings of the XXVth International Conference
of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand
Geelong, Australia, 3-6 July 2008
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Baroque Architecture and the System of the Arts
Worringer and later Henri Focillon, are basically applying to the Gothic the question that
Wölfflin called style–that is, the relation of a period mentality to the form of the objects it
produced.12 It is interesting on this count that Walter Benjamin’s account of the significance
of the baroque for the post war situation was based in part on a critique of romanticism as
merely a vitalist version of classical symbolism.13 So while the Gothic was a stronger model
of the synthesis of the arts for modernists, to an extent, the terms of this interest came from
the formalist strand of art history that had begun in the historiography of the baroque, and the
ecstatic pessimism and millennialism of 17th century culture better distinguished modern art
from the false hopes of romanticism.
We are yet to research in any detail how much explicit interest moderns had in the
organisation of the art disciplines in the making of 17th century buildings. The present paper
is more concerned with the meta-argument about how the historicity of art and the arts
affected the reception of the baroque as a critical category in the 20th century. The split so
widely observed in the historiography of the baroque between properly historical studies, and
more instrumental studies that find meta-historical values in the baroque, is not only a war of
positions within the architectural discipline, it is also a consequence of the history of the
terms ‘art’ and ‘arts’. We should not assume that architecture was the same concept in the
17th century as it had different relations then with painting and sculpture, but neither should
we assume that was a closed set of disciplines, ‘the arts’ of which architecture painting and
sculpture were a part, nor a concept of art that underlay such a system.
I’ll briefly sketch this problem drawing on the foundational text, Oscar Kristeller’s ‘The
Modern System of the Arts’ of 1951, a not insignificant date in itself for the issue under
discussion, marking as it does the post-war interest in historicising modern art and
architecture.14 Kristeller puts together an intellectual history of the concept art that quickly
shows that its current meaning is very recent. From its ancient origins to the renaissance, the
word ‘art’ applied to skills and the mastery of knowledge. The concept of the fine arts
emerges only in the 18th century and it does so by combining two old ideas with a new one.
The first is that of a structured division of knowledges, inherited from antiquity and developed
Proceedings of the XXVth International Conference
of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand
Geelong, Australia, 3-6 July 2008
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Baroque Architecture and the System of the Arts
in the curriculum of the liberal arts of the medieval schools (trivium -- grammar, logic, rhetoric
and the quadrivium --arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy). The second is the ancient
prejudice against manual labour, which developed as a distinction between liberal and
mechanical arts. What was liberal about the trivium and quadrivium, was that they were arts
not applied by necessity or by manual labour, but intellectual work freely chosen. Applying
this distinction to manual trades such as painting and building so that, for instance,
representational painting could be categorically distinguished from more prosaic uses of
pigment was the great achievement of Renaissance thinkers. While Alberti, was successful
in using the idea of the liberal arts to reform architecture and painting, in the Renaissance
there was no set of the arts in a modern sense (which would exclude astronomy) until much
later.
The modern system of the arts required the 18th century idea of aesthetics. This supposed
that there is a sensory basis, or a critical judgement of sensory experience, which accounts
for feelings of the beautiful in nature and in art. The arts in the modern sense then formed a
group, separated from the arts of astronomy or carpentry, based on feelings of beauty that
only they and natural beauties aroused. Aesthetic theories were then commonly used as a
basis for comparing the beauty of a poem and painting, and ultimately for ranking the
aesthetic capacity of poetry and painting. Even in the 18th century, under this utterly familiar
concept, the arts included some we might find surprising, such as cuisine, and fountains,
alongside literature, dance, music, the visual arts and architecture. So it is even more
surprising that while in some uses today ‘the arts’, said with the definite article, might include
music and dance, it rarely means literature, and that, in general, the word ‘art’, without the
definite article, has come to mean those things that go in art galleries and are taught at ‘art
schools’ i.e., painting and sculpture, which are sometimes called the ‘visual arts’ to the great
chagrin of sculptors. Of course, in the contemporary art world, disciplines and media are in
great flux. Photography is perhaps the single most popular medium for contemporary artists,
but today the graduates of arts schools tend to call themselves artists, whether they press
shutters, merge pixels, weld metal or paint with brushes on canvas, and their product is of
course ‘art’ a concept that has now developed since the 18th century to an almost
Proceedings of the XXVth International Conference
of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand
Geelong, Australia, 3-6 July 2008
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metaphysical level of generality, despite being used, in an institutional sense, to name the
narrowest set of activities to which it has ever been applied.
There has not been a systematic study of where architecture fits in the various systems of
the arts. Joseph Rykwert is about to release a book in this topic, which will not be available in
time for me to account for it in the present paper.15 Here, I’ll look briefly at the more influential
systems and how they placed architecture.
Charles Batteux’s Les Beaux-Arts réduits à un même principe, of 1746, is the foundation of
the modern concept of the fine arts. Batteux, drawing on Locke and Voltaire, thought that we
know beauty in our pleasure at the experience of nature, and that the ‘fine arts’ could be
defined as the faithful imitation of the beauty of nature. He then proposed a division of the
arts, between those ‘fine’ and pleasurable and those mechanical and useful, but with an
intermediate category for the place of architecture and rhetoric. The combination of the
mechanical and the useful was a recent idea. The earlier prejudice against the mechanical
arts is largely a social one, a contrast of the manual work of the lower classes compelled to
labour, and the upper classes free of necessity and freely manipulating ideas. However,
around 1700 the Earl of Shaftsbury developed this into the modern idea of
disinterestedness.16 Just as true virtue was conducted without expectation of a reward, so
the liberal arts would be conducted without a use or a preconceived product. The ambiguous
position into which these concepts placed architecture remains to today. Architecture is
obviously occasioned by use, and fails if it is not useful, and yet this end point in a product
does not govern the architect in the way that utility rules in the design of pulleys and levers.
While the architect is contracted to build, to a large extent, her horizon, like the poet and
painter, is a free contemplation of her art and hence beauty.
The Encyclopedia of Diderot and d’Alembert was based on a schema of all human
knowledge.17 Their map of knowledge proposes a distinction between reason, memory and
imagination where imagination is comprised of what Batteux had called the Beaux Arts. The
Proceedings of the XXVth International Conference
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Geelong, Australia, 3-6 July 2008
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Encyclopedia, which has quite a lot to say about architecture elsewhere, divides it into ‘civil
architecture’, which is an art of imagination, and practical architecture, which is an
understanding of ‘memory’ in the use of stone, parallel to the tanner’s use of skins. Here
Diderot and d’Alembert are developing the liberal/mechanical split by distinguishing between
a knowledge of building which is learned and disseminated, and a knowledge of architecture
which is made in a mental ability to imagine.18
These mid-century French theories established the idea that was a set of liberal arts, largely
those we still have, and that they could be distinguished from other kinds of knowledge, both
more abstract, like mathematics, and more practical, like carpentry. Nevertheless, the
knowledges that the Encyclopedia organized were those that the authors found around them,
older categories of the schools and the guilds, and new ones like the Royal Academies. A
concept of art in the modern sense was required to explain the distinctness of the beaux arts
but was not yet so strong as to provide a basis for comparing the different arts.
In the middle of the 18th century, writers such as Hogarth, Burke, Reynolds, and Lessing,
began to compare the arts and in doing so combined the old criteria of material and
technique with new aesthetic criteria of sensory pleasure and reflection on one’s pleasure.19
Kant’s Critique of Judgment, the most rigorous account of aesthetics, is so extreme as to
leave aside altogether the possibility of an empirical aesthetic, of knowing one’s pleasure in
degree or kind. Instead, Kant limits the question to asking, if one is pleased, how one knows
that the pleasure is purely at beauty.20 Given this level of abstraction, it is surprising, then,
that Kant feels able to rank the arts. Architecture is the lowest not because it is less
pleasurable, or because stone is less noble a material than language, but because the use of
building and the geometrical basis of architectural design mean that architectural pleasures
might easily be confused with a pleasure at utility, or at conceptual perfection.
Schopenhauer, who extended Kant’s aesthetics in many ways, also demoted architecture
further. With tragedy as the pinnacle of the arts, architecture occupied the opposite pole, one
step below fountains.21
Proceedings of the XXVth International Conference
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Geelong, Australia, 3-6 July 2008
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The deteriorating position of architecture in these systems can then be largely blamed on the
growth and acceptance of philosophical aesthetics. The strong value that Kant and
Schopenhauer put on disinterestedness, but also on the non-conceptual basis of aesthetic
feeling, push architecture back onto the mechanical side of the ancient liberal/mechanical
split. However, the situation is more complex than this, as a strong concept of art, as having
is own ontology manifest in the different disciplines, has never been universally accepted.
Aesthetics supposes that there is a human faculty for aesthetic feeling that must be common
to the appreciation of nature and art, and which is not interested in choosing between them,
or between different arts. A tree, a symphony and a building would then be competing for the
attention of our aesthetic faculty. Traditionally, in a theistic culture, the tree must win, having
been made by God, and then, through a large sampling of buildings and symphonies, music
and architecture might be compared on the common ground of the pleasure they gave.
Hegel famously reversed the usual thinking by claiming that the beauty of nature was a
conjecture we make from concepts that we have learnt in art.22 Art and aesthetic feeling
could not be based on nature because art developed. For Hegel, architecture is the oldest
form of art and thus the least capable of artistic expression in the 19th century, in the age of
Beethoven, as it was conceived in the world of Pharaohs. But, conversely architecture is the
most important art, as it is a continually present origin.
At a simpler level, the institutions of art, the Royal Academies that sprung up across Europe
from the late 17th century, all supposed that art was capable of improvement. Joshua
Reynolds, the founding president of the British Royal Academy, disparaged ‘taste’ by which
he meant simple aesthetic feeling and preference for one artwork over another, and instead
elevated the discipline of painting to something like what Kant called an aesthetic idea.23 For
Reynolds, ‘art’ was the aspiration of painters, but it did not give criteria to painting, which
rather looked to its own history and potential for the development of its internal problematics.
When the topic of the picturesque opened the question of the relation between the arts,
Reynolds did not treat this as a system of differentiation, but, rather, as an interplay of
differing developments. Reynolds thought that the English baroque architect Vanbrugh had
realised something implicit in the development of architecture by taking on ideas of painterly
Proceedings of the XXVth International Conference
of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand
Geelong, Australia, 3-6 July 2008
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form. Thus, Reynolds and a large number of thinkers since the 18th century, have continued
to think of art in an almost renaissance manner, as a loose description of a set of historically
distinct disciplines. What changes at the point where, in the mid-18th century, Reynolds
needed to defend the genius of painting from mere taste, is that this disciplinary account has
an alternative in an aesthetic account of art.
So while philosophers sought aesthetic criteria for ranking arts in a system, this failed to
account for the historicity of the individual arts, and this led to much productive confusion in
the 19th century. In Kant after Duchamp, Thierry de Duve describes the conflict that develops
between art and aesthetics in the 20th century.24 Was Duchamp in his readymades enlarging
the scope of art, or was he effectively ending art by making it indistinguishable from
philosophy, as Arthur Danto has written?25 Could there be an ‘art-as-such’ that was practiced
in a space anterior to the art disciplines, and then realised as required through painting, and
building. In fact, Duchamp’s urinal of 1917 dramatised a situation that was familiar to
architects in the interdisciplinarity of the Arts and Crafts, and the Deuscher Werkbund. To an
extent, and certainly without the scatology, Gropius and Meyer’s master’s houses at the
Dessau Bauhaus, were meant to be like the urinal, as generic and desirable as modern
hygienic plumbing, and completely devoid of artistic will. When the Klee and Kandinsky
painted their homes, what then was at stake? Décor? or a set of suppositions about colour
theory that had the potential to give a foundation to both painting and architecture? These
painters taught in a school where architecture was not on the curriculum but was to be the
organic outcome of thought about art, but, when the painters Klee and Kandinsky have to
come to terms with the work of their fellow masters, is it art-as-such or a new definition of
painting and architecture that is the result?
By the 1940s, this moment of aesthetic intermediality was temporality on the wane. Giedion
was introducing the idea of the maturation of modern architecture in the age of great masters
such as Le Corbusier and Gropius, and Clement Greenberg was hailing Jackson Pollock as
refounding painting on its own internal problematics.26 When Giedion, Zevi and others began
to emphasise the distinctness of architecture as an art, the internality of its criteria in means
Proceedings of the XXVth International Conference
of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand
Geelong, Australia, 3-6 July 2008
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and problems that arose from its own history, it is not surprising that they turn to the baroque.
The baroque was the font of many of the issues with which we claim architecture to be
autonomous and not an aspect of some larger history of art. But the baroque is also the
period most like the situation of the arts in the early twentieth century, which could be used to
explain as history what had only a decade earlier been a conceptual and aesthetic question.
Our research on the reception of the baroque in 20th century architecture has methodological
issues in defining what architecture was in the two periods, and what it has been said to be
by architects and historians of architecture and art. In this paper I have proposed that this
question is also part of the substance of our inquiry. The issues of: the definition of
architecture as an art, its relation to a set of ‘the arts’, the idea that there is an aesthetic
realm that underlies and relates the arts–these issues themselves have a history between
1600 and 1980. We hope to show that it is the sides taken on these issues, as much as the
great buildings of 17th century Rome that have made the baroque a productive site for
thinking architecture in the 20th century.
Endnotes
1
Giedion, Sigfried, Space, Time and Architecture: The Growth of a New Tradition (Cambridge
Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1967).
Zevi, Bruno, Architecture as Space: How to Look at Architecture (New York: Horizon Press, 1957).
2
Connors, Joseph. Borromini and the Roman Oratory : Style and Society (New York: Architectural
History Foundation ; Cambridge MIT Press, 1980).
"Un Teorema Scaro: San Carlo Alle Quattro Fontane." available net
http//:www.columbia.edu/~jc65/cv/linnks/teorema.htmm ([2002 net available]).
Thoenes, Christof, "‘Form Has Been Set in Motion’: On Understanding the Architecture of Borromini."
Daidalos, 67 (1998), 63-73.
3
Giedion, Sigfried, Space, Time and Architecture, 118.
4
Tafuri, Manfredo, Theories and History of Architecture (London New York: Granada, 1980).
5
Connors, Joseph, "Borromini's S.Ivo All Sapienza: The Spiral." The Burlington Magazine for
Connoisseurs 138, 1123 (1996), 668-682. Connor’s shows the difficulty of making any final analysis of
the allegory of the spiral, given the complexity of the politics of the building and the arcane emblem
culture of the times.
6
Riegl, Alois, Benjamin Binstock, and Jacqueline E. Jung, Historical Grammar of the Visual Arts (New
York: Zone Books, 2004).
Riegl, Alois, and David Castriota, Problems of Style : Foundations for a History of Ornament
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992).
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Baroque Architecture and the System of the Arts
Schmarsow, August, "The Essence of Architectural Creation" in Harry Francis Mallgrave and
Eleftherios (eds.) Empathy, Form and Space: Problems in German Aesthetics 1873-1893 (Santa
Monica: Getty Center, 1994), 281-298.
Wölfflin, Heinrich, Renaissance and baroque. Translated by Kathrin Simon (Ithaca NY: Cornell
University Press, 1966).
“Prolegomena to a Psychology of Architecture”, in Harry Frances Mallgrave and Eleftherios (eds.),
Empathy, Form and Space: Problems in German Aesthetics 1973-1893 (Santa Monica: Getty Center,
1994).
7
Norberg-Schulz, Christian, Intentions in Architecture (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1963).
Baroque Architecture (London: Academy Editions, 1972).
Venturi, Robert, and Museum of Modern Art (New York N.Y.), Complexity and Contradiction in
Architecture, Museum of Modern Art Papers on Architecture, 1 (New York: Museum of Modern Art,
1966).
8
JJ Winklemann, Reflections on the Painting and Sculpture of the Greeks: with Instructions for the
Connoisseur, and an Essay on Grace in Works of Art (London: "Printed for the translator" [Henry
Fuseli], and sold by A. Millar, 1765).
9
Wittkower, Rudolf, Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism, 2nd ed. (London: A. Tiranti,
1952).
Rowe, Colin. "The Mathematics of the Ideal Villa", in The Mathematics of the Ideal Villa, and Other
Essays (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1976), 1-27.
10
Michelis, Marco di, "The Last Dream and the Total Work of Art: Art and Architecture in Weimar
Germany", in Germano Celant (ed.) Architecture and Arts 1900-2004: A Century of Creative Products
in Building, Design, Cinema, Painting, Photography, Sculpture (Milan: Skira, 2004), 53-58.
11
Fiedler, Jeannine, and Peter Feierbend, (eds.), Bauhaus (Cologne: Könemann, 1999).
Sharp, Dennis, (ed.), Glass Architecture by Paul Scheerbart and Alpine Architecture by Bruno Taut.
(New York and Washington: Praeger, 1972).
12
Focillon, Henri, The Life of Forms in Art. (New York: Zone Books, 1989).
Frankl, Paul, The Gothic: Literary Sources and Interpretations through Eight Centuries (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1960).
Entwichlungsphasen De Neueren Baukunst, (Leipzig, 1914).
Worringer, Wilhelm, Form in Gothic (London: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1927).
13
Benjamin, Walter, The Origin of German Tragic Drama (London: New Left Books, 1977).
14
Kristeller, Paul Oskar, "The Modern System of the Arts", in Renaissance Thought and the Arts:
Collected Essays (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990). Earlier, the Journal of Aesthetics
and Art Criticism, 1:1 (Spring, 1941), published its first issue on this topic in 1941, the year of
Geidion’s lectures on “Space Time and Architecture” Also see Shiner, L. E. Invention of Art : A Cultural
History (Chicago, IL.: University of Chicago Press, 2001).
15
Rykwert, Joseph. The Judicious Eye: Architecture against the Other Arts (London: Reaktion, 2008).
16
Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, Gerd Hemmerich, and Wolfram Benda, Standard Edition:
Complete Works, Selected Letters and Posthumous Writings (Standard Edition: Samtliche Werke,
Ausgewahlte Briefe Und Nachgelassene Schriften), Vol. 15, (Stuttgart: Frommann-Holzboog, 1981).
Stolnitz, Jerome, "On the Significance of Lord Shaftesbury in Modern Aesthetic Theory", Philosophical
Quarterly, 11:43 (1961), 97-113.
Li, Shiqiao, Virtue and Power: Architecture and Intellectual Change in England 1660-1730, The
Classical Tradition in Architecture (London and New York: Routledge, 2006).
17
Diderot, Denis and Jean le Ron d'Almbert, Encyclopédie. 32 vols (Paris, 1751-1777).
18
This distinction also bears comparison with Claude Perrault’s between absolute and customary
beauty. Herrmann, Wolfgang. The Theory of Claude Perrault, Studies in Architecture; 12 (London: A.
Zwemmer, 1973).
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Baroque Architecture and the System of the Arts
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19
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(London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1958).
20
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21
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22
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23
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24
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25
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26
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Proceedings of the XXVth International Conference
of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand
Geelong, Australia, 3-6 July 2008
History in Practice
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