Research Conference Proceedings
Research Conference Proceedings
Vol. 2 No. 1
Vol. 2. No. 1
March 9–10
2017
Miami, FL
Research Conference Proceedings
1
Innovations is the research proceedings of the SECSA Federation of International Council of Hotel,
Restaurant, and Institutional Education.
2017 Proceedings Editor:
Review of Papers Conducted by:
Alecia C. Douglas, PhD
Associate Professor
Department of Nutrition, Dietetics, &
Hospitality Management
Auburn University
Melvin R. Weber, PhD
Associate Professor
School of Hospitality Leadership
East Carolina University
Special Thank You To:
Dr. Mike Hampton, Dean, and the faculty and staff of the
Chaplin School of Hospitality & Tourism Management for
hosting our 2nd Annual SECSA Conference.
An extra special thank you to Dr. Miranda Kitterlin
(conference chair) and Dr. Eric Beckman for their time,
effort, and dedication to ensure a successful conference
Cover Art by James Heinzman, FIU and Chaplin School Undergraduate Student
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President
Vice-President
Donald G. Schoffstall, PhD, EdS, CSC, CHE, FMP
Associate Professor
Johnson & Wales University, Charlotte
School of Hospitality, College of Management
801 W. Trade Street
Charlotte, NC 28202
980-598-1536
[email protected]
Melvin R. Weber, PhD
Associate Professor
School of Hospitality Leadership
RW-316 Rivers Building
East Carolina University
Greenville, NC 27858
252-328-2351
[email protected]
Treasurer
Secretary
Lynsey Wilson-Madison, PhD
Assistant Professor & Coordinator of Hospitality
Management
School of Hospitality, Sport & Tourism Management
College of Health & Human Sciences
Troy University
153B Collegeview
Troy, AL 36082
334-808-6574
[email protected]
Alecia C. Douglas, PhD, CHE
Associate Professor
Hospitality Management Program
Department of Nutrition, Dietetics, &
Hospitality Management
Auburn University
358 Spidle Hall
Auburn, AL, 36849-5605
334-844-1434
[email protected]
Director of Research
Director of Education
Miranda Kitterlin-Lynch, PhD
Assistant Professor
Chaplin School of Hospitality & Tourism
Management
Florida International University
3000 NE 151st St, BBC HM 210
North Miami, FL 33181
305-919-4424
[email protected]
Guillermo Graglia, PhD, CHE
Dean
Facultad Administracion Hotelera
Turismo y Gastronomia
Universidad San Ignacio de Loyola
Av. La Fontana 550
La Molina, Lima, LIM12, Peru
511 3171000, ext. 3760
[email protected]
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Director of Membership
Director of Networking
James A Williams, PhD
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Retail, Hospitality, & Tourism
Management
University of Tennessee
220B Jessie Harris Bldg.
Knoxville, TN, 37996-1911
865-974-6620
[email protected]
Kate Price-Howard, PhD, CHE, CTRS
Assistant Professor & Coordinator of
Hospitality Management
School of Hospitality, Sport & Tourism
Management
College of Health & Human Sciences
Troy University
81 Beal Parkway, SE
Ft. Walton Beach, FL 32548
850-368-3526
[email protected]
Directory of Industry Services
Director of Marketing
Barry Bloom, PhD
EVP & COO
Xenia Hotels & Resorts, Inc.
Adjunct at University of Central Florida
PO Box 2951
Orlando, FL 32802
407-246-8128
[email protected]
Kim H. Williams, PhD
Director
Lester E. Kabacoff School of Hotel,
Restaurant & Tourism
College of Business
University of New Orleans
2000 Lakeshore Drive KH 462
504-280-5503
[email protected]
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Southeastern, Central, and South American Federation 2017 Conference
Florida International University
March 9-10, 2017
Conference Host and Location:
Chaplin School of Hospitality & Tourism Management
Florida International University – Biscayne Bay Campus
3000 Northeast 151 Street
North Miami, FL 33181
For conference (host) related questions please contact Dr. Miranda Kitterlin ([email protected])
or Dr. Eric Beckman ([email protected]).
Conference Schedule:
Wednesday, March 8th
Social gathering (on-your-own) starting around 7:00pm until 9/9:30pm on Wednesday at Duffy’s
Sports Grill (3969 NE 163rd St., North Miami Beach, 33160; 7-minute drive southwest of Days
Hotel). Please feel free to come join us for a bite to eat, a beverage or soda, and/or just to say
hello and socialize with other attendees.
Thursday, March 9th (all times EST)
8:00-9:00 – Check in and Continental Breakfast in the Wine Spectator Restaurant Management
Lab
9:00-10:15 – Welcome (HM 175)
Donald Schoffstall, PhD, President SECSA
Mike Hampton, Dean, Chaplin School of Hospitality & Tourism, FIU
Keynote 1
Title: Current OTA Trends, and What Expedia Looks for in Future Hospitality
Graduates Silvia Camarota, Director – Florida, Expedia, Inc.;
Immediate Past President/Chapter Advisor of HSMAI
10:15-10:30 – Break
10:30-12:30 – Presentation Session One (HM 175)
10:30-10:50
The Impact of Gender on the Perception of Emotional Labor
Andrew Moreo, PhD & Irina Troitskaya, GS
10:50-11:10
Hospitality Faculty Perceptions on Issues of Academic Integrity
Cynthia Vannucci, PhD
11:10-11:30
Finding A Voice: An Autoethnography of My Odyssey in Hospitality Academia
James Williams, PhD
11:30-11:50
An Overview of Doctoral Hospitality Management Programs: A Look at Growth,
Faculty, and Development
Lynsey Wilson-Madison, PhD, Christina Martin, PhD & John Miller, PhD
11:50-12:10
Study Abroad Students’ Risk Perceptions and its Influence on Travel Behaviors
Erol Solzen, GS, Martin O’Neill, PhD & Imran Rahman, PhD
12:10-12:30
Best Practices Relating to Employer of Choice and the Relations Between Employee
Retention and Customer Satisfaction Scores Within the Hospitality Industry Along the
Florida/Alabama Gulf Coast
Kate Price-Howard, PhD
12:30-1:45 – Lunch in the Wine Spectator Restaurant Management Lab
Breakfast and lunch on both days catered by Exquisite Catering by Robert
1:45-3:45 –
Presentation Session Two (HM 260)
1:45-2:05
A Quantitative Investigation Exploring Illicit Drug Use Inside and Out of the
Foodservice Industry
Kristen Kaminski, GS, Miranda Kitterlin, PhD & Eric Beckman, PhD
2:05-2:25
A Quantitative Study of Expatriate Hotel Managers in Mainland China: An Exploration
of How Organizational Justice Influences Local Employee Job Satisfaction and Their
Evaluation of Expatriate Manager Leadership Performance
Wei Ding, GS & Jinlin Zhao, PhD
2:25-2:45
Workplace Bullying in the Foodservice Industry: A Qualitative Follow-Up
Miranda Kitterlin, PhD, Lisa Cain, PhD & Mohan Song, GS
2:45-3:05
Unraveling the Success of Cuban Restauranteurs in Miami
Juan Tamayo, GS, Miranda Kitterlin, PhD & Eric Beckman, PhD
3:05-3:25
The Influence of an Ion-Exchange Matrix Treatment on the Perceived Taste Preference
and Hedonic Responses of Three Cabernet Sauvignon Wines
Mark Traynor, PhD, Imran Ahmed, PhD & Michael Cheng, PhD
3:25-3:45
Winery Restaurant Entrepreneurship: Exploring Consumer Demand
Bonnie Canziani, PhD
3:45-4:00 –
Break
4:00-5:15 –
Industry Panel Session (HM 249)
Lani Kane-Hanan, EVP and Chief Growth Officer, Marriott Vacations Worldwide
Wendy Kallergis, President & CEO, Greater Miami and the Beaches Hotel Association
Jerry Montgomery, Chief Human Resources Officer, Carnival Corporation
Sergio D. Rivera, President-The Americas, Starwood Hotel & Resorts Worldwide, Inc.
5:15-6:30 – FIU Beer Tasting Sponsored by the FIU BREW and Networking Reception in
the Wine Spectator Restaurant Management Lab
8:00 Dinner; on own, but planning for a group reservation at a Miami-area restaurant with
enough interest
Friday, March 10th (all times EST)
8:00-9:00 –
Continental Breakfast in the Wine Spectator Restaurant Management Lab
9:00-10:15 – Keynote 2 (HM 175)
Title: Lodging Industry Challenges and Trends in 2017
Constantino Papadopulos, CHRM, CRME, General Manager, Holiday Inn Coral Gables –
University, Immediate Past President/Chapter Advisor HSMAI
10:15-10:30 – Break
10:30-11:30 - Research Forum (HM 230); Student Start-ups: The Juanaeat Journey
Miguel Alonso, Jr., PhD, Director of Research & Economic Development
Juan Tamayo, FIU Graduate Student
11:45-12:45 - Education Forum (HM 249); Affective Teaching presented by
Leslie Richardson, Director, FIU Center for the Advancement of Teaching and
Jennifer Bartman, Associate Director, FIU Writing Across the Curriculum
12:45-1:45 – Lunch in the Wine Spectator Restaurant Management Lab
1:45-2:15 –
HM Building Tour(s) conducted by Kaleena Salgueiro, MS Ed., Academic Advisor
2:15-4:00 –
Presentation Session Three (HM 175)
2:15-2:35
Measuring Effects of Experience on Adventure Travel
Kenia Taylor, GS, Sijun Liu, GS & Eric Beckman, PhD
2:35-2:55
The Effects of Regional Political Instability on Jordan’s Perceived Image:
An Application of the Destination Image Restoration Theory
Wlla Obeidat, GS & Alecia Douglas, PhD
2:55-3:15
Consequences of Hotel Greenwashing: The Moderating Effect of Consumers’ Previous
Experience
Han Chen, GS, Shaniel Bernard, GS & Imran Rahman, PhD
3:15-3:35
Hotel’s Environmental Management Practice: Scale Development and Validation
Woody Kim, PhD, Yong Joong Kim, PhD, Hyung-Min Choi, PhD & Min Tian, PhD
3:35-3:55
Millennial Consumers’ Perception of Green Practices of Airbnb Hosts
Shaniel Bernard, GS & Alecia Douglas, PhD
4:00-5:30 –
Closing Reception and Awards in the Wine Spectator Restaurant Management Lab
Awards and Final Remarks: Donald Schoffstall, PhD, President SECSA
and members of the SECSA Federation Board
7:30 Dinner; on own, but planning for group reservation at Miami-area restaurant with enough
interest
*schedule subject to change within times listed
The Impact of Gender on the Perception of Emotional Labor
Andrew P. Moreo, PhD.,
Assistant Professor, Florida International University
and
Irina Troitskaya,
Graduate Student, Florida International University
Introduction
Since its introduction by Hochschild (1983), the concept of emotional labor has been of great
interest to the services research community. The impact of emotional labor and the strategies that
frontline employees utilize to deliver service to their customers has been extensively researched.
There are several different streams of thought as to its positive and negative impacts on the employee.
However, the literature is limited with respect to customer perception of emotional labor.
At the core of a service encounter is the interpersonal interaction between the customer and
the service provider. The nature of the interaction and the positive or negative perception of it by the
customer can have a profound impact on the service outcomes (Groth, Hennig-Thurau, & Wang,
2013). What the service provider executes for the customer has been coined emotional labor, as it is
not strictly physical or mental, but involves both of those as well as (at minimum) displaying
appropriate emotions, and often the regulation of internal emotions to align them with the display.
Literature Review
Hochschild (1983) suggested that there were two strategies that employees performing
emotional labor can implement to achieve the required affect so as to perform appropriately: surface
acting and deep acting. Surface acting has been described in terms of an employee displaying the
correct emotion without aligning their actual internal emotions. The second strategy for
accomplishing emotional labor was deep acting, which has been characterized as the physical display
of the correct emotion through internal regulation of one’s own emotions.
For most research (including this current project) authenticity has been measured through a
related surrogate, that of deep acting. It is thought that, because of the nature of deep acting that it
should be perceived as more authentic than surface acting (Groth et al., 2013). It has been suggested
that the quality of the emotional display, not just the emotional display itself should have a significant
impact on customer perception of the service encounter, and that the more authentic the expression
the better it will be received by the customer (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993).
Much of the research that has been conducted on the customer’s perception of these
emotional aspects of service encounter has focused on smiling and other related emotional behavioral
displays (Ford, 1995; Hennig-Thurau, Groth, Paul, & Gremler, 2006; Mattila & Enz, 2002; Pugh, 2001;
Tsai & Huang, 2002). The research has been fairly conclusive in that it elucidates that positive
emotional displays by the employee (e.g. smiling, friendliness, eye contact, and greeting) are
associated with higher levels of customer reported service quality and re-visitation (Barger & Grandey,
2006; Diefendorff & Richard, 2003; Mattila & Enz, 2002; Pugh, 2001; Tsai & Huang, 2002).
It has been demonstrated that there is great benefit to a firm in retaining its current customers
as opposed to recruiting and acquiring new customers (Anderson & Mittal, 2000; Reichheld, 1996).
This benefit is a function of customer loyalty as seen through positive word of mouth, increased
propensity to repurchase, decreased switching, and willingness to pay more (Hennig-Thurau et al.,
2002; Palmatier, Dant, Grewal, & Evans, 2006). It is, at least in part, through service quality and
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satisfaction that firms are able to cultivate loyal customers (Cronin & Taylor, 1992; Groth HennigThurau, & Walsh, 2009; Ladhari, Brun, & Morales, 2008). Service quality has been described as a multidimensional construct (Knutson, Stevens, & Patton, 1996), involving the comparison of the
expectations of customers with their perceptions of performance (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry,
1985, 1988). More recently, this definition has been modified to consider a customer’s global
judgement or attitude relating to the superiority of a service encounter (Zeithaml & Bitner, 2003).
Customer satisfaction has been demonstrated to be integral to customer loyalty (Fornell, Johnson,
Anderson, Cha, & Bryant, 1996; Ladhari et al., 2008; McDougall & Levesque, 2000).
As perception of emotions and emotional displays are considered to be absolutely subjective,
the personal characteristics of the customer who takes part in the service interaction plays an
important role in the final evaluation of the service quality and, thus, customer’s satisfaction and
loyalty. Gender is one of the personal characteristics that might determine the perception of
emotional labor during the service encounter. Women are stereotypically believed to be more
emotional than men (Timmers, Fischer, & Manstead, 2003). It has been suggested that gender
differences in emotions emerge through a combination of innate biological factors, socialization
processes, and through the influence of immediate social context and societal expectations within the
cultural environment (Brody, 1985; Chaplin, 2015; Fivush & Buckner, 2000). The evidence for sex
differences in cognitive functions generated an assumption of the existence of gender differences in
affective information processing. Women are believed to be more skilled at sending and receiving
nonverbal messages (Briton & Hall, 1995). Most of the research has indicated that men and women
differ in their abilities to recognize facial expressions of emotion, with women being better in
identifying facial affect (Collignon et al., 2010; Guillem & Mograss, 2005; Hall, 1978; Hampson, van
Anders, & Mullin, 2006; Montagne, Kessels, Frigerio, de Haan, & Perrett, 2005; Thayer & Johnsen,
2000).
Traditionally two components of the interaction between the service provider and the client
are distinguished: the core service component and the relationship component (Berry, 1983).
Iacobucci and Ostrom (1993) researched the service evaluation in two types of service interactions:
with waiters and with attorneys. They found that male and female customers mainly agreed in their
attitude to good core performance, but differed in evaluation of the relationship component, with
women valuing it significantly more than do men who considered only core component to be
important. These results were supported by another study that explored the cognitive and affective
roles of service quality attitude across gender in four service categories: education, banking, passenger
transportation, and laundry. It was found that the relationship between the affective component of
service quality and behavioral intentions in female customers is higher than in males which means
that women rate affective component more than cognitive while evaluating their service encounters
and it will be a more valid predictor of their behavioral intentions (Chiu & Wu, 2002). Similar results
were obtained in research on airline passengers’ satisfaction drivers that showed that, although men
and women had the same level of satisfaction, the compositional model differed significantly, with
women placing more weight on interpersonal attributes than do men (Anderson, Pearo, & Widener,
2008).
The current research project should provide insight for academics into the relationships
between emotional labor, service quality, gender, satisfaction, and loyalty. If significant, this could
lead to a rethinking of the dimensions of service quality. It could extend or transform current
instruments employed to measure service quality. This research is not limited to academic
contributions, but has managerial implications as well. This research could suggest different strategies
for hiring and training at different food and beverage outlets, depending on the demographics of their
clientele.
The strategy chosen by the service provider (surface or deep acting) can have an impact on
their evaluation of the service provided (Groth, et al., 2009). These interactions can impact the
evaluation of service quality, satisfaction, and loyalty (Cronin & Taylor, 1992; Ladhari et al., 2008;
Groth et al., 2009). Since, service quality and satisfaction are inherently subjective and are evaluated
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in relation with personal characteristics, those characteristics must be accounted for in the evaluation
(e.g. gender). This leads to the research questions:
1. How do emotional labor, service quality, and gender impact customer satisfaction?
2. How do emotional labor, service quality, and gender impact customer loyalty?
The hypotheses were then derived from these research questions.
H1a. Deep acting has a stronger positive relationship with satisfaction when the
consumer’s gender is female versus male.
H1b. Surface acting has a stronger negative relationship with satisfaction when the
consumers’ gender is female versus male.
H2a. Deep acting has a stronger positive relationship with loyalty when the
consumer’s gender is female versus male.
H2b. Surface acting has a stronger negative relationship with loyalty when the
consumer’s gender is female versus male.
H3a. High service quality has a stronger positive relationship with satisfaction when
the consumer’s gender is male versus female.
H3b. Low service quality has a stronger negative relationship with satisfaction when
the consumer’s gender is male versus female.
H4a. High service quality has a stronger positive relationship with loyalty when the
consumer’s gender is male versus female.
H4b. Low service quality has a stronger negative relationship with loyalty when the
consumer’s gender is male versus female.
Methodology
This research has been conceived as a between subjects experimental design. It has three
independent variables, all dichotomous in nature: emotional labor, service quality, and gender. This
creates a 2x2x2 matrix. Being dichotomous, each variable had two levels: emotional labor – surface
acting or deep acting, service quality – low quality or high quality, and purpose of consumption – male
or female. In order to test the impact of these independent variables, four different scenarios were
written to portray the four different permutations of combinations of these variables and then those
four scenarios were given to males and females.
This research was conducted through electronic survey administered through Qualtrics.
Sample participants were purchased through Qualtrics, and an invitation email was sent. They were
presented with informed consent and then directed to the instrument. The participants were filtered
using three criteria: they must have been at least 18 years of age and dined in a table service
restaurant in the previous 12 months. Adhering to the recommendations of Hair, Black, Babin, and
Anderson (2010), this research will strive for minimum of 20 respondents per cell and ideally 50 per
cell. Given that there are eight cells, 160 to 400 respondents are necessary for adequate sampling with
the given research design.
Once they qualified to participate, they were randomly assigned one of the four scenarios to
read. Once they completed reading the scenario, they were presented with the questions of the
survey. The sections included: (1) emotional labor, (2) service quality, (3) loyalty, (4) satisfaction, and
(5) demographics.
Analysis
Given that this research employed a between subject experimental design, MANOVA is an
appropriate statistical technique to employ in the analysis. This research’s objectives were to examine
any differences between the various cells in the design. These differences will illuminate differences
in preferences by the participants and should aid in answering the hypotheses as well as the research
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questions. Until data analysis begins, it is not possible to know the various ANOVAs, ANCOVAs, and
post hoc analyses that will need to be performed as they will be based on the results of the initial
MANOVA.
References
Anderson, E. W., & Mittal, V. (2000). Strengthening the satisfaction-profit chain. Journal of Service
Research, 3(2), 107-120.
Anderson, S., Pearo, L. K., & Widener, S. K. (2008). Drivers of service satisfaction linking customer
satisfaction to the service concept and customer characteristics. Journal of Service
Research, 10(4), 365-381.
Ashforth, B. E., & Humphrey, R. H. (1993). Emotional labor in service roles: The influence of
identity. The Academy of Management Review, 18(1), 88.
Barger, P. B., & Grandey, A. A. (2006). Service with a smile and encounter satisfaction: Emotional
contagion and appraisal mechanisms. Academy of Management Journal, 49(6), 1229-1238.
Berry, L. L. (1983). Relationship marketing. American Marketing Association.
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Brody, L. R. (1985). Gender differences in emotional development: A review of theories and
research. Journal of Personality, 53(2), 102.
Chaplin, T. M. (2015). Gender and emotion expression: A developmental contextual
perspective. Emotion Review, 7(1), 14-21.
Chiu, H., & Wu, H. (2002). Exploring the cognitive and affective roles of service quality attitude across
gender. Service Industries Journal, 22(3), 63-76.
Collignon, O., Girard, S., Gosselin, F., Saint-Amour, D., Lepore, F., & Lassonde, M. (2010). Women
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men. Neuropsychologia, 48(1), 220-225.
Cronin, J. J., & Taylor, S. A. (1992). Measuring service quality: A reexamination and extension. Journal
of Marketing, 56(3), 55-68.
Diefendorff, J. M., & Richard, E. M. (2003). Antecedents and consequences of emotional display rule
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Fivush, R., & Buckner, J. P. (2000). 11. gender, sadness, and depression: The development of emotional
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discretionary behavior. Human Communication Research, 22(1), 65-89.
Fornell, C., Johnson, M. D., Anderson, E. W., Cha, J., & Bryant, B. E. (1996). The American customer
satisfaction index: Nature, purpose, and findings. Journal of Marketing, 60(4), 7-18.
Groth, M., Hennig-Thurau, T., & Walsh, G. (2009). Customer reactions to emotional labor: The roles of
employee acting strategies and customer detection accuracy. Academy of Management
Journal, 52(5), 958-974.
Groth, M., Hennig-Thurau, T., & Wang, K. (2013). The customer experience of emotional
labor. Emotional labor in the 21st century: Diverse perspectives on emotion regulation at
work (pp. 127-151). New York, NY, US: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, New York, NY.
Guillem, F., & Mograss, M. (2005). Gender differences in memory processing: Evidence from eventrelated potentials to faces. Brain and Cognition, 57(1), 84-92.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2013). Multivariate data analysis.
Hall, J. A. (1978). Gender effects in decoding nonverbal cues. Psychological Bulletin, 85(4), 845.
Hampson, E., van Anders, S. M., & Mullin, L. I. (2006). A female advantage in the recognition of
emotional facial expressions: Test of an evolutionary hypothesis. Evolution and Human
Behavior, 27(6), 401-416.
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Hennig-Thurau, T., Groth, M., Paul, M., & Gremler, D. D. (2006). Are all smiles created equal? how
emotional contagion and emotional labor affect service relationships. Journal of
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Iacobucci, D., & Ostrom, A. (1993). Gender differences in the impact of core and relational aspects of
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behavioral intentions. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 27(4), 563-573.
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Research, 4(4), 268-277.
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value into the equation. Journal of Services Marketing, 14(5), 392-410.
Montagne, B., Kessels, R. P., Frigerio, E., de Haan, E. H., & Perrett, D. I. (2005). Sex differences in the
perception of affective facial expressions: Do men really lack emotional sensitivity? Cognitive
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Hospitality Faculty Perceptions on Issues of Academic Integrity
Cynthia Vannucci, PhD.,
Professor, Metropolitan State University
The concerns associated with a lack of academic integrity and the rise in cheating over the
past several decades in higher education are well documented (McCabe & Trevino, 1996; Merritt,
2006). Institutions of higher education have been studying cheating since the mid-60’s (Bowers,
1964), and there has been intense scrutiny of who cheats, why they cheat, and what happens to those
who do cheat when they are caught (McCabe & Trevino, 1993; McCabe, Trevino, & Butterfield, 2001;
Sacks, 2008). As technology has evolved new concerns have arisen; Calvert, Evering, and Moorman
(2012) found that using on-line sources has become a widely used mechanism for academic
dishonesty.
Researching problems of academic integrity in hospitality management programs is important
because positive ethical climates actually contribute to organization success and is relevant in
hospitality industry as it enhances service employee performance with patrons (Luria & Yagil, 2008).
Thus, while academic integrity issues are critical to the discipline, they have little been investigated
within hospitality programs.
To provide a framework for the exploratory analysis of academic integrity within hospitality
programs and the universities they are housed in, this study used the Culture of Academic Integrity
model by Bretag et al., (2011) (See Figure 1) as a guideline to investigate whether faculty had a
perception that the model elements existed within their universities, and if university websites
contained the model components. The model components definitions include “access”, which
determines whether academic integrity policies are easy to locate, read, have comprehensible
language, logical headings, links to relevant resources, and are downloadable. Next “approach” looks
for whether the website has a statement of purpose and values, and has a coherent institutional
commitment to academic integrity. Third, “responsibility” determines whether there is a clear outline
of responsibility for students, faculty, and staff. Following responsibility is “support”, and determines
whether implementation procedures are listed, along with available resources to facilitate student
and faculty understanding of academic policies. Finally, “detail” explains breaches and defines levels
of severity along with reporting, recording, and appeals process of academic integrity. The following
research questions were examined:
1. What are the perceptions of hospitality faculty regarding academic integrity
policies in their programs?
2. What evidence of a culture of academic integrity in hospitality programs can be
gleaned from an analysis of department websites and their universities’ websites?
Figure 1. Culture of Academic Integrity, Bretag et al. (2011)
Research question one was investigated with a ten question electronic survey sent to 233
hospitality faculty, from 14 universities with hospitality programs in April and May 2016 (See
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Appendix). The survey was designed to garner demographic information on gender, age, and tenured
or tenure track faculty rank (See Table 2). Two questions provided descriptive data on whether
hospitality faculty had encountered issues of academic integrity with students, and then with fellow
hospitality faculty (See Table 3). The final portion of the survey gauged hospitality faculty beliefs on
whether model elements of “access”, “approach”, “responsibility”, “support” and “detail” existed
within their university websites. A Likert scale with four scaler values was used, where on equals
disagree, two equals semi-disagree, three equals semi-agree, and four equals agree (See Table 4).
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In order to address the second research question, websites of the 14 universities were
analyzed according to model component definitions for academic integrity polices in June 2016. The
14 universities selected for the study represented the Northeast, Southeast, Midwest, Southwestern,
Rocky Mountain, and Western regions of the United States. Programs had over 50 students and at
least six hospitality classes in the curriculum. The website review was a subjective judgment on the
part of the researcher as to whether university websites adhered to model element criteria. Ratings
were given based upon the number of search queries. If academic integrity polices were not found
after three searches it was considered a failed search (See Table 1).
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The results of the exploratory research confirmed that issues of academic integrity existed in
the discipline of hospitality management and that hospitality faculty perceived that all five model
elements existed within their public university websites. The majority of the universities were able to
adhere to some model elements. However, the model elements of “support” and “detail” had the
least adherence (See Table 1).
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Study limitations associated with the present work referenced two sources of information,
faculty perceptions and information publically available on university websites. There may be faceto-face training available to students and faculty that is not reflected in the websites. A second
limitation of the study is the low faculty response rate of 19%. Although universities recognize
academic integrity issues within their institutions, their corresponding websites may lack a cohesive
and consistent message of prevention, of sanctions, and/or reflect an organized and systematic way
to address this grave contemporary issue. This disconnect provides a compelling reason to utilize a
model that could aid in preventing and curbing the problem within hospitality programs or other
disciplines within higher education.
Future research using an elaborate coding system and raters from all levels of the university
would be desirable, as it could provide a more comprehensive picture of website user experience.
Each institution would benefit from a transparent and consistent system to reveal academic integrity
policies. Therefore, a unified system reflected in their publically accessible materials would
demonstrate institutional commitment to academic integrity, which is key to addressing the
fundamental concern to uphold the highest standards of ethics for all members of the academy.
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References
Bertram, G T. (2008). Academic integrity in the twenty-first century: A teaching and learning
imperative. ASHE Higher Education Report, 33(5) San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bowers, W. J. (1964). Student dishonesty and its control in college. New York: Bureau of Applied Social
Research, Columbia University.
Bretag, T., Mahmud, S., Wallace M., Walker, R., James, C., Green, …, Partridge, L. (2011). Core
elements of exemplary academic integrity policy, Int’L Journal for Educational Integrity 7(2)
pp
3-12.
available
online
http://
www.ojs.unosa.edu.au/index.php./
IJEI/article/viewFile/759/574
Calvert-Evering, L & Moorman G., Rethinking Plagiarism in the Digital Age., Journal of Adolescent &
Adult Literacy 56, (1), (Sept 2012 “doi” 10. 1002/ JAAL.00100 2012).
Cizek, G. J. (1999). Cheating on test: How to do it, detect it and prevent it. Mahwah: NJ Erlbaum.
Davis, S., Drinan, P. & Bertram Gallant, T. (2009). Cheating in School: What we know and what we can
do. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Diekhoff, G.M., LaBeff, E.E., Shinohara, K. & Yasukawa, H. (1999). College cheating in Japan and the
United States. Research in Higher Education, 40, 343-353.
Larkin, C., & Francis, A. (January 2012). Academic Integrity & Plagiarism, Int’l Journal of Business
Humanities and Technology, Vol. 2, no. 1 1-7.
Luria, G., & Yagil, D. (2008). Procedural justice, ethical climate and service outcomes in restaurants.
International Journal of Hospitality Management. 27(2), 276-283.
Marsden, H., Carroll, M., Neill, J.T. (2005). Who cheats at University? A self-report study of dishonest
behaviors in a sample of Australian Journal of Psychology, 57, 1-10.
McCabe, D.L. (2005). Cheating among college & university students: A North American perspective.
Int’l. Journal of Educational Integrity, 1(1). Retrieved., May 1, 2016 from http://
http://www.ojs.unisa.edu.au/index.php/IJEI/article/view/1419
McCabe D., & Trevino, L. (1993). Academic dishonesty; honor codes and other contextual influences.
Journal of Higher Education, 64, 522-538.
McCabe D., Trevino, L. (1996). What we know about cheating in college. Change 28(1), 29-33.
McCabe D., Trevino, L. (1997). Individual and contextual influences on academic dishonesty: A
multicampus investigation. Research in Higher Education, 38(3), 379-396.
McCabe D., Trevino, L., Butterfield K. (1999, March/ April). Academic integrity in honor code & nonhonor code environments: A qualitative investigation. Journal of Higher Education, 70(2),
211-234.
Merritt, G. (2008, September 8). Researcher studies epidemic of student cheating, Hartford Courant
online at www.ethicsed.org/programs/integrity-works/media.htm.
Mujtaba, G.B. and Preziosi, R. (June 2006). Adult Education in Academics:, Recruiting and Retaining
Extraordinary Facilitators of Learning, 2nd ed. ISBN: 1-59311-4761. Information Age
Publishing. Greenwich Connecticut. Phone: 303-661-7602.
Robinson-Zannartu, C., Pena, E., Cook-Morales, V., Pena, A., Afshani, R., & Nguyen, L. (2005).
Academic crime & punishment: Faculty members’ perception of and responses to plagiarism.
20(3), 318-337. Doi: 10.1521/scpg.2005.20.3.318.
Sacks, C.K. (2008). Academic and disciplinary outcomes following adjudication of academic
dishonesty unpublished doctoral dissertation. Bowling Green State University, Bowling
Green, Ohio.
Sims, R.L. (1993). The relationship between academic dishonesty and unethical business practice.
Journal of Education for Business, 68(4), 207-211.
Whitley, B.E, Jr. & Keith-Spiegel, P. (2002). Academic dishonesty: An educator’s guide. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Elrbaum Associates.
Whitley, B. E, Jr. (2001). Gender differences in affective responses to having cheated: The mediating
role of attitudes. “Ethics & Behavior.” 11(3), 249-259.
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Appendix: 2016 Hospitality Faculty Survey
Dear Hospitality Professor:
My name is Cynthia Vannucci, Ph.D., a professor in the Hospitality, Tourism, and Events Department at
Metropolitan State University of Denver, and I am conducting research on academic integrity policies in the
hospitality discipline. You are invited to participate in this research study which is investigating the views of
hospitality faculty and your perceptions of those policies within your university.
Your participation in this study will require the completion of the following survey and it should take
approximately ten minutes of your time. Your participation will be anonymous and you will not be contacted
again in the future. Please know that you will not be paid for participating in the study and it will involve
minimum risk to you. The benefits, however, may impact our field of study and increase knowledge about
issues of academic integrity for the hospitality discipline.
You are under no obligation to participate in this study. If you have questions about the research please
contact me directly at [email protected] or 303-556-3367, and I will be happy to answer your
questions.
If you have questions about your rights as a research participant you may contact the IRB administration office
at Metropolitan State University of Denver, P.O. Box 173362, Campus Box 19, 105 Central Building, Denver, CO
80217. The IRB is a group of people who review research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research
participants.
The completion of this survey implies consent to participate. If you choose to participate, responses will be
used to gauge perceptions of your university’s academic integrity policies.
Survey Directions: Please answer each question below. Questions 1-3 pertain to your demographic profile
and should reflect your current status. Questions 4-5 address faculty perceptions regarding academic integrity
encounters with students and faculty. Questions 6-10 address five elements of academic integrity to
determine whether faculty members believe elements exist within university policies. These questions are on
a Likert Scale of 1-4 where “1” indicates that you disagree with the statement and “4” indicates that you agree.
The greater the number, the more you agree with the statement.
1. What is your gender?
a. Male
b. Female
2. What is your academic rank?
a.
Assistant Professor
b.
Associate Professor
c.
Full Professor
3. What is your approximate age?
a.
25-30
b.
31-35
c.
36-40
d.
40-45
e.
46-50
f.
51-55
g.
56-60
h.
61-65
i.
Over 66
4. Has your hospitality department/program/school encountered any issues with your faculty concerning
academic integrity?
a. yes
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b. no
c. unsure
5. Has your hospitality department/program/school encountered any issues with your students concerning
academic integrity?
a. yes
b. no
c. unsure
The following section of the survey has been designed to understand the views of hospitality faculty on the
academic integrity policies within their university. Please answer the following questions that reflect your
belief or perception of your institutions academic integrity policies. Where one (1) indicates that you disagree
with the statement and four (4) indicates that you agree.
6. (SUPPORT) Does your hospitality department/program/school/university provide resources (such as
training modules, training seminars, and professional development) to facilitate student, faculty and staff
understanding of academic integrity?
1
Disagree
2
3
4
Agree
7. (ACCESS) Does your hospitality department/program/school/university have an academic integrity policy
that is easy to locate, easy to read, well-written, clear, and concise?
1
Disagree
2
3
4
Agree
8. (APPROACH) Does the academic integrity policy for your department/program/school/university have a
clear statement of purpose and values that is easy to understand?
1
Disagree
2
3
4
Agree
9. (RESPONSIBILITY) Does the academic integrity policy at your hospitality
department/program/school/university have a clear outline of responsibilities for faculty and students?
1
Disagree
2
3
4
Agree
10. (DETAIL) Does the academic integrity policy for your department/program/school/university explain the
procedures of reporting, recording, and appealing breaches of academic integrity?
1
Disagree
2
3
4
Agree
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Finding a Voice-An Autoethnography of My Odyssey in Hospitality Academia
James A. Williams, PhD.,
Assistant Professor, University of Tennessee
Introduction
Many black scholars who derive from poor communities research interests tend to derive
from an environment vastly different from their colleagues. The conundrum is that a myriad of their
colleagues serve key roles and important functions on academic journals, creating a perception of
unfairness and inevitable rejection among some black faculty when they attempt to publish
manuscripts outside of the parochial and proverbial published articles (Bonilla-Silva, 2003; Ross,
1997). Hospitality higher education has a distinct culture, language, and robust tenets that are
expansively disparate from my disenfranchised learning environments.
There is a disparity in educational resources within poverty-ridden communities, and most
depleted milieus fail to value education with the same respect as academics or individuals from more
entitled settings (Bell, 2002). However, individuals who survive those disenfranchised conditions
develop a level of self-efficacy that transmute to a boon in future situations. Employing
autoethnograpy and critical race theory (CRT), this article recreates personal narratives to provide
academia with a purview of a young black male’s perspective while attempting to navigate hospitality
higher education, a world uniquely different than my former culture, language, and political
underpinnings that valued drugs, violence, sex, and other things opposed to academia.
CRT and a Journey in Autoethnography
CRT suggests that racism is a norm in American society, and disparate American cultures play
a significant role in its tenure (Bell, 1987). White hegemony has created this categorical and
segregation of races, ethnicities, and cultures (Matsuda, 1996; Wing, 1997). CRT uses storytelling and
parables to deconstruct laws and policies that restrict or oppress people of color from equity in
American society (Collins, 1998; Williams, 1991). In an attempt to contrive fairness, America’s
mainstream white culture has fabricated a color-blinded society; a society that posits discrimination
will cease to exist when individuals are treated equally, with no regards to race, culture, or language
(Bonilla-Silva, 2003). CRT exposes individuals to social and cultural injustice and inequity, but it also
can produce white guilt (e.g., feeling sad and sorry for the racism produced in this society and the
prejudice by other white individuals) (Bell, 1987; Matsuda, 1996).
White guilt constructs a quandary that is not beneficial to the progression of blacks or whites
in American society (Sleeter, 1993). Blacks and whites are noted in this paper because it appears to
be the metric when discussing racism in American society. CRT demonstrates how most blacks derive
from cultures that enable them to view the world from different perspectives when compared to most
white individuals (Ross, 1997). Racism was invented prior to today’s modern society, making it
endemic in America’s legal, cultural, and psychological spheres (Du Bois, 1899). This revelation makes
it near impossible to exclude racism from higher education, even in the wonderful world of hospitality
academies. CRT constructs transferability when one’s culture is being explored through a qualitative
research method (Ross, 1997).
Autoethnography employs an autobiographical mode of writing to capture a writer’s personal
experiences within a specific culture, marrying personal and culture through the usage of short stories,
photographic essays, journals, personal essays, and other fragmented and layered writings (Ellis &
Bochner, 1996; Jacobs, 2005). Autoethnography makes writing a more personal experience when
compared to ethnography, an interpretative qualitative approach to understanding a specific culture
(Denzin, 1997). Autoethnography provides a researcher with an opportunity to use first person
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singular, enabling me to use my personal perspective to discuss my experiences in hospitality higher
education culture (Denzin, 1997). Narratives were used to exhibit my odyssey within the hospitality
academia and how CRT played a significant part when my culture intermingled with a culture
dominated by individuals from an infinitely divergent culture.
My Trek in Higher Education Hospitality Institutions
Personal anecdotes were used to highlight my culture and academic experiences, in an
attempt to highlight CRT from my outlook (Denzin, 1997; Wing, 1997). An advance education that
extended beyond high school seemed like an anomaly within my low-income environment and
particular cohort. Poor black communities can be disregarded by white hegemony because those
issues fail to plague white suburb communities; white communities flourishing with the best resources
within their school systems and immediate surroundings (Bell, 2002). CRT explains how integration
caused ruling whites to overlook the needs of school systems and communities located in low-income
settings because it was easier to surmise that integration resolved the social and physical ills within
poor black communities and schools (Crenshaw, Peller, Gotanda & Thomas, 1995). The following
reflective writing captures my young perspective on pursuing a college degree as a child attending
school in a poor school district:
My elementary and middle school years were spent forging relationships and
building crews. My crews focused on negative issues—never positive ones, such as
academic progress, spirituality, and health. I was fixated on trappings and
temptations of this physical world rather than infinite blessings from within the
spiritual realm. My crew explored the idea of sex early and often, and I linked being
a rapper, an athlete, or a thug with the ability to have sex with beautiful girls. No one
mentioned grades, and any possibility of trekking off to college to earn a bachelor’s
degree, majority of us came from homes of hardworking parents who possessed
minimal or no formal education after consummated cheers received during their high
school commencement. My parents always spoke to us about college, but I failed to
buy their rhetoric that they attempted to sell me. A picture is worth a thousand
words, and I swallowed a thousand words that suggested the impossibility of a
college degree. I was surrounded by blue collar workers and street hustlers—degrees
were not required (Williams, 2016).
A college degree seemed like a lofty goal that did not appear attainable in my odious culture
and mercurial environment. My culture rejected education as a means to a better life and many
viewed education as an impediment to playing professional football or to other activities that might
lead to copious currency. CRT suggest that schools were integrated with a white superior attitude to
blacks that never really catered to or embraced black children as equals when compared to white
children (Crenshaw, Peller, Gotanda & Thomas, 1995). I attended schools that never viewed me as a
sagacious individual who provide information tantamount to my white peers in the classroom. Some
hospitality faculty members cannot fathom my culture and some might even reject the challenges
within my culture because they are unwilling to empathize and to accept a culture outside of their
purview of white America (Wing, 1997). This environment has shaped my paradigm, and the way I
view scholarship.
I had a strong desire to be accepted into my ghetto culture, a culture that valued
great athletes and thugs. My humbled beginnings masked me with the idea to be an
amazing athlete and thug. I often envisioned a better life outside of my poorly
structured ghetto environment, but I did not pursue the most effective route. I chose
the road traveled by most, sorry Robert Frost. My parents instructed me to dream
big, and I did; however, my positive dreams tended to clash with my negative dreams.
In this ghetto culture of perpetual negativity and violence, people found themselves
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jockeying for recognition of others. Most displayed no regard for saving money or
investing money. From my experience, most people in this environment live for the
moment, getting the latest and greatest to feel of worth. Most futures do not exist
unto those days arrive (Williams, 2016).
Education was not valued, so careers related to education was not understood and valued by
me. Integrationist assumed that racism and ignorance would dissipate and knowledge will emerge
when both cultures were integrated, failing to address the indoctrinated ideologies and beliefs within
the collective white culture; a culture that consciously and unconsciously viewed blacks as an inferior
race of people when compared to the dominance of white people (Crenshaw, Peller, Gotanda &
Thomas, 1995). Education was a necessity of playing sports and socializing with other pupils.
Ultimately, my cultural experiences played a crucial role to my creative scholarship and writing
perspective. My cultural underpinnings constructed my language, attitude, and purview of education.
Retrospective Look into My Culture
My culture did not emulate academic successes and did not provide adequate resources that
aligned with many mainstream white neighborhoods. Even though I obviously was searching for
happiness and acceptance, a hidden dichotomy exists between my predominately black culture when
compared to the predominately mainstream white culture. There were distinct variations in our
psychology and perspective towards education. Many white students viewed college as the next step
to success while I viewed it as the next step towards playing professional sports. Teachers were
oblivious to my way of thinking and continued to instruct classes as if fairness existed in this skewed
white educational culture. Color-blindness permeated throughout my education experiences because
most white educators edified students who derived from similar cultural backgrounds; it was much
easier for white teachers to relate to white students (Bell, 1987).
Graduation was not a given in my culture when compared to the mainstream white culture in
America’s society. For example, I wrote about the challenges in this passage of writing:
Wilson is structured for poverty, graduating only 48 percent of its high school
students, so education is dismal there. This lack of education contributes to the bevy
of ghettos and other impoverished trailer parks and neighborhoods (Williams, 2016).
Within black environments, some teachers tend to view behavior that deviates from other
docile black students as egregious and abnormal, so white teachers from cultures vastly different
would recommend special education or behavioral classes for those individuals (Bell, 2002). When
teachers are unable to relate to individuals, they view them as disparate objects and speculate without
empathy (Bonilla-Silva, 2003). My culture led me to seek easy survival opportunities, even if education
had to be shelved.
I wanted an E-ZPass. This ignorant philosophy followed me in and out of the
classroom for the majority of my school-aged years, so instead of focusing on posting
high marks or impressing teachers with my reading and math abilities, I focused on
trying to be the class clown. When I focused on being a quality student, students
failed to recognize me as a student of importance; I was irrelevant in their world—I
wanted to be noticed (Williams, 2016).
The following retrospective writing supports the previous assertion that our cultures clashed
with my elementary education experience when the fundamentals of education are taught:
I made the conscious choice to repress my intellect at times, enabling my disruptive
behavior to triumph over everything in school. Prompting my teacher to suggest that
I needed a special learning environment, at that time, it was special education. I think
it is referred to as remedial education these days. She said, “I lacked self-control and
could not control my impulsive decision-making.” I made her job hard, but she gave
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up on me as well. My overall grades were stellar, so there was no need to recommend
special learning and to impose a need for medication (Williams, 2006).
My culture injected into the hospitality academy and scholarship
In hospitality higher education, most white professors emerged from environments that
excluded my black culture, language, and view of America’s education system. This enables many
white professors to unknowingly embrace attitudes and actions that reinforce white hegemony that
exclude blacks from an academic culture foreign to them (Matusda, 1996).
I was oblivious to the PhD process and paid $72,000 to complete a doctorate’s degree
at a for-profit institution. I found out I needed research publications and a PhD from
a traditional brick-and-mortar to acquire a tenured-track position at a major
university or college (Williams, 2016).
Both parties, black and white individuals are guilty of desiring a world of fairness, but CRT
demonstrates how inequity orchestrates racism that stymies the progression of black faculty members
who fail to embrace the norm of the hospitality higher education culture (Du Bois, 1899; Williams,
1991).
Prior to the military I did not think I belonged in college, and I quickly failed out. My culture
made me feel like an imposter, so I surmised I did not belong in college and could not compete, giving
in the imposture syndrome (Pishva, 2010). The imposture syndrome made me feel inadequate and
unable to compete in the college environment (Pishva, 2010). CRT delineated how poor schools and
communities can inadvertently teach black individuals that they are inferior to their white counterpart
and not capable of competing in white America (Crenshaw, Peller, Gotanda & Thomas, 1995).
I sought positive endeavors and positive outcomes tended to find me—law of
attraction. I was able to generate small wins throughout my military experience, and
those small wins were huge for fortifying my inner beliefs. Winning becomes
contagious, and my wins drove me to desire greater successes: I set my sights on
earning two associate degrees, a bachelor’s degree (Williams, 2016).
When the majority or dominant culture develops a conscious awareness and a level of
empathy, it fabricates an eclectic and inclusive culture that increases equity within a discrete
environment (Bell, 2002). I had to adjust my thinking around research topics that were not within the
normalcy of my culture, adopting research topics outside of my realm of interests to placate the
gatekeepers or the hospitality academia. White infrastructures have a hidden apparatus that rejects
black individuals who are unwilling to placate to the precepts of white mainstream practices in
education (Crenshaw, Peller, Gotanda & Thomas, 1995; Sleeter, 1993).
My culture faced disenfranchisement, injustice, dismal wages, poor education issues, and a
scarcity of progressive jobs. Prompting many black students to pursue degrees and careers in social
work, criminal justice, and sociology that embody a giveback mentality to help less fortunate
individuals (Zalaznick, 2016). From my reflective writing:
My parents expected greatness; they expected all of their kids to graduate from
college and to become doctors and lawyers. The conundrum was I could not connect
an education to a profitable life; uneducated individuals who received governmental
assistance occupied my living environment. My parents tried to inspire me to envision
a life with an advanced degree, but conversely, they never graduated from a fouryear college. My parents tried to galvanize us with their words, but their words lacked
any credibility. They tried their best to introduce me to educational resources. For
starters, I watched a lot of PBS educational shows, but my parents did not understand
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the value of reading books and writing to improve my grammar, vocabulary, and
syntax (2016).
My culture serves as an impetus to my scholarship, motivating me to explore and to examine
the benefits of sports, violence, chaos, and a lack of resources to leadership; these topics might draw
negative pushback or prejudgments from this white dominated academy. Race-consciousness
conjures up the notion that blacks and whites are different in regards to coming from different
communities, neighborhoods, churches, and histories, which makes black people a “nation within a
nation,” of white people (Crenshaw, Peller, Gotanda & Thomas, 1995). I learned to believe in my
abilities when integrated and surrounded by any group of people. Self-efficacy was a greater belief in
one’s ability to accomplish tasks or goals (Bandura, 1977). As I entered my PhD program, I felt I
belonged to the hospitality academy and was accepted by mainstream society. Self-efficacy measured
my personal belief in my scholarship, inciting me to publish my first article on sports in relation to
leadership (Flammer, 2015).
My first year in the PhD program, I understood my true purpose and identity, so I was
determined to graduate in two years, to win an award, to publish an article, and to
acquire an assistant tenure professor position somewhere on the east coast after
graduation (2016).
My desire to earn a PhD in hospitality superseded my fear to enter in this odd academy, even if I had
to find a way to navigate a culture extremely dissimilar to my former environments. Feeling as an
imposture while pursuing my PhD dwindled as I consciously viewed myself as a scholar on par with my
white colleagues (Flammer, 2015).
Discussion
Different cultures present different languages, perspectives, and understandings of America’s
society. It is difficult to identify with people who view education as the crucial component to success
when advanced education was never considered the vital avenue for a successful being. The quandary
is scholars who design their research to capture their unorthodox culture might face an instant
rejection from editors who fail to find value in their culture. Even though journals have a blind review
process; the process is still very objective due to editors overall opinion of a manuscript’s value to
their specific journal. CRT suggests that this could be a form of hidden racism because a dominant
culture has the power to reject a perceived inferior culture due to a lack of understanding of the
inferior’s culture underpinnings (Ross, 1997). Sports and violence plagued my culture, but those
experiences also honed my leadership perspective, creativity, critical thinking, and confidence to
excellence in odd environments.
I matured into an individual who believes he can accomplish anything in a society engrossed
with systemic racism (Bandura, 1997; Wing, 1997). My culture brainwashed me to feel as an imposture
around white people and convinced me to see a difference in physical attributes. Pigmentation does
not separate me from white people; it is my culture that separated me from the experiences,
knowledge, and language of white people. However, self-efficacy allowed me to embrace white
people and all races as equals and as people who bring different cultures that enhance my paradigm
and diminish my fear of white hegemony (Bandura, 1997; Bonilla-Silva, 2003; Flammer, 2015).
Without my culture and experiences, my scholarship would lack a distinct path and a special purpose.
Our cultures make us special, so it is imperative for scholars to add their ingredients of remarkableness
to their respectable hospitality academies, as long as scholars can mesh their cultures with their
specific research areas.
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Conclusion
Higher education is responsible for edifying future leaders in our society who originate from
various cultures. Hospitality higher education settings thrive off of the notion that people-oriented
individuals are produced from their institutions (Hinkin & Tracey, 2010). If this premise is trustworthy
or valid, hospitality administrators must be more cognizant of all faculty members who derive from
minority cultures that deviate from the mainstream white culture in America. White academics should
never feel guilty about their upbringings; and white and black scholars should feel open and free to
discuss their particular cultures, to promote cohesiveness and cultural understanding. More eclectic
hospitality higher education departments might produce more collaborative scholarship and a higher
acceptance of cultural disparate scholarship among faculty members within academic journals.
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studies: Looking behind the mirror (pp. 27-32). Philadelphia: Temple University.
Sleeter, C. (1993). How White teachers construct race. In W. Crichlow & C. McCarthy (Eds.), Race,
identity, and representation in education (pp. 157-171). New York: Routledge.
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Pendium Publishing.
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Wing, A. (1997). Critical race feminism: A reader. New York: New York University Press.
Zalaznick, M. (2016). Black students end up in lower-paying majors. University Business, 19(4), 12.
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An Overview of Doctoral Hospitality Management Programs: A Look at Growth, Faculty,
and Development
Lynsey Wilson-Madison, PhD.,
Assistant Professor, Troy University
Christina Martin, PhD.,
Associate Professor, Troy University
and
John Miller, PhD.,
Professor, Troy University
Introduction
Over the past 25 years there has been a substantial growth in the number of academic
hospitality programs in universities in the United States (Johanson, Ghiselli, Shea, & Roberts, 2011).
Furthermore, the number of graduate degrees has nearly doubled during the past ten years (Johanson
et al., 2011). As the number of hospitality degree programs and graduating students has swelled,
critiques that these programs and graduates are residing in an ivory tower, becoming out of touch
with the needs of the industry, also increased (Chung, 2000). Such criticisms have created an
apprehension between hospitality educators and industry professionals concerning the degree to
which higher education is responsible for developing competency and skills appropriate to the
industry has existed (Dopson & Nelson, 2003; Harper, Brown, & Irvine, 2005; Williams 2005).
University Hospitality Education
According to Pavesic (1991), hospitality education has customarily endeavored to make
substantial curricular changes in order to meet the industry’s perceived evolving needs. As a result,
hospitality educators have traditionally relied on hospitality industry leaders for direction concerning
the essential competencies that graduates need for professional success (Kay & Russette, 2000). Given
the changing nature of micro and macro-environmental events these modifications have significantly
influenced the academic experience as well as the curricular structure of university hospitality
programs throughout the United States (Chathoth & Sharma, 2007).
Hospitality serving as a discipline that places an elevated emphasis on industrial applications
as the connection between new knowledge and practice is of chief importance to academic
institutions (Brownell, 2003; Walsh, 2003). Knowledge creation essentially has become the most
important purpose of educational programs that are focused on developing the skills of students to
meet the needs of the industry (Tesone & Ricci, 2005; Chathoth & Sharma, 2007). Regardless of the
efforts of those in hospitality higher education to bridge the gap between academia and industrial
applications, differing views continue to exist (Cobanoglu, Moreo, & Wood, 2003; Jones & Phillips,
2003).
The need for experts in the area of hospitality management worldwide has created not only a
demand for quality hospitality management education programs, but more specifically, a demand for
hospitality management scholars who are capable of delivering such academic programs. Few studies
have focused on the quality of terminal degree hospitality management programs (Ayoun &
Palakurthi, 2008; Chung & Petrick, 2011; Khan, Lee & Park, 2013; Lee, Yuan, Hwang & Kim, 2012). As
a result, a deficiency of studies pertaining to the preparedness or lack thereof of hospitality
professoriates exist. The purpose of this study is to add to the dearth of literature related to hospitality
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management doctoral programs by specifically examining current academic offerings within
hospitality doctoral programs.
University-Industry Relationships
Research is considered a vital part of academic work in hospitality (Ferreira, DeFranco, &
Rappole, 1994). Research relationships between industries and universities are not a new feature of
higher education, but they are an increasingly important one (Malfoy, 2011). Primary among these
relationships, is the ability of the university to produce doctoral graduates with highly valued skills in
research and problem-solving capabilities (Borrell-Damian, 2009; Etzkowitz & Leydesdorff, 2000;
Kehm, 2007).
Doctoral Education in Hospitality Preparation
Malfroy (2005) analyzed doctoral programs that aimed to integrate research with industry
and reported the emergence of new doctoral education practices, including collaborative knowledgesharing practices, group supervision and different dissemination practices. Borrell-Damian (2009)
reported that while positive collaborative experiences between universities, companies and
individuals were apparent, some areas revealed mixed results. Primary among these areas of concern
dealt with whether the development of ‘transferable skills’ should be a structural element of doctoral
education. While Hazelkorn (2002) and Malfroy (2005) conveyed optimism about new opportunities
for research partnerships as well as pedagogic practices, questions about whether current doctoral
program structures and doctoral supervision practices will suit the new agendas exist. Without a
collaboration, it is likely that hospitality education may not be able to adapt as rapidly to change as
the industry it serves (Johanson et al., 2011).
Research on Doctoral Programs
Accreditation
In garnering an understanding of the quality of any educational degree program, it is
important to comprehend the meaningfulness of both institutional and specialized accreditation. The
Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) is a “national advocate and institutional voice for
self-regulation of academic quality through accreditation” that oversees accrediting agencies,
resulting in an association of more than 3,000 degree-granting colleges and universities as well as 60
institutional and programmatic accrediting organizations (CHEA, 2015).
There are three noted specialized accrediting agencies that specifically focus on hospitality
management programs: Accrediting Commission for Programs in Hospitality Administration (ACPHA),
the American Culinary Federation Education Foundation’s Accrediting Commission (ACFEFAC), and the
Association for the Advancement of Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) (Best Hospitality Degrees,
2016). Of these three accrediting agencies only one is recognized by CHEA: ACFEFAC (CHEA, 2016). It
is worth noting that until September 2016, AACSB was also recognized by CHEA (CHEA, 2016).
ACPHA is both an input and output-based accrediting agency. Quality programs are expected
to meet standards and demonstrate that the mission of the program is being achieved. To allow for
this, the ACPHA standards are written in a manner that is not overly prescriptive so as to allow the
academic programs the opportunities to validate that the respective academic program is meeting the
said standard(s). There are several key standards that are considered for program excellence;
however, there are no specific requirements for the hospitality programs at any levels (ACPHA Self
Study, 2014).
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Profiles of Doctoral Programs
Since ACPHA does not specify areas of best practice for doctoral-granting hospitality
management programs, general best practice research regarding doctoral programs will be reviewed.
Teaching
Murphy (2015) noted that great professors have several qualities, specifically the ability to
leave students with valuable and memorable lessons and a general passion for the subject matter.
Degree Entrance Requirements
For many years, there has been a debate on which factors are more positively correlated with
graduate student success (Hunter, Schmidt & Le, 2006; Milner, McNeil, & King, 1984; Sternberg &
Williams, 1997). Recently, The Council of Graduate Schools (CGS) has proposed that graduate
education move towards a holistic review in graduate admissions (2016).
Professoriate Development
Those preparing for a life in academia often find themselves with no formal instruction on
how to be effective teachers in the classroom. Benassi and Buskist (2012) point out that developing
teaching skill sets are often not prioritized with regards to other focal points in doctoral education. Lei
and Chuang (2009) noted that faculty members are no longer the only ones under the “publish or
perish” peril, but that doctoral students are often required to publish two to three academic articles
prior to graduation. With little emphasis on teaching aspects of those earning doctorate degrees, the
question becomes, are these new faculty prepared for their roles in the academy?
Gotian (2016) notes that “a common assumption in society is that just because people have
content expertise, life experiences, and match our gender or ethnicity, they can successfully mentor
others”. As it relates to the new professoriate, such individuals may be intellectual, critical-thinkers,
who are well-versed in theory. However, these individuals may have difficulty in relaying such
information in a classroom environment.
This concern is only heightened when considering an emphasis in higher education has been
on bridging gaps between theoretical and practical learning, yet so much of the emphasis in the
completion of the doctorate degree remains on the research components (AACSB, 2008; Banarjee &
Morley, 2013). Just as the hospitality industry is dynamic in nature, so are the associated educational
needs. As such, the components of research-focused degrees (e.g. PhDs) are examined.
Methods
Design
Given the scarcity of information existing on best practices of doctoral hospitality
management Education programs, an exploratory content analysis design will be used to provide an
overview and identify specific program attributes. Specifically, all doctoral hospitality management
programs that are listed on the Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education (CHRIE)
member directory website will be reviewed in the areas of: accreditation status, housing status of
program (i.e. college and department), and quality and quantity of entrance requirements of doctoral
students.
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This study seeks to address the current climate of hospitality management doctoral programs
by specifically evaluating program structure. Specifically, the study sought to answer the following
research questions:
1) What are the overall quality indicators for entry into the doctoral program?
a. What are the current entrance exam requirements?
b. What are the current industry experience requirements?
c. Do any other requirements consistently exist among programs?
2) What preparations for teaching and research are required through hospitality
management doctoral curricula?
Analysis
Data will be analyzed through SPSS finding frequencies and analyses of program statistics.
References
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international’s board of directors. St Louis, MO: AACSB International.
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Commission for Programs in Hospitality Administration (ACPHA). 2014. Document Library:
ACPHA self-study (revised August 2014). Retrieved from: http://www.acphacahm.org/document-library/
Ayoun, B. & Palakurth, R. (2008). Doctoral students in the U.S. Hospitality Programs: A survey of
their demographic, academic and professional characteristics. Journal of Hospitality &
Tourism Education, 20(4), 6-17.
Best Hospitality Degrees. (2016). How are hospitality schools accredited? Retrieved from:
http://www.besthospitalitydegrees.com/faq/how-are-hospitality-schools-accredited/
Borrell-Damian, L. (2009). Collaborative doctoral education: University–industry partnerships for
enhancing knowledge exchange. Brussels: European University Association.
Brownell, J. (2003). Applied research in managerial communication: The critical link between
knowledge and practice. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly. April, 39-49.
Chathoth, P. & Sharma, A. (2007). Core curricular issues in hospitality and tourism education present
structure and future directions. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education, 19(1), 10-19.
Chung, K. (2000). Hotel management curriculum reform based on required competencies of hotel
employees and career success in the hotel industry. Tourism Management, 21(5), 473-487.
Cobanoglu, C., Moreo, P.J., and Wood, D.F. (2003). Hospitality research: A comparison of industry
professional’s educators’ perceptions. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education.
15(4),
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Study Abroad Students’ Risk Perceptions and its Influence on Travel Behaviors
Erol Sozen, MS.
Graduate Student, Auburn University
Martin O’Neill, PhD.,
Professor, Auburn University
and
Imran Rahman, PhD.,
Assistant Professor, Auburn University
Background
Terrorists’ primary intention and aim is to create instability and terror. A secondary goal is to
destabilize social and economic environmental norms. The creation of fear and the perception of
increased risk is a prerequisite for the achievement of all other aims of terrorist groups, which include
economic damage and the recruitment and mobilization of additional followers (Gregg, 2014).
Terror directly impacts the economy in the form of lost lives and the destruction of
infrastructure. However, it is often the indirect effects of actions not taken that are the greatest, and
widest reaching. For instance, a reduction in foreign direct investment (FDI) flowing into countries that
are vulnerable to terrorism. Abadie and Gardeazabal (2008) also point out that, in this way, responses
to terrorism can cause significant reallocation of capital across nations, as an increase of one standard
deviation is accompanied by a potential 5% reduction in gross domestic price (GDP) in the net FDI
position.
Historically terrorism and hate crime has affected countless states across the world, including
Sri Lanka, Palestine, Israel, Northern Ireland and Lebannon to name a few. More recently, a variety of
international conflicts including the first and second Gulf Wars have also impacted and redirected
travel behaviors; at least to the impacted countries and those surrounding. More recently however
the world has been plagued by what is best referred to as the spillover terror related to certain
international conflicts. While such events have certainly occurred in the past (Munich Olympics and
Lockerbie Air Bombing), these occurred more as an exception than the norm they currently have
become. The Paris, Brussels, Nice, Istanbul, Orlando, Bangladesh, Brazil, Dallas and Baton Rouge terror
attacks, to name a few, typify a different form of threat to both domestic and international travel
patterns. The fact that they are no longer the exception and that they are truly global in nature, with
little if any notice on where or when they will occur represent a different type of challenge for travel
and tourism professionals. These attacks are having an enormous impact on travel and tourism, a
sector which, in 2015 alone, according to the World Travel and Tourism Council (2016), contributed
approximately $7.2 trillion to global economic output, providing over 284 million jobs across the
world.
The number of Americans who traveled abroad in 2015 was 73.4million, representing nearly
an 8% increase on 2014. However, in 2016, US travelers are beginning to consider terror risks more
closely when deciding upon their destination choice. For example, in July 2016 the US State
Department published travel warnings for destinations in Europe. In response to increased
geopolitical risks in some areas, some travel insurance companies are reporting an increase in
travelers verifying the details of their policies, as well as enquiring about extensions and limitations of
future coverage. Regardless of insurance, the Annual Vacation Confidence Index produced by Allianz
Global Assistance revealed that nearly 25% of Americans state that they would now cancel, change,
delay, or reconsider their travel plans (American Travelers, 2016).
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In Europe especially, the tourism industry has suffered greatly, following terrorist attacks. In
particular, France’s tourism sector has dropped in value by approximately 270 million euros ($299
million) since 2015, recent data shows. Throughout July of 2016, overnight stays fell by approximately
10%, on average with Americans, Asians and travelers from the Persian Gulf States, in particular, being
deterred by recent terrorist attacks.
Literature review
Perceived risk
Risk is defined as the exposure to the potential for physical loss, danger, hazard or injury
(Macquarie, 1999), or to the loss of value (Priest, 1990). In general, risk can be broken down into three
categories, or types: absolute, real, and perceived risk (Haddock, 1993). Absolute risk is evaluated by
commercial actors, who then put in place certain procedures to mitigate and diminish that risk. On
the other hand, perceived risk is evaluated by particular individuals within a specific context (Haddock,
1993), and thus relies upon that individual’s judgment of the potential negative consequences
associated with an action, lifestyle, activity, or product, and their likelihood of occurring (Dowling &
Staelin, 1994).
In academia, the focus tends to be on perceived risk over objective, or real risk, as individuals
tend to concentrate on just a few potential outcomes, typically relating to themselves, rather than on
the whole outcome. Previous studies have concluded that the characteristics of holidays, travel and
trips should be examined alongside their perceived risks (Fuchs & Reichel, 2011) in order to develop
more efficient and targeted strategies to respond to and mitigate risks and disasters (Ritchie, 2009).
However, thus far, little research of this kind has been conducted within the tourism sector. Rather,
most extant studies examine either trip characteristics (Sönmez et al., 2006) or traveler characteristics
(Simpson & Siguaw, 2008) alone, and fail to cross-compare. Furthermore, little effort has been made
to study the perceived travel risks of university students, beyond health and safety, or measure the
impact that their travel behaviors and other characteristics have on their perception of risk.
Academic literature reveals travel risk to be a multidimensional construct, comprised of a
number of different areas and issues. Previous studies have carried out factor analyses, which have
identified anywhere from three (Walters & Ritchie, 2013) to eight factors (Reichel et al., 2007). The
focus on these studies also varies, from developed countries, primarily the United States (Simpson &
Siguaw, 2008), Australia (Sharifpour et al., 2013) and Israel (Reichel et al., 2007), to one study in Ghana,
a developing country (Adam, 2015). In terms of the research sample, whilst some studies have
examined the risk perceptions of students, and international backpackers (Adam, 2015; Reichel et al.,
2007), very few studies have targeted university students studying abroad.
Past Experience
It has also been shown that past experiences affect individual perceptions of travel risks
where, in general, perceived risk is reduced for an experienced traveler (Kozak et al, 2007). There is
also a difference in the types of perceived risks, whereby more experienced travelers tend to be
concerned with sociocultural issues, and have psychological concerns about solving problems and selfesteem, and, on the other hand, less experienced travelers are more likely to be concerned about
their health and well-being, food safety, and terrorism (Pearce, 1996). Such findings have been
corroborated and replicated in later research (Lepp & Gibson, 2003).
Past research has also demonstrated that less experienced travelers are more likely to
perceive financial and performance risks, and are also likely to alter their travel plans if they encounter
potential issues (Reichelet et al., 2007). The relevance of past experience is that it creates knowledge
and awareness of potential risks, and thus can affect travel intentions (Sharifpour et al., 2013).
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Intention to Travel
Both perceived risk and perception of safety, which are related concepts, significantly affect
an individual’s intention to travel. If perceived risk creates a perception that a particular destination
is less safe than another, then potential travelers to that destination may reconsider their travel plans,
perhaps changing their choice of destination, their travel behavior, or they might seek additional
information and/or support if they choose not to alter their itinerary (Englander, 1991). For instance,
the perceived risk of experiencing terrorism will likely mean a destination is considered less safe,
meaning a less risky destination is likely to be favored. Those destinations perceived as highly risky are
likely to be removed from the selection process altogether. Terrorism, as a significant risk factor, has
the capacity to deter tourists from entire regions, as well as specific destinations (Sonmez & Graefe,
1998).
Significance of study
Despite the lack of past academic attention, it is important to develop an understanding of a
wider scope of student risk perceptions, and their influencing factors, because perceived or potential
risks can act as barriers to travel, and have already been shown to affect choice of destination and
actual travel behavior. Therefore, in order to address this gap in the literature, this project seeks to
understand the perceived underlying travel risk factors held by university students’ intent on studying
abroad, and to examine the relationship between risk perception, trip characteristics, such as previous
travel experiences, repeat visits, and destination choice. By doing so, the study will contribute to
developing more targeted, and thus effective, risk reduction and mitigation strategies to respond to
emergent risks. This is certainly timely given the spate of recent international terror attacks negatively
impacting the travel and tourism industry.
Proposed Methods
The literature gap gives rise to four research questions. These are:
(1) What are the underlying travel risk perceptions associated with university
students studying abroad?
(2) Does past travel experience affect the type of travel risk perceived by university
students studying abroad? And if so, how?
(3) Does repeat visitation to a destination influence the type of travel risk perceived
by university students studying abroad? And if so, how?
(4) Does perceived risks of university students studying abroad influence their
intentions to travel to study destination?
In order to address these questions the study will use an Online survey and it will be
distributed among southeastern university students who have studied abroad in the last academic
year and students who considered studying abroad. The link for the survey will be distributed to this
group of students through the Office of International Programs of the university. An information letter
will be provided on the first page of the survey. The survey will have 5 parts with demographics
questions as well as questions related to participants’ risk perceptions, travel experiences, intentions
to travel, and their repeat visitations. Reisinger and Mavondo’s (2005), Floyd and Pennington-Gray
(2004), and Adam’s (2015) studies survey items modified and adopted for the current study.
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References
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Implications of travel risk perception. Journal of Travel Research, 43(3), 212-225.
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manageability. International Journal of Tourism Research, 10(4), 315-327.
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of Tourism Research, 25 (1): 112-44.
Sönmez, S., Apostolopoulos, Y., Yu, C. H., Yang, S., Mattila, A., & Yu, L. C. (2006). Binge drinking and
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World Travel and Tourism Council. Travel & Tourism added 7.2 million new jobs in 2015 WTTC research
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Best Practices relating to Employer of Choice and the relation between Employee
Retention and Customer Satisfaction Scores within the Hospitality Industry along the
Florida/Alabama Gulf Coast
Kate Price-Howard, PhD.
Assistant Professor, Troy University
Abstract
How can a company intentionally attract and retain the best talent to reap the benefits of
consistently delivering exceptional customer service, repeat patronage, and maintain a great
workplace?
The hospitality industry is constantly plagued by high employee turnover. This industry is
known for long hours and low pay (Janes & Wisdom, 2011). In a resort destination, it is often the
largest industry as well, meaning there is a high amount of competition among other restaurants,
hotels, and other hospitality entities. There is an urgency for leaders to take action to get ahead of
their competitors (Crowley, 2013).
For years research has been conducted in the areas of employee retention area and
progressive human resource strategies, sometimes referred to as talent management (Hughes & Rog,
2008; Koys, 2001). Progressive human resources outcomes have been commonly found to be related
to positive business outcomes (Koys, 2003, 2001). The current workplace is drastically changing with
the onset of the millenials and their ideas of the best work-life-balance (WLB) and employer of choice.
“Retaining good staff in the hospitality industry is a constant source of concern for practitioners and
a continuing area of interrogation for hospitality academics” (Deery, 2014; Yang et al., 2012; Davidson
and Wang, 2011). It has become increasingly pertinent to attract the right employees and retain the
quality employees within the organization (Mitchell, 2009).
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to first identify the best practices to obtain employer
of choice in order to attract and retain the best talent. The second purpose is to measure turnover
rate with customer satisfaction and repeat patronage intentions.
Hypotheses & Research Model
In this study, we want to first identify the best practices/emerging trends to achieve employer
of choice in order to attract and retain the best talent, two hypotheses were tested:
H1: There is a relationship between employee turnover and customer satisfaction
scores.
H2: There is a relationship between employee turnover and customer intention to
return scores.
The research model is being designed upon the revised framework suggested by Deery, 2014.
Theoretical Framework
The increasing number of Generation Y, a.k.a. Millennials - the largest generation ever,
defined as being born after 1980 - in the work force is drastically changing the workplace environment,
culture, and expectations of employees. It is predicted that in 2017, millennials will make up 75% of
our workforce. Millennials currently are reported to have a population of 83.1 million and represent
more than one quarter of the nation’s population. Their size exceeds that of the 75.4 million baby
boomers, according to the latest U.S. Census Bureau estimates (US Census, 2016). A recent study
suggest that opportunities for development and challenge, variation, and responsibility are more
important to younger generations of hospitality workers. Generation X, generation born early 1960s
through 1980, placed high value on work‐life balance (WLB), autonomy, and job security. No
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differences were found for work atmosphere, salary, and task description. Significantly lower
commitment and higher turnover intention was also found for Generation Y (Xander, Bijvank, Bal,
Blomme, and Schalk, 2012).
Nick Mitchell (2009), introduced emerging themes coming into popularity in employee engagement:
 Corporate citizenship/social responsibility (CSR)
 To build sustainable shared values through products and services and to find solutions for the
company and community on these issues.
 Transparency
 Flexibility
 Meaningful work and personal growth & autonomy
 Trust
 Great leaders in various levels of management
It has been reported numerous times in the literature that improved customer service comes
with engaged and happy employees. In order to attract the best talent, you first have to establish a
reputation for creating a great workplace. This study will explore what this looks like and actionable
steps these companies can take to stand out as an employer of choice. Several companies come to
mind as an employer of choice, including Google (Crowley, 2015), Southwest, Ritz Carlton, Starbucks,
and Marriott.
Method
This study will look at a multitude of restaurants, hotels, and other leisure industry employers
along the Florida/Alabama Gulf Coast. Data will be gathered on the management and the employee
level through an anonymous online survey.
The survey will utlize an Importance/Performance analysis (IPA) of the identified emerging
trends and be able to rank these factors according to their importance/satisfaction scores. IPA has
been frequently used by management to help evaluate and identify major strengths and weaknesses
of a business (Chen & Lin, 2013; Janes & Wisnom, 2003).This will be compared to the reported
satisfaction scores and employee retention rates as reported from the various companies. These
surveys will be sent out from upper management to elicit as many responses as possible. Currently,
employers taking part in this study are the following restaurants: LuLu’s (Destin, FL and Gulf Shores,
AL), ACME Oyster House restaurants (Destin, FL and Orange Beach, AL), and Great Southern
Restaurant group (Destin, Santa Rosa Beach, and Pensacola, FL). And the following from the lodging
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industry: ResortQuest Northwest Florida property management (Panama City Beach, FL westward to
Gulf Shores, AL), and Emerald Grande (Destin, FL). Some properties maybe added to this study in
order to obtain a larger sample size.
Factor analysis will be used to extract the factors identified in this study (employee turnover
rate, customer satisfaction scores, and most popular progressive HR strategies), and reliability analysis
(Cronbach’s alpha) will be performed. The study will perform a stepwise regression to look at the
relationships between these identified factors.
References
Chen, Yu-Chuan & Lin, S. (2013). Applying Importance-Performance Analysis for Improving Internal
Marketing of Hospital Management in Taiwan International Business Research; Canadian
Center of Science and Education.Vol. 6, No. 4.
Crowley, M. (2013, June). Gallup’s Workplace Jedi on How to Fix Our Employee Engagement Problem.
Published on Fast Company (http://www.fastcompany.com)
Crowley, M. (2015, July). Not A Happy Accident: How Google Deliberately Designs Workplace
Satisfaction Retrieved from: http://www.fastcompany.com/print/3007268. 12/3/16.
Published on Fast Company (http://www.fastcompany.com)
Davison, M. & Wang, Y. (2011). Sustainable Labor Practices? Hotel Human Resource Managers Views
on Turnover and Skill Shortages. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism. Vol. 10
, Iss. 3. Pgs. 235 -253.
Deery, M. & Jago , L. (2015). Revisiting talent management, work-life balance and retention strategies.
International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management. Vol. 27. Iss 3 pp. 453 -472.
Hughes, Julia C. & Rog, E. (2008). "Talent management: A strategy for improving employee
recruitment, retention and engagement within hospitality organizations", International
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 20 Iss: 7, pp.743 – 757.
Koys, Daniel J. (Feb 2003): How the achievement of human-resources goals drives restaurant
performance. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 44.1 pp. 17-24.
Koys, Daniel J. (2001). The effects of employee set, organizational citizenship behavior, and turnover
on organizational effectiveness: a unit-level longitudinal study. Personnel Psychology, Vol. 54,
pp. 101 – 115.
Lub,X., Bijvank, M., P., Bal, M., Blomme, R., & Schalk, R. (2012).Diffe rent or alike?: Exploring the
psychological contract and commitment of different generations of hospitality workers",
International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 24 Iss: 4, pp.553 – 573.
Mitchell, N. (2009). Employee engagement: rules of engagement. Harvard Business Review.
Janes, P., and Wisnom, M. (2003). The use of importance performance analysis in the hospitality
industry: A comparison of practices. Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality and Tourism,
(4), 23-44.
Janes, P., & Wisnom, M. (2011). Changes in Tourism Industry Quality of Work Life. Journal of Tourism
Insights. Vol. 1. Iss. 1. Article 13.
Mitchell, N. (2009) Employee Engagement: The Rules of Engagement. Retrieved 12/3/16 from
www.nextgen.management/docs/roewhitepaper.pdf.
US Census, (2016). Millennials Outnumber Baby Boomers and Are Far More Diverse, Census Bureau
Reports June 25, 2015. Release Number: CB15-113. Retrieved 12/3/16 from
http://westcoastrecognition.com.
Vasquez, D. (2014). Employee Retention for Economic Stabilization: A Qualitative Phenomenological
Study in the Hospitality Sector. International Journal of Management, Economics and Social
Sciences 2014, Vol. 3(1), pp.1 –17.
Yang, J., Wan, C., & Fu, Y. (2012). Qualitative examination of employee turnover and retention
strategies in international tourist hotels in Taiwan. International Journal of Hospitality
Management. Volume 31, Issue 3. Pp. 837–848.
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A Quantitative Investigation Exploring Illicit Drug Use Inside and Out
of the Foodservice Industry
Kristen Kaminski, MS.,
Graduate Student, Florida International University
and
Miranda Kitterlin-Lynch, PhD.,
Assistant Professor, Florida International University
The foodservice industry leads all other U.S. industries in illicit drug use. Numerous studies
have found that illicit drug consumption is prevalent in the foodservice industry and considerably
higher among foodservice employees than in other industries (Bush & Lipari, 2015; SAMHSA, 2016;
Kitterlin, Moll, & Kaminski, 2016). In attempt to further explore this phenomenon, Kitterlin et al.
(2016) conducted a qualitative study that examined illicit drug use behaviors of foodservice employees
and the impact the foodservice work environment has on individuals’ drug use patterns as compared
to the general labor force. Themes that emerged were (1) Current Use Patterns, (2) Awareness of
Substance Use Prevention Policies/Efforts (3) Perception of Attitudes among Co-Workers, and (4)
Recognition of Negative Impacts.
Literature Review
Foodservice employees indicated a higher rate of illicit drug usage compared to the general
population (Kitterlin et al., 2016). Foodservice employees also indicated their drug usage increased
after beginning work in the industry, as a result of minimal prevention efforts (lack of enforcement)
and the availability and ease of access of illicit drugs in the workplace (Kitterlin et al., 2016).
Foodservice employees reported the presence of an accepted and prevalent culture of drug use, and
they were more concerned with potential short-term negative consequences rather than long-term
effects of using drugs (Kitterlin et al., 2016). Previous studies have found that illicit drug use has a
detrimental impact on the workplace by adversely affecting productivity/performance, attendance,
and safety (DiNardo, 1994; Zhu et al., 2010).
Several factors can be attributed to the overindulgence of drugs and alcohol in the foodservice
industry. A relatively young labor pool of workers aged 18-25 make up a large portion of foodservice
employees and are among the highest abusers of drugs and alcohol (Belhassen & Shani, 2012; Kitterlin
et al., 2016; NIAAA, 2008). Erratic work schedules comprised of long hours, overtime, weekend and
late-night shifts are all too common within the industry and likely to facilitate excessive consumption
(Kitterlin et al., 2016; Larsen, 1994; Spector, 2001). Moreover, Zhu (2008) found that bartending,
working multiple jobs, and tip-earning positions are related to elevated substance use which further
supports this claim. A work culture of permissive norms, such as having a few drinks after a shift or
going out after work, has been found to be highly influential in regards to substance use (Belhassen &
Shani, 2012; Kitterlin et al., 2016). Lenient attitudes, the lack of reinforcement of drug policies, and
the cost of drug testing may also contribute to the illicit drug use problem that has plagued the
foodservice industry.
Purpose of the Study and Hypotheses
The purpose of this study was to perform a follow-up quantitative investigation of the
aforementioned themes.
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H1:
H2:
H3:
Foodservice employees use illicit drugs more than the non-foodservice labor
force.
Illicit drug use prevention efforts (e.g. random drug testing) for foodservice
employees are less prominent than for the non-foodservice labor force.
There are more short-term negative outcome concerns regarding drug use
among foodservice employees than the non-foodservice labor force.
Methodology
An anonymous online 25-item survey conducted electronically using Qualtrics which took a
maximum of 15 minutes to complete was created by the researcher based on previous research
(Kitterlin et al., 2016) and a thorough review of the literature. The survey consisted of five main
sections: 1) demographic information, 2) drug use patterns, 3) drug policy and prevention efforts, 4)
drug accessibility and perceived attitudes among employees regarding drug use, and 5) outcome
concerns regarding drug use. Multistage cluster probability sampling (Creswell, 2012) was employed
to select participants for this study since a complete list of the target population was difficult to obtain.
Two populations were targeted for data collection: (1) adult foodservice workers and (2) adults
employed in other industries. A sample of 532 adults aged 18 and older working in the foodservice
industry and other industries in the major cities of Las Vegas, Chicago, and Miami were recruited.
Independent t-tests were conducted to find whether any significant differences existed between
foodservice employees and non-foodservice employees’ drug use behaviors, experiences with drug
prevention efforts, and perceived negative outcomes associated with drug use.
Results
The independent t-test at the p < .05 level revealed a significant difference (p = .017) in the
quality of means between foodservice and non-foodservice employees with regards to drug use (using
drugs other than those required for medical reasons). With 1 = drug user and 2 = non-drug user, the
mean score of foodservice employees (M = 1.48) was closer to 1 than the mean score of nonfoodservice employees (M = 1.60). Thus, H1 was supported and it can be concluded that foodservice
employees are more likely to use illicit drugs than the non-foodservice labor force.
The independent t-test at the p < .05 level revealed a significant difference (p = .003) in the
quality of means between foodservice and non-foodservice employees with regards to drug
prevention efforts (random drug testing). With 1 = random drug tests conducted and 2 = random drug
tests not conducted, the mean score of foodservice employees (M = 1.16) was closer to 2 than the
mean score of non-foodservice employees (M = 1.04). Thus, H2 was supported and it can be concluded
that illicit drug use prevention efforts (random drug testing) are less prominent for foodservice
employees than for the non-foodservice labor force. In other words, random drug testing is more likely
to occur in other workplaces than in the foodservice industry.
The mean score of foodservice employees was significantly different than non-foodservice
employees for the short-term outcome concerns “making bad choices” (1.55 vs. 1.41), “paranoia”
(1.43 vs. 1.30), “legal issues” (1.61 vs. 1.48), “lethargy” (1.49 vs. 1.33), “less productive” (1.54 vs. 1.32),
and “physical appearance harmed” (1.49 vs. 1.36) with 1 = not concerned and 2 = very concerned.
Thus, H3 was supported and the results indicated foodservice employees recognized more short-term
negative outcomes (e.g. lethargy) than the non-foodservice labor force. Foodservice employees were
more concerned with making bad choices, their physical appearance changing, legal problems, and
becoming paranoid, lethargic, and less productive as a result of illicit drug use.
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Implications
Research findings continue to reveal the prevalence of illicit drug use in the foodservice
industry. Workplace safety, attendance, and service quality may become jeopardized by employee
illicit drug use which can adversely affect profit margins (Frone, 2004; Larsen, 1994; Zhu et al., 2010).
Moreover, a variety of adverse health effects such as heart disease or failure, mental illness or even
death are more likely to occur with illicit drug usage. Kitterlin et al. (2016) proposed leading by
example and demonstrating drug-free behaviors are steps management can take towards setting a
new tone in the workplace. Moreover, healthy business practices provide guests and business assets
with protection, which Murray (2009) proposes may help reduce the chances of any legal action being
taken against the organization. Management may also want to take employee morale into
consideration. Mangione and Quinn (1975) found that job satisfaction was significantly related to illicit
drug use. It is pertinent for an organization to enforce a drug-free workplace in order for changes in
employee drug use to occur, and drug policies need to be more apparent in the workplace. Moreover,
appropriate disciplinary action needs to be taken if an employee is found with illicit drugs in their
possession or using illicit drugs at work in order to discourage this type of behavior. An important
finding of this study was that foodservice employees were more concerned with short-term negative
outcomes regarding illicit drug use. Kitterlin et al. (2016) proposed playing upon the apprehension of
short-term side effects that may occur, instead of belaboring the long term consequences of illicit drug
use. It may be more effective to emphasize that feeling lethargic is not as temporary as it may seem;
there are a series of events that may follow such as botching an order or providing terrible customer
service which could amount to a more serious consequence such as job loss (Kitterlin et al., 2016).
Limitations and Future Research
Generalizations of the findings could not be made and participant demographics may have
been limited by the sampling method used. The majority of participants were college educated and
did not currently work in the foodservice industry, and the sample was not evenly distributed between
males and females, so the data may not portray an accurate representation of the target population.
Also, participants are self-reporting on an illegal activity, so their responses may not be entirely
truthful. Finally, the survey instrument was somewhat flawed so some of the questions may not have
been as clear to the participants of this study.
Future research should be conducted with a larger sample size to generalize the findings of
the current study. It is also recommended that modifications are made to the survey instrument.
Additional research could compare employment levels such as management versus hourly employees.
Future studies could expand upon employees’ outcome concerns regarding illicit drug use by
comparing foodservice employees to employees employed in a specific industry or comparing the
outcome concerns of male and female foodservice employees. Future studies could also explore drug
use behaviors of females and males working in the foodservice industry. Additional research could
further examine the relationship between intelligence and drug use within the foodservice industry
or other occupational industries. Future studies exploring various drug prevention efforts and their
effectiveness on reducing or eliminating workplace illicit drug use may also be considered.
References
Belhassen, Y., & Shani, A. (2012). Hotel workers’ substance use and abuse. International Journal of
Hospitality Management, 31(4), 1292-1302.
Bush, D. & Lipari, R. (April 16, 2015). The CBHSQ Report: Substance Use and Substance Use Disorder
by Industry. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for
Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. Rockville, MD.
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Creswell, J.W. (2012). Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th
ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education Inc.
DiNardo, J. (1994). A critical review of the estimates of the costs of alcohol and drug use. In Drug
testing in the workplace (pp. 57-76). Springer US.
Frone, M. R. (2004). Alcohol, drugs, and workplace safety outcomes: A view from a general model of
employee substance use and productivity. The psychology of workplace safety, 127-156.
Kitterlin, M., Moll, L., & Kaminski, K. (2016). A comparative exploration of illicit drug use inside and
out of the foodservice industry. Manuscript submitted for publication (copy on file with
author).
Larsen, S. (1994). Alcohol use in the service industry. Addiction, 89(6), 733-741.
Mangione, T.W., & Quinn, R.P. (1975). Job satisfaction, counterproductive behavior, and drug use at
work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60(1), 114; 114-116; 116.
Murray, C. (2009, October 13). The drinking dilemma. Hotel Interactive. Retrieved from
http://www.hotelinteractive.com/article.aspx?articleid=15139.
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). (2008). Alcohol and other drugs.
Retrieved from http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/AA76/AA76.htm.
Spector, A. (2001, May 21). A career in foodservice: Unhealthy lifestyle. Nation’s Restaurant News.
Zhu, J., Tews, M. J., Stafford, K., & George, R. T. (2010). Alcohol and illicit substance use in the food
service industry: Assessing self-selection and job-related risk factors. Journal of Hospitality &
Tourism Research. 35(1), 45-63.
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A Quantitative Study of Expatriate Hotel Managers in Mainland China: An Exploration of
How Organizational Justice Influences Local Employee Job Satisfaction and Their
Evaluation of Expatriate Manager Leadership Performance
Wei Ding,
Graduate Student, Florida International University
and
Jinlin Zhao, PhD.,
Professor, Florida International University
Introduction and Literature Review
Global trade has grown exponentially since 1970 and continues to accelerate despite a
temporary slowdown during the global economic crisis which began in 2008 (United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development, 2012). Multinational corporations often rely on global human
resource management to help transfer skills and knowledge across borders (Pine, 2000; Shim &
Paprock, 2002). International assignments are considered a key aspect of human resource
development in large multinational corporations (Collings & Scullion, 2009).
China’s hospitality industry is growing quickly, and is expected to continue unabated over the
next decade (Kearny, 2013). The success of international hotel chains depends on technically
competent and culturally adaptable expatriate managers (Causin, Ayoun, & Moreo, 2011). The
benefits of utilizing expatriate managers are numerous, and include more familiarity with corporate
culture and control systems than Chinese managers. Expatriates are typically effective communicators
and coordinators with headquarters (Barber & Pittaway, 2000). Therefore, demand in the hospitality
industry for expatriate professionals is expected to continue to increase substantially. However, a lack
of qualified managerial staff and high turnover rates are key issues for industry executives (Zhang &
Wu, 2004), especially because demand for qualified managers continues to flourish and outstrip
supply (Quelch & Bloom, 1999). With the explosive growth in China in recent years, finding, developing
and retaining talent have been important issues for companies seeking to grow their presence in the
country (Kaye & Taylor, 1997).
Expatriate workers are citizens from one country who live and work in a different country,
primarily because of their specialized operational abilities or due to their knowledge of the employing
organization (Pine, 2000; Shim et al., 2002). Expatriate assignments are typically planned to last two
to three years, particularly for managers (Guzzo, Noonan, & Elron, 1994). As globalization increases,
more and more firms are sending larger numbers of managers on overseas assignments (Kobrin, 1988;
Scullion, 1991). This research focuses on the study of expatriate managers’ leadership performance
in China who work in the hospitality industry. The research is being conducted in the Chinese context
because the majority of executive positions are taken by expatriates in joint-venture hotels.
Prior research has shown that a significant number of expatriate managers return prematurely
from their overseas assignments and/or perform below expectations (Black & Gregersen, 1999;
Dunbar & Ehrlich, 1986; Kaye et al., 1997; Osman-Gani & Rockstuhl, 2009). Some studies have
suggested that the failure rate is approximately 25% to 40% for an expatriate in a developed country,
and as high as 70% for an expatriate in a developing country (Li-Yueh, Veasna, & Wu, 2013, Shay &
Tracey, 1997). Failure rates are costly to organizations and employees, costing employers between
two to four times their employee’s annual salary (Lewis, 2006), in addition to potentially negatively
impacting the careers of failed expatriates (Varner & Palmer, 2003).
In a report released November 2013 by the Hong Kong Shanghai Banking Corporation, China
was ranked as the Number 1 destination for expatriates among 37 countries (HSBC, 2013). Out of 37
countries, China is ranked Number 2 in terms of expatriate economics, which measures expatriate
income levels, spending, and saving and investment ability (HSBC, 2013). Despite an abundant labor
pool, China has had to overcome a relative scarcity of skilled workers and managers versed in modern
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business practices (Kaye et al., 1997; Magnini & Honeycutt, 2003). Therefore, companies have
increasingly relied on workers from abroad to fill management-level positions in their organizations
(Kaye et al., 1997).
Hypotheses & Research Model
In this study, two hypotheses were tested:
H1: There is a positive relationship between organizational justice and employee job
satisfaction.
H2: There is a positive relationship between employee job satisfaction and
employees’ perceptions of the expatriate leader’s performance.
Figure1. Hypothesized Measurement Model of the Relationships between Organizational Justice and
Employee Job Satisfaction, Employee Job Satisfaction and Employees’ Perception of Expatriate
leadership Performance.
Theoretical Framework
The Social Exchange Theory (SET) serves as a leading model in understanding workplace
behavior (Blau, 1964), so that we use this theory as the theory foundation for understanding
organizational justice, employee job satisfaction, and perception of expatriates’ leadership
performance in the hospitality industry in China. The SET is a theory that attempts to explain and
understand human interactive behaviors (Blau, 1964). Put simply, this theory indicates that
relationships are built off interactions that generate other interactions or obligations (Blau, 1964).
Underlying the entire interaction is the concept of reciprocity, where in a leader-follower relationship
is the case when employees can develop more devotion based on the benefits they received and
expect to receive in the future (Blau, 1964). Employees satisfied with their leader-follower exchange
may tend to provide a better performance evaluation for a leader.
The Importance of the Study
This study makes contributions to both academic and industrial implications in the field. First,
this study enriches existing transformational leadership concept which will be used in this study. This
concept has been widely accepted, tested, and applied to increase leadership productivity in English
speaking counties (Robbins & Judge, 2013). How cultural factors might influence the validity of the
concept, especially in eastern cultures and in hospitality industry has not been tested out yet (Robbins
& Judge, 2013). The result of this study will enrich transformational leadership concept in a crosscultural leadership context, help to address whether Western leadership concept can be effectively
applied to a Chinese cultural context.
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Second, there is a noticeable research gap in terms of evaluating expatriate leadership performance
from a local employee’s perspective. There has been little research on leadership from follower and
subordinate perspectives. Previous studies focus more on how leaders/managers perceive leadership
and research was primarily conducted from the top down, with little concern for the view from the
bottom up, which is inefficiently aware of the cross-cultural perspective (Wong, 2008).
Third, the result of this research may help hospitality industry leaders to face the reality of how local
employees perceive their performance, and play a vital role to identify the short coming to improve
upon. In addition, this study can help multinational hotel companies better understand China’s
workforce culture, organizational justice, and the type of leadership that best relates with that
workforce, and what personal traits might be most successful in this particular cultural environment.
Method
The target population of this study are local employees who work with expatriate managers
in the hospitality industry in Mainland China. The local employees in this study are hotel employees
with Chinese nationality and have grown up in China. The statistical analysis will be conducted using
descriptive statistics and structure equation modeling.
The research questionnaire will adopt measures from Chinese Organizational Justice Scale
(COJS), Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ), and Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire.
Organizational justice was measured using a self-constructed 9-item scale mainly adopted from work
by Fodchuk (2009). Fodchuk examined organizational justice perceptions in China and developed
COJS. The employee job satisfaction was measured using Minnesota MSQ. MSQ measures satisfaction
in terms of working conditions, chances for advancement, feelings of accomplishment, freedom of
judgment and so on. This 20-item scale measures two dimensions of employee satisfaction: intrinsic
and extrinsic satisfaction. How local employees perceive expatriate leadership behavior will be
measured using scales adapted from the MLQ, developed by Bass and Avolio (1990). The construct
transformational leadership was measured by four variables: idealized influence, inspirational
motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration (Bass & Avolio, 1997).
An online web survey will be used to collect data in this study. This survey is designed to collect
data on local employees’ perceptions, overall knowledge of expatriate leadership performance, and
how they perceive the organizational justice and job satisfaction in Mainland China. The sampling
frame is the Tianjin University of Commerce (TUC) – Florida International University (FIU) Cooperative
Program and snowball sampling design will be used. All the graduates in this program major in
hospitality management and a majority of them work in the hospitality industry after they graduate.
An internet-based survey will be emailed to all the alumni to fill out. Since TUC-FIU alumni can easily
reach more of target population through their work and social networks, they will be asked to forward
the survey link to whoever they know and think will be qualified to fill out the survey. This study aims
to reach a sample size of approximately 300 participants. We will test each construct to approve or
disapprove the hypophysis.
References
Avolio, B. J., & Bass, B. M. (2002). Developing potential across a full range of leadership cases on
transactional and transformational leadership. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Barber, N., & Pittaway, L. (2000). Expatriate recruitment in south East Asia: Dilemma or opportunity?
International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 12(6), 352-359.
Bass, B., & Avolio, B. (1990). Developing transformational leadership. Journal of European Industrial
Training, 21-27.
Bass, M., & Avolio, J. (1997). Full range leadership development: Manual for multifactor leadership
questionnaire.
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Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. John Wiley & Sons. Retrieved from
http://ezproxy.fiu.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.fiu.edu/docview/6054
6672?accountid=10901.
Causin, G. F., Ayoun, B., & Moreo, P. (2011). Expatriation in the hotel industry. International Journal
of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 23(7), 885-901.
Dunbar, E., & Ehrlich, M. (1986). International practices, selection, training and managing the
international staff: A survey report. Project on International Human Resource. New York:
Columbia University, Teachers College.
Feng, F., & Pearson, T. (1999). Hotel expatriate managers in China: Selection criteria, important skills
and knowledge, repatriation concerns, and causes of failure. International Journal of
Hospitality Management, 18, 309-321.
Fodchuk, K. M. (2009). Organizational justice perceptions in china: Development of the Chinese
organizational justice scale (Order No. 3374154). Available from ProQuest Dissertations &
Theses A&I; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (305071073). Retrieved from
http://ezproxy.fiu.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.fiu.edu/docview/3050
71073?accountid=10901
Kaye, M., & Taylor, W. G. (1997). Expatriate culture shock in China: a study in the Beijing hotel industry.
Journal of Managerial Psychology, 496.
Kearny. (2013). China's hospitality industry -- rooms for growth. A.T. Kearney Korea LLC.
Magnini, V. P., & Honeycutt Jr., E. D. (2003). Learning orientation and the hotel expatriate manager
experience. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 22, 267-280.
Pine, R. (2000). Definition of 'expatriate'. In J. Jafari, Encyclopedia of Tourism (pp. 214-215). London:
Routledge.
Quelch, J. A., & Bloom, H. (1999). Ten steps to global human resource strategy. Strategy and Business
(First Quarter), 1-6.
Shim, I., & Paprock, K. (2002). A study focusing on American expatriates' learning in host countries.
International Journal of Training and Development , 6, 13-24.
Zhang, H., & Wu, E. (2004). Human resources issues facing the hotel and travel industry in China.
International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 16, 424-428.
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Workplace Bullying in the Foodservice Industry: A Qualitative Follow-Up
Miranda Kitterlin-Lynch, PhD.,
Assistant Professor, Florida International University
Lisa Cain, PhD.,
Assistant Professor, Florida International University
and
Mohan Song, MS.,
PhD Student, Florida International University
The phenomenon of “bullying” has been abundantly addressed in educational settings
(Sifferlin, 2013; Taranto, 2013; Weaver et al., 2013; Willens, 2013). However, it stands to reason that
these schoolyard bullies will eventually grow up, enter the workforce, and become workplace bullies
(Sweeny, 2007). The foodservice industry is one of the largest employers in the private-sector and this
phenomenon has the ability to have a direct impact on foodservice operations, thus deserving of
attention and study. Further, foodservice operators may be legally liable for claims of workplace
bullying, as these incidents are often related to one or more protected characteristics, such as race,
religion, or gender (Volpe and Reiter, 2013).
In a previous study, a sample of 440 hospitality management students currently working in
the hospitality industry in the southeastern United States were surveyed on how often they witnessed
each of 27 unique bullying behaviors in their workplace, each of which was identified in previous
studies of bullying behavior (Bennett and Robinson, 2000; Bible, 2012; Dehue et al., 2012; Djurkovic
et al., 2005). Results indicated that foodservice workers reported witnessing exclusion, verbal abuse,
sexual intimidation, inappropriate jokes, teasing, and mean pranks more frequently than did their nonfoodservice counterparts. Compared with other sectors of the hospitality industry, these results not
only specified a significant problem with bullying behaviors in the foodservice sector but also indicated
a threat to foodservice employee wellbeing and operational performance. The nature of this previous
study, however, did not allow for a deeper investigation as to why this phenomenon is occurring. Thus,
the purpose of this current study is to investigate the presence of workplace bullying behaviors in the
foodservice industry by examining the experiences of students working in this industry in a qualitative
approach that may offer a more detailed and holistic view of the phenomenon.
Literature Review
As early as 1995, bullying in the foodservice workplace has been recognized and documented
(Crawford, 1997). In the restaurant environment, aggressive and abusive behavior has been exposed
for decades in media, literature, and pop culture (Bourdain, 2013; Gardner, 2005; Hollweg, 2001;
Johns & Menzel, 1999; Ramsay, 2006). Academic attention toward bullying has been garnered and
indicates that the restaurant sector hosts a substantial amount of workplace bullying, the result of
which negatively impacts job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and employee creativity.
Bullying has also been found to be the trigger of greater levels of burnout and intention to turnover
(Mathisen, Einarsen & Mykletun, 2008). One proposal is that the culture of the workplace in food and
beverage is one in which this behavior is not only accepted as the norm, but even valued as a necessary
tool in the kitchen environment (Bloisi & Hoel, 2008; Hollweg, 2001; Johns & Menzel, 1999; Mathisen,
Einarsen & Mykletun, 2008). This phenomenon is attributed to several workplace factors:
uncomfortable work environments, (i.e. hot, noisy, and cramped kitchens), nontraditional/antisocial
work hours, low wages, sudden high pressure/stress, and conflicting interests among front and back
of house workers (Fine, 1996: Johns & Menzel, 1999; Mathisen, Einarsen & Mykletun, 2008; Pratten,
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2003). Further, academic evidence illuminates that workplace bullying occurs more in the food and
beverage sector specifically than across the hospitality industry (Bentley, Cately, Gardner, O’Driscoll,
Trenberth, & Cooper-Thomas, 2009).
While the focal point of workplace bullying in the restaurant industry has been researched
previously, the vast majority of these studies occurred outside of the United States. In the food and
beverage sector of the U. S. hospitality industry the conversation regarding whose responsibility it is
to monitor workplace bullying and the appropriate actions to be taken once it is identified is still in its
infancy. In the short term, these situations have a negative effect on all individuals in the bullying
environment. In the long term, these situation negatively affect the organization as a whole. Thus, this
research provides a starting point to that conversation.
Methodology
Given the exploratory nature of this study, a qualitative approach will be used. Foodservice
employees will undergo in-depth interviews to seek to understand the scope of workplace bullying in
the foodservice industry. Specifically, a sample of 20 students working in the foodservice industry will
be interviewed. A student sample was chosen for two key reasons: regardless of the convenience
sample collected from students currently working in the industry, student works typically represent a
population of individuals who hold entry level positions in their chosen career paths. The evidence
that workplace bullying victims are typically those employees who are new to the industry (ex.
apprentices) (Mathisen et al., 2008), suggests that a student population would be suitable for studying
incidence of this specific and unique behavior in the foodservice workplace.
A purposive sample of 20 students will be recruited from one public Hospitality Management
4-year degree program. A call for participants will be made via email, flyers, and class announcements,
and interested participants will be selected based on the following criteria: current employment in the
restaurant industry, age 18 and over, and currently enrolled in the degree program. Judgements will
be made so as to select a demographically diverse sample, and an even representation of front- and
back-of-house employees, staff-level, and management.
Responses will be collected through the use of 60-minute in-depth interviews prompted by
specified open-response questions (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). One member of the research team who
is trained at the graduate level and experienced in interview conduction for qualitative study will
conduct all interviews, so as to maintain consistency. This use of open-response questions is deemed
appropriate because the researchers are interested in obtaining more detailed answers to the
complex issue of workplace bullying. Sample questions will include:
1) Have you witnessed any of the following behaviors in the workplace: exclusion,
verbal abuse, sexual intimidation, inappropriate jokes, teasing, and/or mean
pranks? If yes, can you describe the parties involved (i.e. back-of-house, front-ofhouse, management)?
2) At work, have you participated in any of the above mentioned behaviors?
3) Why do you think the above mentioned behaviors occur in the workplace?
Prior to launching this study, a pilot test will be conducted with three students: one hourly
front-of-house foodservice employee, one hourly back-of-house foodservice employee, and one
foodservice manager. Afterwards, a discussion will take place as to how well the participants were
able to understand each question, how comfortable each participant felt answering the questions
honestly, and the likelihood of participants completing the interviews with the understanding that no
compensation would be offered for participating in the study. Revisions will be made accordingly as a
result of the pilot test.
Before each interview, participants will complete a consent form. Participation will be
voluntary and confidential. Questions will be asked in reference to their experiences with workplace
bullying (and behaviors classified as bullying) in the foodservice work environment.
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The interviews will be audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. Reliability through
triangulation will be sought by having each of the three members of the research team independently
read, analyze, and code the data using inductive thematic analysis; these themes will then be sent to
participants for confirmation that their ideas have been portrayed correctly (Braun & Clarke, 2006;
Creswell, 2007). More specifically, each member of the research team will first read the interview
transcripts in their entirety to establish familiarity with the data. Then, segments of the text will be
labeled with codes that describe their content or meaning. Next, the researchers will compare their
independently derived codes in order to come to an agreement on broad themes into which each of
the codes could be collapsed. Common themes will be identified, and overlapping codes will be
combined into themes using agreement between each of the members of the research team. Themes
will not be finalized until 100 percent agreement is reached by the research team members. Any
coding conflicts will be handled using in-depth discussion and negotiated consensus (Bradley, E., Curry,
L. & Devers, K., 2007).
References
Bennett, R. J. & Robinson, S. L. (2000). Development of a measure of workplace deviance. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 85, 349-360.
Bentley, T., Catley, B., Cooper-Thomas, H., Gardner, D., O'Driscoll, M., & Trenberth, L. (2009).
Understanding stress and bullying in New Zealand workplaces: Final report to OH&S steering
committee. Health Research Council/New Zealand Department of Labour: Wellington, New
Zealand, 1-100.
Bible, J. D. (2012). The jerk at work: workplace bullying and the law's inability to combat it. Employee
Relations Law Journal, 38, 32-51.
Bloisi, W. & Hoel, H. (2008). Abusive work practices and bullying among chefs: A review of the
literature. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 27(4), 649-656.
Bogdan, R., & Biklen, S. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theories and
methods, 5th ed. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Bourdain, A. (2013). Kitchen Confidential. Bloomsbury Publishing.
Bradley, E., Curry, L., & Devers, K. (2007). Qualitative data analysis for health services research:
developing taxonomy, themes, and theory. Health Services Research, 42(4), 1758-1772.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in
Psychology, 3(2), 77-101.
Crawford, N. (1997). Bullying at work: A psychoanalytic perspective. Journal of Community & Applied
Social Psychology, 7(3), 219-225.
Creswell, J. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches (2nd
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Inc.
Dehue, F., Bolman, C., Volling, T. & Pouwelse, M. (2012). Coping with bullying at work and health
related problems. International Journal of Stress Management, 19, 175-197.
Djurkovic, N., McCormack, D. & Casimir, G. (2005). Neuroticism and the psychosomatic model of
workplace bullying. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 21, 73-88.
Einarsen, S., Hoel, H., Zapf, D., & Cooper, C. (2014). Bullying and harassment in the workplace:
developments in theory, research, and practice. Academy of Management Learning &
Education, 13(1), 148-148.
Fine, G. A. (1996). Kitchens: The culture of restaurant work. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Gardner, R. (2005, Aug 22). Lots of cooks in the kitchen: violence erupts uptown. New York Observer.
Retrieved from http://observer.com/2005/08/lots-of-cooks-in-the-kitchen-violence-eruptsuptown/
Hollweg, L. (2001). In the hot seats. Sunday Times Styles, 25 November, p. 9.
Johns, N. & Menzel, P. J. (1999). If you can’t stand the heat! Kitchen violence and culinary art.
International Journal of Hospitality Management, 18, 99–109.
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Mathisen, G. E., Einarsen, S. & Mykletun, R. (2008). The occurrences and correlates of bullying and
harassment in the restaurant sector. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 49(1), 59-68.
Pratten, J. D. (2003). The training and retention of chefs. International Journal of Contemporary
Hospitality Management, 15, 237–242.
Ramsay, G. (2006). Roasting in Hell's Kitchen: Temper Tantrums, F Words, and the Pursuit of Perfection.
William Morrow Cookbooks.
Sifferlin, A. (2013, June 17). Bullying in the family. Time. Retrieved from
http://www.shrm.org/hrdisciplines/global/articles/pages/workplace-bullying-protectionsdiffer-globally.aspxhttp://healthland.time.com/2013/06/17/bullying-in-the-family/.
Taranto, J. (2013, February 1). Who’s bullying whom? The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from
http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887324610504578278002449712908.
Volpe, M. & Reiter, N. (2013). 5 steps to head off workplace bullying. Restaurant Hospitality. Retrieved
from http://restaurant-hospitality.com/eat-beat-business/5-steps-head-workplace-bullying
Weaver, L. M., Brown, J. R., Weddle, D. B., & Aalsma, M. C. (2013). A content analysis of protective
factors within states' antibullying laws. Journal of School Violence, 12(2), 156-173.
Willens, P. (2013, February 20). Bullying is serious but not an epidemic. School Book. Retrieved from
http://www.wnyc.org/story/301828-bullying-not-an-epidemic-but-internet-makes-itworse/.
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Unraveling the Success of Cuban Restaurateurs in Miami
Juan Tamayo,
Graduate Student, Florida International University
Miranda Kitterlin-Lynch, PhD.,
Assistant Professor, Florida International University
and
Eric Beckman, PhD.,
Assistant Professor, Florida International University
Abstract
During the continuous economic turmoil, innumerable businesses have faced financial
difficulties and many have had to shut down. This issue is critical in the restaurant industry due to
restaurant’s sensitivity to economic fluxes. Approximately 26.16 percent of independent restaurants
fail during their first year of operations, this percentage shoots up to 60 by year 3 (Parsa, Self, Njite, &
King, 2005). Therefore, the purpose of this study is to uncover the decision-making process of
restaurateurs who have remained in business for over 10 years. Researchers will conduct in-depth
phenomenological interviews of 15 Cuban restaurant owners in Miami, Florida. Additionally,
employees and guests will also be interviewed as they play a significant role in the restaurant’s overall
success. Findings will suggest a model for budding restaurateurs to follow.
Key words: Cuban Restaurant owners, Restaurateur Success, Critical Success Factors, Intent of return,
Ethnic Restaurants, Miami
Introduction
An estimated 396 Cuban restaurants have managed to serve the people of Miami since 1960.
Versailles, established in 1971 is dubbed as the world’s most famous Cuban Restaurant. It serves a
pillar of the Cuban community that brings people together from every generation, this was recognized
by millions when Fidel Castro died and thousands gathered to cheer, dance, and wave Cuban flags in
front of the restaurant (Balido, 2001, p. 106). Other restaurants like La Rosa, Rio Cristal, and El Pub
have also remained opened after decades of servings the people of Miami. Among the estimated 80
Cuban restaurants are still opened in the area, only 20 were established before 1980. These
restaurants don’t only serve as an example for other Cuban restaurateurs, but to restaurant owners
from every nationality who’s aim is to create a long-lasting business.
Not only are there more Cuban-Americans in Miami than in any other U.S. jurisdiction but as
a group, they have had the most economical and political power since the early 70s (Diaz, 2007, p. 2).
Dozens of Cuban restaurants have managed to thrive past economic crisis and times of racial disparity.
The dissonance between Cuba and The United States was fueled decades ago. On January 1, 1959,
Fidel Castro and his followers forever changed Cuba and it’s people. Within three years of his historic
win, more than 250,000 Cubans arrived in the U.S. (Diaz, 2007, p. 29). These Cubans were part of the
first migratory wave into the United States called Golden Exiles since they were primarily high school
graduates who became managers and business owners. (Diaz, 2007, p. 36). In the early 1960’s the
Pedro Pan (Peter Pan) Project brought fourteen thousand unaccompanied Cuban minors to the U.S.
under the care of the Catholic Church (Diaz, 2007, p. 32). President Lyndon B. Johnson enacted the
Freedom Flights that brought in thousands more during the 70’s. These flights took off twice per day,
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five times per week from Cuba and Castro opened the Port of Camarioca to everyone else who wanted
to leave. In April 1980, a bus drove through the gates of the Peruvian Embassy in Havana, requesting
asylum. Gun Fires went off and when a Cuban soldier was injured, the Peruvian ambassador took the
exiles in. The Mariel port was opened by Castro right after this incident and told everyone who wanted
to leave to go, including those in prisons and mental institutions. In a span of four months an estimated
120,000 people arrived in Miami (Diaz, 2007, p. 38). Cubans were leaving the island any way that they
could and through the decades they created a new home, only a few hundred miles away. These
emigres opened restaurants and through food, built a bridge that reminded Miami’s new citizens of
home. Through the years, these restaurateurs made decisions influenced by these exiles that either
forced them to shut down operations or propelled them to success.
Literature Review
Restaurant success has been defined by many researchers (Agarwal & Dahm, 2015; Camillo,
Connolly, & Gon Kim, 2008; Mirjam, 2003; Parsa et al., 2005; Rey-Martí, Ribeiro-Soriano, & PalaciosMarqués, 2016). For the purposes of this study the researchers have defined successful restaurants as
ones whose clients not only intend to return and speak highly of it on both social media platforms and
face-to-face. Based on the literature, we have decided that there are six determinants that will prompt
guests to return:
DR01: The speed of service follows 3, 5, 15 (3 minutes - drinks, 5 minutes - apps, 15 minutes – entre).
DR02: The restaurant and surrounding area are not only safe and inviting but in good physical
condition.
DR03: There is high food quality, fair prices, satisfactory portions, and the dishes are presented
beautifully.
DR04: The dining space, service stations, and restrooms appear clean and organized.
DR05: The music and decorations of the restaurant create a positive atmosphere.
DR06: The staff is friendly, knowledgeable, and there when you need them (Jang, 2007; Keshavarz,
Jamshidi, & Bakhtazma, 2016; Lin & Mattila, 2017; Liu & Jang, 2009; Lu, Fine, Lu, & Fine, 1995; Ryu,
Han, & Kim, 2008; Self, Jones, & Botieff, 2017; Weiss, Feinstein, Dalbor, Weiss, & Dalbor, 2017; Yang
& Kimes, 2009).
If the restaurant meets or exceeds the customer’s expectation in those categories, they are
more than likely to return and speak highly of the restaurant, thus deeming it successful (Kolter,
Bowen, Makens, Baloglu, 2017).
Restaurants often have a hard and arduous track to success. Camillo, Connolly, and Kim (2008)
studied 18 restaurants, 9 of which have failed from 2003 to 2007. When they looked at the complexity
of the restaurant business they found over 20 overarching factors that were critical to a restaurant’s
success (Camillo, Connolly, & Gon Kim, 2008), including a concept, business plan, and financial capital.
Inherently, Cuban restaurants have a predefined concept. A strong business plan and enough financial
capital are proven to be essential to any business (Agarwal & Dahm, 2015; Lee, Hallak, & Sardeshmukh,
2016; Simón-moya & Revuelto-Taboada, 2016; Thomas, Turner, & Suhr, 2014). Those six determinants
of return will only support the restaurateur’s track to success.
A powerful social media presence is essential for the marketing strategy of any restaurant, as
it is how guests share their gastronomical experiences. In this twenty first century, people
communicate not only face-to-face but predominantly through social media. Electronic Word of
Mouth (eWOM) is ranked as the most important information source when making a purchase decision
in the hospitality industry It is indicated that positive word of mouth can increase sales in both the
hotel sector and the restaurant eWOM has a great importance in the restaurant sector as well
(Lohuizen, 2016). In essence, restaurant success is dependent on dozens of decisions that
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restaurateurs make. Once again, the purpose of this study is to uncover the decision-making process
of particularly Cuban restaurateurs who have remained in business for over 10 years.
Research Methodology
Success is a complicated word that merits an in-depth research process. Due to the complexity
of the study, we plan to unravel the success of Cuban restaurateurs using qualitative and quantitative
methods. Restaurants that had been in operation for three or more years are considered successful
(Agarwal & Dahm, 2015). Given the uniqueness of Miami’s relationship with Cuban entrepreneurs and
popularity of Cuban Restaurants we intend to interview restaurateurs whose establishments have
remained opened for at least 10 years. A minimum sample size of 12 is suitable for qualitative research
projects for which the main goal is deeper understanding of a phenomenon (Kwortnik, 2003). 15
Cuban Restaurateurs will be interviewed through an in-depth phenomenological “three-interview
series” process coined by Dr. Irving Seidman (2006) in his book, Interviewing as Qualitative Research.
This will be coupled with employee and customer satisfaction and demographic surveys during an
eight-hour time frame to understand the complexities of the restaurant industry and the many hurdles
restaurateurs face.
Significance
As Cuban restaurateurs are being interviewed, commonalities will be identified that can serve
as examples for other restaurant owners to increase success in their own establishments. The six
determinants of return can focus restaurant efforts to improve guest satisfaction, which as it was
previously discussed; influences intent of return, which leads to increase in sales, and ultimately,
creates a sustainable business.
References
Agarwal, R., & Dahm, M. J. (2015). Success Factors in Independent Ethnic Restaurants. Journal of
Foodservice Business Research, 18(1), 20-33.
Avicenna, F. (2016). Online Reviews: the effect of sources and framing of reviews on eWoM credibility,
product attitude, and behavioral intention (Master's thesis, University of Twente).
Balido, G., & Guerrero, C. M. (2001). Cubantime: A Celebration of Cuban Life in America. Silver Lining
Books
Camillo, A. A., Connolly, D. J., & Kim, W. G. (2008). Success and failure in Northern California: critical
success factors for independent restaurants. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 49(4), 364 - 380
Diaz, G. M. (2007). The Cuban American Experience: Issues, Perceptions, and Realities. Reedy
Keshavarz, Y., Jamshidi, D., & Bakhtazma, F. (2016). The influence of service quality on restaurant’s
customer loyalty. Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review (Oman Chapter), 6(4),
1.
Kolter, P., Bown, J., Makens, J., & Baloglu, S. (2017). Marketing for Hospitality and Tourism, 7/e.
Pearson Education India, 2017.
Kwortnik Jr, R. J. (2003). Clarifying" fuzzy" hospitality-management problems with depth interviews
and qualitative analysis. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 44(2), 117. Lee, C., Hallak, R., &
Sardeshmukh, S. R. (2016). Drivers of success in independent restaurants: A study of the
Australian restaurant sector. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 29, 99-111.
Lin, I. Y., & Mattila, A. S. (2010). Restaurant servicescape, service encounter, and perceived congruency
on customers' emotions and satisfaction. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management,
19(8), 819-841.
Liu, Y., & Jang, S. S. (2009). Perceptions of Chinese restaurants in the US: what affects customer
satisfaction and behavioral intentions?. International Journal of Hospitality Management,
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28(3), 338-348.
Lu, S., & Fine, G. A. (1995). The presentation of ethnic authenticity. The Sociological Quarterly, 36(3),
535-553.
Namkung, Y., & Jang, S. (2007). Does food quality really matter in restaurants? Its impact on customer
satisfaction and behavioral intentions. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 31(3), 387409.
Parsa, H. G., Self, J. T., Njite, D., & King, T. (2005). Why restaurants fail. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant
Administration Quarterly, 46(3), 304-322.
Rey-Martí, A., Ribeiro-Soriano, D., & Palacios-Marqués, D. (2016). Entrepreneurial attributes of human
capital and contingency factors in the culinary tourism. International Entrepreneurship and
Management Journal, 12(1), 67-85.
Ryu, K., Han, H., & Kim, T. H. (2008). The relationships among overall quick-casual restaurant image,
perceived value, customer satisfaction, and behavioral intentions. International Journal of
Hospitality Management, 27(3), 459-469.
Seidman, I. (2006). Chapter 8. Analyzing, interpreting and sharing interview material. Interviewing as
qualitative Research: a guide for researchers in education and the social sciences.
Self, J. T., Jones, M. F., & Botieff, M. (2015). Where Restaurants Fail: A Longitudinal Study of Micro
Locations. Journal of Foodservice Business Research, 18(4), 328-340.
Simón-Moya, V., & Revuelto-Taboada, L. (2016). Revising the predictive capability of business plan
quality for new firm survival using qualitative comparative analysis. Journal of Business
Research, 69(4), 1351-1356.
Van Praag, C. M. (2003). Business survival and success of young small business owners. Small Business
Economics, 21(1), 1-17.
Weiss, R., Feinstein, A. H., & Dalbor, M. (2005). Customer satisfaction of theme restaurant attributes
and their influence on return intent. Journal of Foodservice Business Research, 7(1), 23-41.
Yang, S. S., Kimes, S. E., & Sessarego, M. M. (2009). Menu price presentation influences on consumer
purchase behavior in restaurants. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28(1),
157-160.
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The Influence of an Ion-Exchange Matrix Treatment on the Perceived Taste Preference and
Hedonic Responses of Three Cabernet Sauvignon Wines
Mark Traynor, PhD.,
Assistant Professor, Florida International University
Imran Ahmad, PhD.,
Postdoctoral Associate, Florida University
and
Michael Cheng, PhD.,
Associate Professor, Florida International University
The ingestion of wine is believed to commonly cause adverse reactions eliciting a range of
symptoms including flushing, itching, headaches, diarrhea, urticaria and asthma etc. (Wantke et al.,
1996; Vally & Thompson, 2003; Maintz & Novak, 2007). Biogenic amines are considered to be
responsible for some of these unwanted adverse reactions (Wantke et al., 1993; Kalač & Krausova,
2005). Biogenic amines are a group of organic nitrogenous compounds formed and degraded by the
metabolisms of living organisms. The main biogenic amines associated with wine are putrescine,
histamine, tyramine and cadaverine, followed by phenylethylamine, spermidine, spermine, agmatine
and tryptamine (Smit et al., 2008). Some of the adverse reactions may also arise from hypersensitivity
to sulfites, oxidized into Sulphur dioxide (SO2) during storage, which are important preservatives
added during wine production (Vally et al., 2007). Among alcoholic beverages, red wine is most often
the culprit for eliciting adverse reactions due to higher biogenic amine levels than in white wines
(Romero et al., 2002; Linneberg et al., 2008).
Due to the effectiveness and relatively low financial expense, time and energy consumption,
ion-exchange techniques have been recently applied to modify the pH of red wines leading to more
stable wines (Lasanta & Gómez, 2012; Lasanta et al., 2013). A relatively recent commercial product
which allows for consumers to apply the ion-exchange procedure to wines prior to consumption has
shown to alleviate some of the noxious adverse reactions (Meadows & Ketelson, 2015). Ion-exchange
procedures have also shown to produce slight effects on the color of red wines and with possible
changes in the organoleptic characteristics because of the retention of phenolic compounds and the
change in pH (Walker et al., 2002; Mira et al., 2006). These effects in treated wine can vary significantly
depending on the nature of the wine, the resin employed in the ion-exchange matrix and the
organoleptic characteristics of the final wines (Walker et al., 2002). As a result, an exhaustive research
program is required to confirm the preliminary results and to investigate the effects on other
parameters (Lasanta et al., 2013). The purpose of this study was to assess the sensory impact of the
application of an ion-exchange matrix to a selection of Cabernet Sauvignon wines.
Research Methodology
Three (3) separate sensory evaluation tests, a Difference test (Triangle test), Consumer
Hedonic test and Consumer Preference test, were conducted to ascertain if significant differences (p
 0.05) in perceived taste and in overall hedonic responses (overall liking and preference of taste)
existed between wines treated with a commercial ion-exchange device and untreated samples of wine
(control). Three (3) commercially available 100% Cabernet Sauvignon wines were selected
representing different price categories of Cabernet Sauvignon wines: low price (average $6 per bottle),
medium price (average $12 per bottle), and higher price (average $20 per bottle). Wine samples
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treated with the ion-exchange device (The Wand™, Purewine Inc., TX, U.S) according to the
manufacturer’s guidelines; one ion-exchange device was placed in 150ml of wine for three minutes
while swirling.
Testing was carried out in a wine sensory laboratory under guidelines and conditions
according to ISO 8589:2010. Participants were students and staff of Chaplin School of Hospitality and
Tourism Management (Florida International University). Panelists worked in single booths under
defined conditions of 22 oC and white light. All samples were coded with 3-digit random numbers and
were presented in a randomized order. Thirty (30) ml of each sample was served between 20-22oC, as
recommended in the ASTM E1879:2010. Panelists were required to cleanse their palates with water
and crackers in between samples. The Triangle test was conducted according to the guidelines set out
in ISO 4120:2004 and in duplicated over two separate testing days with a different set of panelists and
blinded codes. A total of sixty-four (64) panelists (n = 64) participated in the testing. Panelists were
presented with three (3) samples, were advised that two (2) of the samples were identical and one (1)
was different, and asked to identify the different (odd) sample from each triad. Samples were
presented in the following order ABB, BAA, ABB, BBA, ABA and BAB.
Thirty (30) panelists (n = 30) participated in the Consumer Hedonic tests. Panelists were
instructed to evaluate the taste liking of the samples on a 9-point hedonic scale, where 9 = “like
extremely” and 1 = “dislike extremely”. A paired preference test directly followed the Consumer
Hedonic tests. Panelists were also asked to rank the samples in order of preference, from most
preferred to least preferred. For both tests, panelists received two samples in monadic sequential and
randomized order. The data from the Triangle test and Preference test were analyzed using the
Pearson’s Chi-squared test and cross-tabulation test. The data for the Consumer Hedonic test was
analyzed using independent t-tests. Differences were considered significant at 5% a significant level.
Sensory data was collected and analyzed using Compusense Cloud software (Compusense Inc.,
Guelph, Ontario, Canada).
Discussion of Results
The results of Triangle test indicate that no statistically significant differences (p  0.05) in
taste were detected between treated and untreated samples among all wines (Figure 1). Therefore,
the null hypothesis of the indifference of sensory quality (taste) of samples could not be rejected. It
can be seen that in both duplicated tests, 65% and 64% of panelists could not discriminate between
treated and untreated low priced wine samples, respectively. Similar results were found for both
medium and higher priced wine samples, with 58% and 60%, and 71% and 60% of panelists not able
to discriminate between samples in the respective triads.
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40
Correct
Incorrect
treated
22
20
19
18
19
24
18
15
Mean Hedonic Score
30
25
10
5
untreated
9
35
12
11
15
12
10
12
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
Low Price
Low
Low
Med. Med.
High
High
Price A Price B Price A Price B Price A Price B
Figure 1: Results for duplicated Triangle test
liking of taste of treated and untreated
Cabernet Sauvignon wines (n = 64).
Med. Price
High Price
Figure 2: Mean sensory evaluation scores for
overall correct and incorrect responses (n = 30).
*A and B represents test in duplicate; where A is the first test run and B is the second test run
Similarly, the results of the consumer sensory evaluation tests showed no statistically
significant differences (p  0.05) for the overall liking of taste between all treated and untreated wine
samples (Figure 2). The mean hedonic scoring range for all samples was 5.27 – 6.22, indicating that
panelists “liked slightly” all of the treated and untreated samples of wine. Similarly, the paired
preference test results also revealed there was no statistically significant difference (p  0.05) existed
for the preference rankings of the treated and untreated wine samples (Table 1). It appeared that the
low priced treated and untreated samples were ranked as the preferred sample almost an even
number of times (21 and 20, respectively).
Sample
Table 1 Paired Preference (AFC-2) tests data
No. of panelists selecting
No of panelists selecting
Treated > Untreated
pUntreated > treated
p-value
value
Low Price
21
0.50
20
0.62
Med.
Price
24
0.17
17
0.89
High Price
23
0.27
18
0.83
In this study, it was found that the particular ion-exchange device used did not produce
detectable significant effects (p  0.05) in the taste profile of the selected wines. This treatment has
shown in the past to produce slight alterations on the color and organoleptic characteristics (taste
intensity and overall perceived quality) of red wines (Mira et al., 2006; Lasanta et al., 2013). However,
these studies were conducted with expert wine tasters, whereas our study was conducted with
untrained panelist representing general consumers. Additionally, our study examined basic taste
characteristics of wines, other organoleptic characteristics were not tested. It has been noted these
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effects in treated wine can vary significantly depending on the nature of the wine, the resin employed
in the ion-exchange matrix and the organoleptic characteristics of the final wines (Walker et al. 2002).
Taste is an intrinsic sensory quality attribute of wines, which is considered to be one of the
most decisive determinant factors of wine selection for consumption (Thomas & Pickering 2003; Casini
et al. 2009; Lockshin & Corsi 2012). Thus, the results of this study pose a significance for the Hospitality
Industry, where many regular consumers of wine acquire preferences for certain styles of wines that
evoke desired levels of sensory reactions to characteristics such as bitterness, acidity, sweetness,
fruity, spicy aromas etc. Though consumers with hypersensitivities to biogenic amines and sulfites may
desire to offset the potential noxious effects by ingestion of wines containing high levels of biogenic
amines and sulfites. Consumers may not be willing to compromise the key organoleptic characteristics
of the chosen wine. This could be especially true for wines that are familiar to a consumer, where
masking or altering the intensity of these intrinsic characteristic properties of a chosen wine through
methods like ion-exchange may result in the wine becoming unrecognizable to consumers, and
subsequently negatively affecting the overall sensory experience.
Conclusions
This study examined the sensory effects of ion-exchange beverage treatment device on selected
wines. The results indicate that panelist could not detect any significant taste differences between
treated and untreated samples. The application of this ion-exchange technology can be a useful tool
to adjust the pH and ultimately to improve technological aspects of wines without affecting
organoleptic properties of the wine. Further sensory testing will be conducted with a trained sensory
panel. Additionally, future work will focus on the effect of the commercial ion-exchange device
physiochemical characteristics of the selected wines.
References
ASTM. (2010). ASTM E1879 Standard Guide for Sensory Evaluation of Beverages Containing Alcohol.
Pennsylvania: ASTM International
Casini, L., Corsi, A. & Goodman, S. (2009). Consumer preferences of wine in Italy applying best–worst
scaling. International Journal of Wine Business Research. 21, 64–78.
ISO. (2004). ISO 4120: Sensory analysis-Methodology-Triangle test. Geneva: International
Organisation for Standardization.
ISO. (2010). ISO 8586: Sensory analysis- general guidance for the selection, training and monitoring of
assessors. Geneva: International Organisation for Standardization.
Kalač, P. & Krausová, P. (2005). A review of dietary polyamines: Formation, implications for growth
and health and occurrence in foods. Food Chemistry. 90, 219–230.
Lasanta, C. & Gómez, J. (2012). Tartrate stabilization of wines. Trends in Food Science & Technology,
28, 52–59.
Lasanta, C., Caro, I. & Pérez, L. (2013). The influence of cation exchange treatment on the final
characteristics of red wines. Food Chemistry. 138, 1072–1078.
Linneberg, A., Berg, N., Gonzalez-Quintela, A., Vidal, C. & Elberling, J. (2008). Prevalence of selfreported hypersensitivity symptoms following intake of alcoholic drinks. Clinical &
Experimental Allergy. 38, 145–151.
Lockshin, L. & Corsi, A. (2012). Consumer behaviour for wine 2.0: A review since 2003 and future
directions. Wine Economics and Policy. 1, 2–23.
Maintz, L. & Novak, N. (2007). Histamine and histamine intolerance. American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition. 85, 1185–1196.
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Meadows, D. & Ketelson, H. (2015). U.S. Patent No. 0197717.
Mira, H., Leite, P., Ricardo-Da-Silva, J. & Curvelo-Garcia, A. (2006). Use of ion exchange resins for
tartrate wine stabilization. Journal International des Sciences de la Vigne et du Vin. 40(4), 223–
246.
Romero, R., Sánchez-Viñas, M., Gázquez, D. & Gracia Bagur, M. (2002). Characterization of selected
Spanish table wine samples according to their biogenic amine content from liquid
chromatographic determination. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry. 50, 4713–4717.
Smit, A., du Toit W. & du Toit, M. (2008). Biogenic amines in wine: understanding the headache. South
African Journal of Enology & Viticulture, South African Journal for Enology and Viticulture.
29(2), 109–127.
Thomas, A. & Pickering, G. (2003). The importance of wine label information. International Journal of
Wine Marketing, 15(2), 58–74.
Walker, T., Morris, J., Threlfall, R. & Main, G. (2002). pH Modification of Cynthiana Wine Using Cationic
Exchange. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 50(22), 6346–6352.
Vally, H. & Thompson, P.J. (2003). Allergic and asthmatic reactions to alcoholic drinks. Addiction
Biology. 8, 3–11.
Vally, H., Thompson, P. & Misso, N. (2007). Changes in bronchial hyperresponsiveness following highand low-sulphite wine challenges in wine-sensitive asthmatic patients. Clinical & Experimental
Allergy. 37, 1062–1066.
Wantke, F., Götz, M. & Jarisch, R. (1993). Histamine free diet: treatment of choice for histamine
induced food intolerance and supporting treatment for chronic headaches. Clinical &
Experimental Allergy. 23, 982–985.
Wantke, F., Hemmerüw, W., Haglmüller, T., Götz, M. & Jarisch, R. (1996). Histamine in wine
bronchoconstriction after a double blind placebo controlled red wine provocation test. A case
report. International Archives of Allergy and Immunology. 110, 397–400.
Research Conference Proceedings
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Winery Restaurant Entrepreneurship: Exploring Consumer Demand
Bonnie Farber Canziani, PhD.
Associate Professor, University of North Carolina Greensboro
Abstract
The purpose of this exploratory study was to investigate the dining preferences of previous
winery visitors as part of business planning for a proposed restaurant at an established winery. Age
and wine club membership are examined as factors useful for planning a new winery restaurant.
Findings support a theoretical relationship between age and dining behaviors and purchase intentions
as well as between age and perceived barriers to dining at the winery.
Introduction
This paper investigates dining market potential at a winery. Many wineries are selling food
products to increase revenue streams and lessen business reliance on wine sales alone (Franson,
2008). In addition, it is more than likely that a rural winery visit will occur near a mealtime (Carlsen &
Dowling, 2001). Like other attractions, i.e., museums, amusement parks, or recreational areas,
wineries are accommodating the food interests of visitors (Bessiere, 1998).
There is an appealing interplay between wine and food in the winery restaurant context. Wine
enhances consumers’ experience of foods (King & Cliff, 2005). Alternatively, promoting wine
consumption by the glass and bottle can potentially raise a winery’s average revenue per bottle
(Farkas, 2013). Wine tasted in the controlled setting and ambiance of the dining room may spur
increased product engagement and result in post-meal wine purchases (Walker, 2008). However,
there is very little existing literature regarding the planning of restaurants at wineries or about
converting winery visitors to diners. The present study explores consumer demand for a hypothetical
midscale winery restaurant and the impacts of age and wine club membership.
Background
Restaurants in wineries tend to be independent rather than chain-affiliated and do not display
typical market conditions such as proximity to transport, nearby feeders, or competitors (Tzeng, Teng,
Chen, & Opricovic, 2002). Winery restaurants are often dependent on winery visitor conversion rather
than on diners motivated by the restaurant itself (Bantjes, 2011). Thus, studying prior winery visitors
is a viable method for comprehending future revenue potential.
Predicting Demand
In planning a winery restaurant, dining intention is defined as an extension of winery visitation
rather than being solely an independent restaurant selection decision (Charters & Ali Knight, 2002).
Tapping the intentions of prior visitors to the winery as first-hand sources of consumer demand is a
plausible alternative for data gathering. Information that is beneficial for estimating demand for
planning a winery restaurant includes visitor conversion to dining, probable party size, some type of
projected occupancy information such as day of the week and preferred meal period, as well as
expected average check per person (ACPP) (Ryan, 2002).
The significance of a largely older clientele
Winery visitors tend to be “middle aged, highly educated, professional or managerial, with
above average income” (Mitchell & Hall, 2001, p. 69). Older consumers represent a substantial and
accessible segment of diners for a winery restaurant, given that mature adults have the most leisure
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time, spend more money than the U.S. national average on dining out, and have higher dining out
frequencies (Kim, Raab, & Bergmen, 2010).
Age correlates with other predictors of restaurant selection, such as disposable income and
time, and with attitudes toward cost of food and menu/service factors (Auty, 1992; Cullen, 2004;
Kivela, 1997).While older diners are not necessarily a homogeneous market, there are some significant
common factors, including health, that affect their dining patterns. A cross-national review of wine
tourists found that age has an impact on menu item selection and drinking decisions (Harrington,
Ottenbacher, & Way, 2013). Age impacts dining motivations; for example, convenience and socializing
opportunities are major influences on dining decisions for senior consumers (Yamanaka, Almanza,
Nelson, & Devaney, 2003). Perceived barriers such as driving time/distance from origin and the
winery’s position as a tourist stop on a wine trail both play a role in determining decisions to dine at a
winery (Hooper, 2015; Sun & Morrison, 2007).
Wine club membership
Wine club membership may also influence dining intention. Satiation is a concern with
restaurants due to menus or service elements losing hedonic value or novelty (Park & Jang, 2014).
Since incentivized wine club members buy wine more frequently and have higher purchase totals, it
is possible that wine club loyalty also combats satiation (Mitchell & Hall, 2001). Figure 1 presents a
model of the research questions that will be highlighted in this study.
Methodology
The winery studied has been operating for fifteen years in a U.S. (NC) county where 73% of
the population is rural (City-Data.com, 2016). At the time of the study, only packaged deli and
gourmet items were available for sale. Winery events used outside caterers.
A Qualtrics® survey was employed to collect data from prior visitors using a convenience
sampling frame of 11,255 emails provided by the winery. The questionnaire included limited
demographics and dining preferences and intentions. Tracking showed that 3751 invitation emails
were accessed and 1652 recipients clicked on the survey link; 1339 unique IP addresses submitted
the survey and 1198 usable completed surveys were employed in the ensuing analysis. SPSS®
Version 24 was used to conduct general statistical analyses.
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Results
Respondent Profile and Dining Intentions
Table 1 indicates that 72% of winery visitors were 50 years of age or older and about 50%
were winery club members. Approximately 87 % were in-state visitors and mean in-state travel
distance from the winery was 62.7 miles. Also, 65% of respondents visit the winery infrequently in a
range of 1 to 3 times per year with 35% visiting more often. During prior visits, 83% bought food at
the winery itself and 80% reported buying food at another location during the trip. Most food
purchases at other locations occurred at restaurants rather than at substitute businesses, i.e.,
supermarkets, farmers’ markets, or wineries. Midscale restaurants were the leading choice for visitor
dining during the wine tourism trip (38%), followed by fine dining (27.1%) and other wineries (20.4%).
With respect to the hypothesized restaurant, 60% of respondents would prefer a midscale
independent style to fine dining (19.4%), midscale chain (3.2 %), or other (17.4%). More than half of
winery visits (55.7%) are expected to convert to dining episodes with traditional leisure patterns, i.e.,
weekend days (Friday, Saturday, Sunday) are preferred over weekdays for restaurant visits. Over half
(56.1%) of visits to the restaurant would be parties of 3 to 4 guests.
Table 1 Respondent characteristics
Frequency
Percent
(n = 1197)
100.0%
21 to 39
39
12.5%
40 to 49
183
15.3%
50 to 59
390
32.6%
60 to 69
380
31.7%
70 or older
95
7.9%
Club member
(n = 1195)
100.0%
No
599
50.1%
Yes
596
49.9%
(n = 1198)
100.0%
In state
1038
86.6%
Out of state
160
13.4%
Mean
S.D.
Age
State of origin
Distance from winey in miles
(n = 1198)
In state
62.7
40.2
Out of state
250.5
194.6
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Age influences on dining intentions
Age had no influence on intention to convert a winery visit to a dining event, X2 (4, N = 1197)
= .668, p =.955 but there was a slight propensity for consumers under 40 to dine more frequently (see
Table 2). There is slight evidence that age associates with ACPP. Fewer visitors in the 21 to 39 age
group expect the average price per check to be in the highest two ACPP ranges; this applies to both
lunch, X2 (12, N = 1197) = 22.71, p < .030, and dinner, X2 (16, N = 1197) = 60.07, p < .000. Looking at
Table 3, perceived limitations of free time on dining seem to decrease as one ages, while friends and
family as a barrier slightly increases with age. In Table 4, results show that younger consumers have a
broader range of menu picks than consumers in the 60 plus range. They also are more likely to order
bottles of wine with both lunch and dinner.
Table 2 Cross-tabulations of Dining Intentions by Age
Age Groups
21 -39
40-49
50-59
60-69
70 plus
Total
(n=149)
(n=183)
(n=390)
(n=380)
(n=95)
(n=1197)
Dining frequency
1-3 x a year
44.9%
46.2%
50.9%
52.1%
55.9%
50.2%
4-11 x a year
31.3%
41.8%
33.9%
35.8%
33.3%
35.4%
Monthly or more
23.8%
12.1%
15.2%
12.0%
10.8%
14.4%
Conversion factor
Not likely to dine
Likely to dine
42.5%
57.5%
45.0%
55.0%
45.6%
54.4%
43.8%
56.3%
42.4%
57.6%
Chi-square
df
p
17.651*
8
.024
.668
4
.955
22.713*
12
.030
60.065**
16
.000
44.3%
55.7%
Lunch ACPP
$9.99 or less
15.0%
14.8%
13.9%
9.0%
5.5%
12.0%
$10 to 14.99
57.8%
51.6%
51.7%
50.0%
49.5%
51.8%
$15 to 19.99
19.0%
23.1%
19.4%
25.1%
26.4%
22.3%
$20 plus
8.2%
10.4%
15.0%
15.8%
18.7%
14.0%
Dinner ACPP
$14.99 or less
9.5%
6.8%
7.9%
6.7%
0.0%
7.0%
$15 to 19.99
31.3%
31.6%
25.9%
15.4%
18.4%
23.6%
$20 to 24.99
38.1%
32.2%
29.9%
32.2%
27.6%
31.8%
$25 to 29.99
8.8%
13.0%
19.3%
21.0%
25.3%
18.0%
$30 plus
12.2%
16.4%
16.9%
24.6%
28.7%
19.5%
*p < .05; **p < .01
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Table 3 Cross-tabulations of “Select All Barriers to Dining” by Age
Age groups
21 -39
(n=149)
40-49
(n=183)
50-59
(n=390)
60-69
(n=380)
70 plus
(n=95)
Barriers
Cost of living
Free time
3.4%
22.8%
2.2%
24.6%
5.4%
16.2%
6.3%
13.4%
7.4%
3.2%
Friends & family
0.7%
2.7%
5.6%
6.1%
Gas prices
0.7%
2.2%
2.1%
Travel distance
20.1%
24.6%
25.4%
Total
(n=1197)
Chi-square
df
p
5.1%
16.4%
6.388
28.093**
4
4
.172
.000
7.4%
4.8%
10.452*
4
.033
2.9%
2.1%
2.2%
2.543
4
.637
29.5%
34.7%
26.6%
8.681
4
.070
*p < .05; **p < .01
Table 4 Cross-tabulations of “Select All Likely to Order” Menu Items by Age
Age groups
21 -39
(n=149)
40-49
(n=183)
50-59
(n=390)
60-69
(n=380)
70 plus
(n=95)
Total
(n=1197)
Chi-square
df
p
Appetizers
65.8%
66.7%
57.2%
51.1%
40.0%
56.4%
28.071**
4
.000
Sandwiches
84.6%
88.5%
84.9%
84.2%
78.9%
84.7%
4
.334
Pizza
87.9%
83.6%
77.9%
72.4%
56.8%
76.6%
40.555**
4
.000
Pasta
41.6%
42.1%
39.5%
41.1%
44.2%
41.0%
.885
4
.927
Meat entree
15.4%
18.0%
15.4%
11.6%
12.6%
14.4%
4
.277
Dessert
35.6%
40.4%
30.5%
25.3%
17.9%
4
.000
Glass of wine
69.4%
62.6%
59.5%
65.7%
58.9%
63.1%
6.355
4
.174
Bottle of wine
43.2%
45.6%
37.1%
30.0%
21.3%
35.8%
24.859**
4
.000
Appetizers
81.2%
69.4%
67.9%
63.4%
48.4%
66.8%
31.177**
4
.000
Sandwiches
12.1%
10.4%
8.2%
6.8%
1.1%
8.0%
11.699*
4
.020
Pizza
41.6%
35.5%
28.7%
25.3%
11.6%
28.9%
31.937**
4
.000
Pasta
87.2%
78.1%
77.9%
68.2%
58.9%
74.5%
36.626**
4
.000
Meat entree
79.2%
77.6%
78.2%
72.4%
64.2%
75.3%
11.531*
4
.021
Dessert
78.5%
71.0%
64.4%
59.7%
48.4%
64.4%
30.670**
4
.000
Glass of wine
72.1%
65.2%
63.2%
61.5%
48.4%
63.0%
14.335**
4
.006
Bottle of wine
66.7%
64.3%
64.7%
58.9%
33.3%
60.6%
34.526**
4
.000
Lunch Choices
30.0%
4.576
5.098
22.436**
Dinner Choices
*p < .05; **p < .01
Wine club membership and intentions
With respect to wine club members versus non wine club members, there were no findings of
positive effects of club membership on consumer intentions. Wine club members reported lower
frequency of intended visits to the restaurant (see Table 5). There was no significant relationship
between club membership and intended conversion of a winery visit to a restaurant dining event.
Wine club members’ expectations for ACPP were significantly lower than those of non-members for
lunch and for dinner. Perceptions of barriers were not different between member groups (see Table
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6). Wine club members showed a preference for glasses of wine versus bottles for dinner and the
reverse was seen for non-members (per Table 7).
Table 5 Cross-tabulations of Dining Intentions by Wine Club Status
Wine Club Status
Non-member
Member
Total
(n=584)
(n=588)
(n=1172)
Dining frequency
1-3 x a year
43.2%
57.1%
50.1%
4-11 x a year
40.6%
30.2%
35.4%
Monthly or more
16.2%
12.7%
14.5%
Chi-square
df
23.108**
2
.000
.536
1
.464
12.585**
3
.006
22.625**
4
.000
Conversion factor
Not likely to dine
43.3%
45.4%
44.3%
Likely to dine
56.7%
54.6%
55.7%
Lunch ACPP
$9.99 or less
59.7%
67.7%
63.7%
$10 to 14.99
23.2%
21.4%
22.3%
$15 to 19.99
9.7%
5.2%
7.5%
$20 plus
7.3%
5.7%
6.5%
Dinner ACPP
$14.99 or less
5.4%
8.6%
7.0%
$15 to 19.99
20.7%
26.8%
23.7%
$20 to 24.99
30.0%
33.5%
31.7%
$25 to 29.99
20.5%
15.5%
18.0%
$30 plus
23.4%
15.7%
19.6%
p
*p < .05; **p < .01
Table 6 Cross-tabulations of “Select All Barriers to Dining” by Wine Club Status
Wine Club Status
Non-member
(n=599)
Member
(n=596)
Total
(n=1195)
Chi-square
df
p
Barriers
Cost of living
4.8%
5.2%
5.0%
.081
1
.776
Free time
16.7%
16.1%
16.4%
.075
1
.784
Friends & family
5.0%
4.7%
4.9%
.062
1
.803
Gas prices
2.2%
2.2%
2.2%
.000
1
.990
Travel distance
25.9%
27.5%
26.7%
.411
1
.522
*p < .05; **p < .01
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Table 7 Cross-tabulations of “Select All Likely to Order” Menu Items by Wine Club Status
Wine Club Status
Non-member
(n=584)
Member
(n=588)
Total
(n=1172)
Chi-square
df
p
Lunch Choices
Appetizers
Sandwiches
57.9%
84.8%
55.0%
84.6%
56.5%
84.7%
1.020
.014
1
1
.313
.907
Pizza
75.1%
78.2%
76.7%
1.566
1
.211
Pasta
40.7%
41.4%
41.1%
.062
1
.803
Meat entree
15.2%
13.6%
14.4%
.622
1
.430
Dessert
29.4%
30.7%
30.0%
.249
1
.618
Glass of wine
63.4%
62.8%
63.1%
.045
1
.831
Bottle of wine
37.6%
34.0%
35.8%
1.730
1
.188
Appetizers
66.4%
67.3%
66.9%
.095
1
.758
Sandwiches
6.8%
9.2%
8.0%
2.297
1
.130
Pizza
28.5%
29.4%
29.0%
.096
1
.756
Pasta
75.3%
73.8%
74.6%
.339
1
.561
Meat entree
73.6%
76.8%
75.2%
1.665
1
.197
Dessert
63.4%
65.4%
64.4%
.520
1
.471
Glass of wine
59.7%
66.0%
62.9%
4.988*
1
.026
Bottle of wine
64.2%
57.3%
60.8%
5.828*
1
.016
Dinner Choices
*p < .05; **p < .01
Conclusion, implications, and future research
Data were collected in coordination with a restaurant planning effort and survey items were
restricted by the winery. Other useful information gathered in future might provide a more holistic
picture of winery restaurant demand. A more general sampling of wine tourists might offer additional
insights as well into dining behavior at wineries. Nonetheless, study results suggest that winery
restaurant planners in the U.S. can benefit from examining the preferences of prior domestic visitors
in order to estimate the potential for converting winery visitors to diners.
Based on current findings, over 50 percent of winery foot traffic would be converted into
dining events. The absence of any negative association between age and intended conversion of visits
to dining events is an encouraging finding, given many visitors are older. Future research should
validate that older respondents expect higher check averages at winery restaurants and further
investigate menu selection behaviors of different age groups, particularly regarding wine.
Moreover, the role of wine club membership in predicting restaurant visitation is unclear. It
does not seem to circumvent potential satiation given that membership infers lower visit frequency
and lower expected check averages. Non club members may be expanding their experience as a wine
tourist, which implies willingness to pay more for hedonic benefits, while club members may be
expecting discounted dining services (similar to the discounts they receive on bottles of wine already)
rather than value-added services. Findings related to wine club members and dining intentions need
to be explored more fully in future.
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References
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Measuring Effects of Experience on Adventure Travel
Kenia Taylor, MS.,
Graduate Student, Florida International University
Sijun Liu,
Graduate Student, Florida International University
and
Eric Beckman, PhD.
Assistant Professor, Florida International University
Introduction
In recent trends, tourism revenues have increased with rapid growth in both domestic and
international markets (Cheng, Edwards, Darcy, & Redfern, 2016). In 2015, the United Nations World
Tourism global report on adventure tourism indicated that 42 percent of travelers departed on
adventure trips in 2013 generating 263 billion US dollars. This represented an increase of 195 percent
over the previous two years (Rifai, 2014). Additionally, 49.2 percent of the US population equating
almost 143 million Americans participated in an outdoor activity at least once in 2013. This emerging
tourism subsector has recorded approximately one trillion dollars in global production value. Thus, its
economic impact has forced many to take notice of this area. (Fanning, 2014).
Adventure tourism research is a relatively new phenomenon with studies being modestly
presented as in comparison to other tourism sectors. Some previous studies have discussed
motivations, behavioral patterns and satisfaction towards adventure activities ( Buckley, 2010; Cater,
2006; Cheng, Edwards, Darcy, & Redfern, 2016). However, little research has been linked to one’s
experiential attributes. Experience is often denoted in the outcome of the activity. The concept that
perception of the place and activity changes from novice to a veteran or even an expert can better
equip marketing strategies and tourism promotions. If tourism providers hope to better meet the
needs and expectations of this niche segment, further research on adventure tourism is crucial.
Therefore, the aim of this study to measure the effect of experience on motivations, enduring
involvement, place attachment as it relates to adventure tourism activities.
Literature Review
Adventure tourism may be defined as an outdoor nature-based activity that represents a real
or perceived risk/danger in the mind of consumers (Beedie, 2001; Kane & Tucker, 2004). The inherent
risk or danger involved can lend to some of the excitement/thrill that a consumer receives from
participation (Buckley, 2012). These activities are characterized based on their degree of difficulty
ranging from soft to hard. Soft activities are those requiring less skill including ballooning and bicycling.
Hard activities are those which require some skills including spelunking, surfing, canoeing, kayaking,
hiking, trekking, bungee jumping, sky diving, snorkeling, scuba diving, zip-lining, paragliding, exploring,
and white water rafting (Buckley, 2016; Schott, 2007).
The fascination of finding an adventure while vacationing has prompted a change in the
tourism product. Consumers are forgoing rest and relaxation activities and instead pursuing soft and
hard adventure tourism activities. Previous studies have focused on motivations referring to Dann’s
push and pull theory as reasoning for the interest in tourism adventure (Dann, 1977). Many of the
motivational factors for leisure and adventure travel have been developed in various studies
(Manfredo, Driver, & Tarrant, 1996; Yoon & Uysal, 2005). Additionally, the concept of enduring
involvement which explains how committed and engaged one is with the activity (McIntyre, 1989).
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Adventure tourism are activities listed that people travel greater than 50 miles in order to
participate (Buckley, 2015). Place attachment helps to explain the emotional bond between the
consumer and the place of the adventure activity (Bowlby, 1988). Little research has been placed on
whether years of experience has any impact on perception of the adventure tourism destination. The
level of experience provides an insight into views of the first time participant in contrast with a more
experienced adventure traveler.
Methodology/Results
The respondents included in this study were surveyed from the Ocoee River Region in Ocoee,
TN. The number of survey participants (whitewater rafters) surveyed totaled 685. The survey was a
street-intercept survey in which interviewers approached rafters after their rafting trip. Of the
participants, 52.7% of were female and the average age was 34 years (51% of the respondents were
aged 18-31). Ethnicity characteristics of the sample include 84.5% White, 7.6% African American, 4.5%
Hispanic, and 3.4% other. Respondent education level included 21.1% with a graduate or professional
degree, 36.5% with a 4-year college degree, 23.4% with some college, 14.5% high school graduate and
4.5% some school. In terms of household income, 24.2% of respondents had less than $40,000 in total
household income, 41.4% of respondents had between $40,000 and $100,000 in household income
and 34.4% of respondents had greater than $100,000 in household income. The majority of the visitors
to Ocoee River were tourists (94.5%) who travelled a distance of greater than 50 miles one-way to the
Ocoee River region.
Respondents were surveyed after their trip on different factors representing their motivations
and enduring involvement (for participation in the activity), and place attachment (attachment to the
location of the activity). Measurement scales used in this study were adapted from previous studies.
The measurement items were modified to reflect an adventure tourism activity or an adventure
setting (Ocoee River). All scale items were measured by a 7-point Likert scale ranging from Strongly
Disagree (1) to Strongly Agree (7).
A One-Way ANOVA (analysis of variance) of the data was executed to test the difference in
factor means between three different levels of experience: (1) less than 1 year, (2) 1-2 years, and (3)
3 or more years of experience (see Table 1).
Table 1: Differences in Factor Means (By Experience Level)
Years of Experience
< 1 year
1-2 years
> 3 years
Significance Level
Factor
Mean
Mean
Mean
Motivation: Nature
5.96
6.14
6.11
0.230
Motivation: Physical Activity
5.41
5.38
5.40
0.978
Motivation: Excitement
6.20
6.30
6.26
0.539
Motivation: Risk
5.47
5.66
5.48
0.364
Involvement: Enjoyment
4.92ᴬ
5.28ᴬ
5.37ᴬ
0.001*
Involvement: Self-Expression
4.27ᴮ
4.46
4.68ᴮ
0.010*
Place Dependence
5.10
5.38
5.35
0.066
Place Identity
4.71с
4.75с
5.29с
0.000*
Significant at the p < 0.05 level
ᴬThe means within the levels 1-2 years and > 3 years are significantly different than the level< 1 year. at
p <0.05.
ᴮThe mean of > 3 years is significantly different than the level< 1 year. at p <0.05.
с
The mean of > 3 years is significantly different than the levels < 1 year and 1-2 years. at p <0.05.
place attachment
Likert scale: (1- Strongly Disagree, 7- Strongly Agree)
The results of this analysis provided support for whether or not experience level significantly
affected the responses of each factor. Table 1 depicts the differences in means for each factor in the
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measurement model across experience levels (starting with motivational factors). Motivational
factors were not significant across experience levels (all four factors) therefore we can deduce that
experience level does not affect the strength of the motivation for adventure tourists.
Of the 685 respondents for the self-expression factor ,234 participants in the less than 1 year
of experience level had an average response of 4.27 (SD = 1.46); the 214 participants in the 1-2 years
of experience level had an average response of 4.46 (SD = 1.47), and the 237 participants in the greater
than 3 years level had a mean of 4.68 (SD = 1.43). The effect of experience level, therefore, was
significant, F(2,682) = 4.68, p=.010. The levels 1-2 years, and greater than 3 years express themselves
through the participation in rafting more than those with less than 1 year of experience. This stronger
self-expression through the participation in an adventure tourism activity leads to a stronger enduring
involvement. One would expect those adventure tourists that participate in an activity for a longer
period of time would express themselves more through the participation in the activity than those
that have limited experience with the activity.
Of the 685 respondents for the enjoyment factor, 234 participants in the less than 1 year of
experience level had an average response of 4.92 (SD = 1.40); the 214 participants in the 1-2 years of
experience level had an average response of 5.28 (SD = 1.28), and the 237 participants in the greater
than 3 years level had a mean of 5.37 (SD = 1.26). The effect of experience level, therefore, was
significant, F(2,682) = 7.47, p=.001. Thus, adventure tourists with greater than 3 years of experience
enjoy their whitewater rafting trip and they have a stronger enduring involvement in the activity than
those rafters with less than 1 year of experience. One would expect highly experienced adventure
tourists to have a lasting involvement in an activity and find it highly enjoyable.
Of the 685 respondents for the place identity factor, 234 participants in the less than 1 year
of experience level had an average response of 4.71 (SD = 1.70); the 214 participants in the 1-2 years
of experience level had an average response of 4.74 (SD = 1.72), and the 237 participants in the greater
than 3 years level had a mean of 5.29 (SD = 1.57). Adventure tourists with greater than 3 years of
experience have a stronger place identity than those with less than 1 year of experience and those
with 1-2 years of experience. As a result, Ocoee River is more likely to be representative of the
participant’s identity and sense of self for those with greater than 3 years of experience. This is
expected, as the more an adventure tourist is exposed to a place, the more he or she will adapt the
place in his or her own self-identity (Simpson & Siguaw, 2008).
Discussion
Though motivational factors did not indicate differences among adventure tourists by their
experience level, significant differences occurred for self-expression, enjoyment, and place identity.
Those that find a greater enjoyment level in adventure activities generally had more experience than
those that were first-time rafters. Similarly, those that participate in adventure activities over time
indicated that the activity represented a sense of self and who they are. Lastly, those more
experienced in the activity found Ocoee River (the place of the activity) to be a representative of who
they are (place identity), in direct relation to self-expression. Tourism officials should take note of
repeat visitors (and those that participate often in adventure activities) as they are more likely to
revisit the destination for their activity of choice. Moreover, tourist officers and marketers need to
consider experience as another aspect as this concept gives an advantage because you know who the
white-water consumer is and can market based on that demographics.
Limitations and recommendations for future study
This research is essential to this underdeveloped sector, adventure tourism. However, some
factors presented a challenge including only one river being surveyed. Nevertheless, this river is the
most visited in the United States. Additionally, the survey included whitewater rafters only and brings
into question if it is a true reflection of the adventure population. Future research studies surveying
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multiple adventure activities could give a broader understanding on the nature of adventure tourism
and adventure tourists.
References
Beedie, P. (2001). Mountain guiding and adventure tourism: reflections on the choreography of the
experience. Leisure Studies, 22(2), 147–167.
Bowlby, J. (1988). Attachment, communication, and the therapeutic process. A Secure Base: ParentChild Attachment and Healthy Human Development, 137–157.
Buckley, R. (2010). Communications in adventure tour products: Health and safety in rafting and
kayaking. Annals of Tourism Research, 37(2), 315–332.
Buckley, R. (2012). Rush as a key motivation in skilled adventure tourism: Resolving the risk recreation
paradox. Tourism Management, 33(4), 961–970.
Buckley, R. C. (2015). Adventure thrills are addictive. Frontiers in Psychology, 6(DEC), 2014–2016.
Buckley, R. C. (2016). Qualitative Analysis of Emotions: Fear and Thrill. Frontiers in Psychology,
7(August), 1187.
Cater, C. I. (2006). Playing with risk? participant perceptions of risk and management implications in
adventure tourism. Tourism Management, 27(2), 317–325.
Cheng, M., Edwards, D., Darcy, S., & Redfern, K. (2016). A Tri-Method Approach to a Review of
Adventure Tourism Literature: Bibliometric Analysis, Content Analysis, and a Quantitative
Systematic Literature Review. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, XX(X), 1–24.
Dann, G. (1977). Anomie, ego-enhancement and tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 4(4), 184–194.
Fanning, C. (2014). Outdoor Participation Report.
Kane, M., & Tucker, H. (2004). Adventure tourism: The freedom to play with reality. Tourist Studies,
4(3), 217–234.
Manfredo, M. J., Driver, B. L., & Tarrant, M. A. (1996). Measuring leisure motivation: A meta-analysis
of the recreation experience preference scales. Journal of Leisure Research, 28(3), 188–213.
McIntyre, N. (1989). The personal meaning of participation: Enduring involvement. Journal of Leisure
Research, 21(2), 167–179.
Rifai, T. (2014). Global Report on Adventure Tourism. Madrid.
Schott, C. (2007). Selling adventure tourism: a distribution channels perspective. International Journal
of Tourism Research, 9, 257–274.
Simpson, P. M., & Siguaw, J. (2008). Destination Word of Mouth: The Role of Traveler Type, Residents,
and Identity Salience. Journal of Travel Research, 47(2), 167–182.
Yoon, Y., & Uysal, M. (2005). An examination of the effects of motivation and satisfaction on
destination loyalty: a structural model. Tourism Management, 26(1), 45–56.
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The Effects of Regional Political Instability on Jordan’s Perceived Image:
an Application of the Destination Image Restoration Theory
Wlla Obeidat, MS.,
Doctoral Student, Auburn University
and
Alecia C. Douglas, PhD.,
Associate Professor, Auburn University
Introduction
In the past decade, the Middle East has been plagued with several wars, emergence of
terrorist groups, increase in terrorism attacks, and The Arab Spring uprisings. Additionally, the Middle
East is currently receiving intensive media coverage that has in turn hurt the tourism industry. The
sovereign nation of Jordan is considered one of the countries included in the “Middle East” region and
although the country has not had any political issues or terrorist attacks in the last few decades, tourist
visitor arrivals have been affected due to the regional political situation.
For Jordan, the hospitality and tourism industry is considered as one of the most significant
economic sectors contributing 6.2% of total GDP in 2014 (World Travel & Tourism Council [WTTC],
2015). The fears of terrorists and wars have had severe effects on tourism in several countries
(Fletcher & Morakabati, 2008) as is now the case of Jordan. Although governmental organizations in
the country are working to correct the image about Jordan to regional and international tourist
markets, they are still facing a very hard time convincing tourists of its safety whilst in the midst of a
war zone. Furthermore the modest Jordanian tourism promotion budget cannot compete with some
countries like Israel and Turkey that have established an advanced communication strategy to include
social networks thereby creating an innovative system of infrastructure (Abdel-Salam, 2006). This
current research therefore aims to answer the following questions: (1) How is Jordanian tourism
affected by the political concerns in the surrounding countries?; (2) How do current and potential
visitors view safety in Jordan?; and, (3) How tourists’ perceptions of safety in Jordan are affected by
other visitors’ experience? This paper will identify how Jordan as a tourism destination can develop
an image that will be more resistant to the effects of terrorism, war, and political concerns by
understanding how it is perceived as a tourist destination in the Middle East.
Theoretical background
The theory of image restoration is associated with reputation management, recovery
marketing, and managing crisis public relations (Benoit, 1995). One of the basic concepts of the theory
is that of upholding a favorable image. The theory provides a foundation for formulating strategies
that will help a group, organization or destination to maintain their positive image. The theory
developed as a result of situations where mistakes or other negative experiences put the image under
scrutiny.
Researchers propose different strategies to use when repairing the image of people, groups,
organizations and destinations. However, the attempt to repair a destination’s image is more
complicated than in any of the other situations. Events happening in a country or in the surrounding
countries such as terror attacks, wars, or political instability can lead to substantial damage in a
destinations' image and decrease in tourist numbers. The nature of destination image formation
makes it harder for governing bodies to apply the same approaches applicable as in the case of
organizations or companies. Therefore, there were several studies that explored image destination
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restoration to help destinations suffering from negative events and repair and reshape their image”
(Avraham & Ketter, 2008). One approach documented in the literature is “the multi-step model for
altering place image”. This model was designed by Avraham and Ketter (2008) to help and support
destinations in their efforts to repair their image in the course of and after a crisis. In their model,
positive image reformation campaign begins with an analysis of the crisis, where it occurred and who
are the targeted audience. After this initial analysis of the crisis, decision makers define the campaign's
aims, start time, and mode for introducing the new destination image. This model can help the
destination identify a suitable strategy to restore its image by focusing on the source of the negative
message and the target audience for the new message they want to send. A number of researchers
have used this model to analyze and provide strategies for destinations around the world (Avraham,
2013; Walters & Mair, 2012).
Methods
In the context of the current study, the multi-step model for altering place image will be used
to first understand the crises negatively affecting the destination image of Jordan by analyzing studies
and articles addressing the subject. This step will provide the answer(s) to the first research question
stated earlier. Second, the study will identify and provide a profile for the Jordanian tourism target
market while also determining the appropriate channels of communication. Finally, in order to build
a strategy to restore Jordan destination image, research questions two and three become the focus.
The aim of this final step will be to provide suggestion to (tourism policy) decision makers in Jordan
on what to include in their tourism branding strategies and marketing efforts.
As such, this paper will use a qualitative approach, specifically netnography, to collect studies,
articles, and travel reviews that focus on the perception of Jordan as a safe travel destination.
Netnography, or online ethnography, is defined as “an interpretive research method that adapts the
traditional, in-person participant observation techniques of anthropology to the study of the
interactions and experiences that manifest through digital communications” (Kozinets 1998). Digital
communications will thus become the key source for data collection. Keywords will be used to search
for studies, articles, and user generated content from online travel review sites, blogs and vlogs about
Jordan tourism.
The keywords that will be used to collect user generated content are adopted from several
studies about destination image and terrorism and war that were conducted by Sonmez (1998-1999).
They include: safe place, make you feel at home, friendly, nervous, secure, stressful, risky, war,
terrorism, dangerous, threatening/non-threatening, comforting/terrifying, scary/ reassuring.
Additionally, both secondary academic research publications and practitioner articles on Jordan
destination image will be collected as well as publicly accessible information from the Ministry of
Tourism & Antiquities of Jordan [MOTA] on tourists’ numbers and tourism revenue.
The findings of the current study will be compared and contrasted against previous research
articles that used the restoration image theory as a means of providing recommendations on how to
influence a more positive destination image in the minds of the target market. By extension,
recommendations to the branding strategy and marketing efforts could be a product of this study.
Implications of the study
The study could have practical implications for Jordanian tourism policy makers by providing a
view into how current and future tourists perceive Jordan as a safe destination. It is the hope that
results of the study’s results will provide decision makers with a strong foundation to restore the
image of Jordan as a safe haven. Finally, the study’s results can be modified and used in the case of
other countries with similar problems, political situation, and destination attributes as Jordan.
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References
Abdel-Salam, M. (October, 2006). An analytical study of Israel tourism master plan in the Costa region
Ashdod - Askalon. Journal of Al Azhar University Engineering Sector, 1(1), 1287e1309.
Avraham, E., & Ketter, E. (2008). Media strategies for marketing places in crisis: Improving the image
of cities, countries, and tourist destinations. Routledge.
Avraham, E. (2009). Marketing and managing nation branding during prolonged crisis: The case of
Israel. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 5(3), 202-212.
Avraham, E. (2013). Crisis communication, image restoration, and battling stereotypes of terror and
wars: Media strategies for attracting tourism to Middle Eastern countries. American
Behavioral Scientist, 0002764213487733.
Avraham, E. (2015). Destination image repair during crisis: Attracting tourism during the Arab Spring
uprisings. Tourism Management, 47, 224-232.
Benoit, W. L. (1997). Image repair discourse and crisis communication. Public relations review, 23(2),
177-186.
Benoit, W. L. (2000). Another visit to the theory of image restoration strategies. Communication
Quarterly, 48(1), 40-43.
Fletcher, J. & Morakabati, Y. (2008). Tourism activity, terrorism and political instability within the
Commonwealth: The cases of Fiji and Kenya. International Journal of Tourism Research, 10,
537–556.
Kozinets, R. V. (1998). On netnography: Initial reflections on consumer research investigations of
cyberculture. NA-Advances in Consumer Research Volume 25. Mota (2015) Ministry of
Tourism and Antiquties.
Sönmez, S. F., & Graefe, A. R. (1998). Influence of terrorism risk on foreign tourism decisions. Annals
of Tourism Research, 25(1), 112-144.
Sönmez, S. F., Apostolopoulos, Y., & Tarlow, P. (1999). Tourism in crisis: Managing the effects of
terrorism. Journal of Travel Research, 38(1), 13-18.
Walters, G., & Mair, J. (2012). The effectiveness of post-disaster recovery marketing messages—The
case of the 2009 Australian bushfires. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 29(1), 87-103.
World Travel and Tourism Council (2015). Travel & Tourism Economic Impact, London.
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Consequences of Hotel Greenwashing: The Moderating Effect of Consumers’
Previous Experience
Han Chen, MS.,
Doctoral Candidate, Auburn University
Shaniel Bernard, MS.,
Doctoral Student, Auburn University
and
Imran Rahman, PhD.,
Assistant Professor, Auburn University
Introduction
More and more hotels are embracing green practices worldwide due to the rise of green
consumerism (Rahman, Park, & Chi, 2015). According to a survey conducted by TripAdvisor (2013), 79
percent of consumers indicated that eco-friendly practices are important to their choice of lodging.
However, consumers are also getting more critical about hotel green practices since some hotels
deceptively use marketing to promote the perception of being environmentally friendly. This
phenomenon is popularly referred to as hotel greenwashing (Rahman et al., 2015; Aji & Sutikno, 2015).
While these practices are actually eco-friendly, hotels do not disclose the fact that they also largely
benefit from cost-savings, which makes it difficult for consumers to verify the credibility of their
initiatives and feel the risk of purchasing (Rahman et al., 2015). The increase of perceived risk will
further result in reduced consumer trust (Wood & Scheer, 1996). Although statistics show that sixty
percent of consumers are skeptical about whether hotels are truly eco-friendly (TripAdvisor, 2012),
little is known whether greenwashing increases consumers’ perceived risk and confusion and reduce
their trust when it comes to hotel green practices. It is also unknown whether green trust will reduce
consumers’ intention to switch and spread negative word of mouth as well as increase their intention
to participate in hotel green practices. Thus the current study can provide implications for hotel
managers when designing better green practices that can engage more hotel guests to participate.
The objective of this study is to investigate how consumers react to hotel greenwashing,
focusing on the consequences that include green perceived risk, green consumer confusion as well as
green trust, which in turn might influence consumers’ switching intention, negative word-of-mouth
(NWOM) and intention to participate in the towel reuse program. As prior experience, in general,
affects consumers’ behavior (Peña et al., 2012), we further investigate the moderating role of
consumers’ previous experience on the relationships between green trust and switching intention,
NWOM as well as intention to participate in the towel reuse program - one of the most widely adopted
green practices in the lodging industry (TripAdvisor, 2012).
Literature Review
Prior studies have identified the misleading, ambiguous and deceptive nature of
greenwashing and some of its consequences (Chen & Chang, 2013; Aji & Sutikno, 2015). According to
Gillespie (2008), greenwashing could increase perceived risk of environmental consumption, create
confusion, and reduce trust in the product if consumers fail to recognize the reliability of the green
claim the product makes. Based on the theory of perceived risk, the level of green perceived risk would
affect consumers’ decision to trust the product or not (Harridge-March, 2006). Green consumer
confusion was also indicated to be highly related to distrust (Walsh & Mitchell, 2010). In the lodging
industry, some hotels label themselves as green hotels in a way that makes it challenging for
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consumers to verify their claim (Pizam, 2009). This creates consumer confusion and perceived risk
simultaneously, which reduces their trust in the hotel. Hence, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H1-3: Hotel greenwashing will positively influence (1) green perceived risk, (2) green
consumer confusion and will (3) negatively influence green trust.
H4-5: (4) Green perceived risk and (5) green consumer confusion will negatively
influence green trust.
Green trust is consumers’ willingness to depend on one object based on expectation resulting
from its credibility, benevolence, and ability about its environmental performance (Chen, 2010). A
previous study had indicated that green trust was negatively associated with switching intention (Aji
& Sutikno, 2015). Therefore, green trust may also reduce consumers’ intention to spread negative
word of mouth. Furthermore, Rahman et al. (2015) demonstrated that consumers’ intention to
participate in hotel’s linen reuse programs reduces if they recognize the prevalence of greenwashing.
Therefore, the following hypotheses are hypothesized:
H6-8: Green trust will negatively influence (6) switching intention, (7) NWOM and (8) positively
influence intention to participate in towel reuse program.
The literature also highlighted the influence of customers’ prior experience on their behaviors
(Peña et al., 2012). According to the expectation disconfirmation theory, the actual performance
outperforming customers’ expectations will lead to positive disconfirmation, which means that the
customer will be highly satisfied and will be more willing to purchase the product again (Oliver, 1980).
Similarly, if consumers were satisfied with their previous purchase experience at a green hotel, their
intention to repurchase and to spread positive WOM would increase and so would their intention to
participate in the hotel’s green practices. Thus, previous green hotel experience is anticipated to affect
the relationships between green trust and consumers’ behavioral intentions. The following
hypotheses are proposed:
H9-11: Previous experience with green hotel stay will moderate the negative relationships
between (9) green trust and switching intention, (10) green trust and NWOM, and (11)
the positive relationship between green trust and intention to participate in the towel
reuse program such that relationships proposed in H9-11 will be stronger for customers
with previous experience than those who do not.
Figure 1 shows the proposed research model.
Figure 1 Proposed Research Model
*GW-Greenwashing; GPR-Green Perceived Risk; GCC- Green Consumer Confusion; GT- Green Trust; SISwitching Intention; NWOM-Negative Word of Mouth; IP- Intention to Participate; PREX- Previous Experience
with Green Hotel
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Research Method
The target population is American consumers who have stayed in hotels in the U.S. before. A
self-report online survey was prepared using Qualtrics. We instructed participants to imagine
themselves in a scenario, which provided a sign in a hotel that claims its towel reuse program to be
eco-friendly. After reading the scenario, the subjects were asked to respond to questions related to
this study. The survey was sent to a group of 25 hospitality undergraduate students for pilot testing.
The results of pilot test indicated high level of survey content validity and a good internal
consistency of our measures. The survey was then put to use via Amazon Mechanical Turk for data
collection. The survey instrument included questions about greenwashing, green perceived risk,
green consumer confusion, switching intention, NWOM, intention to participate in towel reuse
program and key demographics such as gender, age and previous experience with green hotels. All
study constructs were measured using a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree)
to 7 (strongly agree). All scales came from existing literature and have been validated extensively in
prior research. Some items were modified to fit the context of this study. For a complete list of
items, please refer to the Appendix.
Results
Reliability analysis, descriptive analysis, correlation analysis, multiple hierarchical regression
and structural equations modeling were undertaken in SPSS version 23 and Amos 22. A total of 305
responses were received, of which 270 were usable. Demographic information of the respondents is
presented in Table 1. The adequacy of the measurement model for the sample was examined using
confirmatory factor analysis. The standardized maximum likelihood loadings and fit statistics are
provided in Table 2. A CFI of .93 and an RMSEA of .07 indicated an adequate measurement model.
Before examining the model, the reliability of the constructs was assessed. Both Cronbach’s alpha
values (ranged from .80 to .94, Table 2) and the composite reliability values (between .77 and .95,
Table 3) showed good internal consistency. All factor loadings were significant and greater than the
0.4, with the majority surpassing .70. Moreover, the AVE for each construct was higher than .50
(Table 4). Thus the model achieved convergent validity. In addition, each construct’s AVE (between
.53 and .85) was greater than the square of their correlations with the other constructs (as shown in
Table 4). Thus, discriminant validity was also achieved.
Table 1: Demographic Profile of Respondents (n=270)
Gender
Male
Female
Ethnicity
Hispanic
White
Black or African American
Asian American
American Indian or Alaskan native
Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander
Education
Less than high school
High school or equivalent
Some college
Associate’s degree
Bachelor’s degree
Graduate degree
n
%
113
157
41.9
58.1
17
207
24
19
2
1
6.3
76.7
8.9
7.0
.7
.4
2
26
62
33
105
38
.7
9.6
23.0
12.2
38.9
14.1
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Table 1 (cont’d): Demographic Profile of Respondents (n=270)
Professional degree
Income
＜$20,000
$20,000 to $39,999
$40,000 to $59,999
$60,000 to $79,999
$80,000 to $99,999
≥$100,000
Travel Purpose
More for business
More for leisure
Equally for business and leisure
Do not travel at all
Age
Number of night stays at hotels per year
4
1.5
37
67
46
48
30
42
13.7
24.8
17.0
17.8
11.1
15.6
31
187
33
19
Mean
38.1
8.1
11.5
69.3
12.2
7.0
S.D.
12.9
9.8
Table 2: Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results Including Standardized Loading Estimates (n=270)
Measure
GW1
GW2
GW3
GW4
GW5
GPR1
GPR2
GPR4
GPR5
GCC1
GCC2
GCC3
GCC4
GCC5
GCC6
GT1
GT2
GT3
GT4
GT5
SI1
SI2
SI3
NWOM1
NWOM2
NWOM3
IP1
IP2
GW
.82
.85
.83
.84
.82
GPR
GCC
GT
SI
NWOM
IP
.89
.87
.63
.43
.77
.72
.77
.81
.79
.73
.83
.80
.90
.94
.94
.75
.88
.70
.88
.93
.84
.86
.98
Cronbach’s Alphas
.92
.80
.88
.94
.87
.90
.92
*𝜒 2 =767.27; df=325; CFI: .93; RMSEA: .07;
*GW-Greenwashing; GPR-Green Perceived Risk; GCC- Green Consumer Confusion; GT- Green Trust; SISwitching Intention; NWOM-Negative Word of Mouth; IP- Intention to Participate
*One item in green perceived risk was removed from the model due to a low factor loading
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Table 3 Correlations among Constructs (n=270)
Measure
GW
GPR
GCC
GT
SI
NWOM
IP
GW
1
GPR
.58**
1
GCC
.58**
.45**
1
GT
-.47**
-.32**
-.28**
1
SI
.51**
.56**
.28**
-.35**
1
NWOM
.42**
.48**
.15*
-.17**
.59**
1
IP
-.27**
-.21*
-.08
.36**
-.16**
-.24**
1
Mean
3.73
3.64
4.40
4.32
3.16
2.14
5.17
SD
1.53
1.17
1.33
1.18
1.35
1.27
1.70
C.R.
.92
.81
.89
.95
.82
.91
.92
AVE
The square root
of AVE
.69
.83
.53
.73
.59
.77
.78
.88
.60
.77
.78
.88
.85
.92
**p < .001; *p < .05
*GW-Greenwashing; GPR-Green Perceived Risk; GCC- Green Consumer Confusion; GT- Green Trust; SISwitching Intention; NWOM-Negative Word of Mouth; IP- Intention to Participate
The structural model was estimated using Maximum Likelihood (Table 4). Results affirmed
the significant positive relationship of greenwashing with green perceived risk (.64, p < .001) and
green consumer confusion (.67, p < .001), supporting H1 and H2. Both greenwashing (-.46, p < .001)
and green perceived risk (-.16, p < .05) had significant negative influences on green trust, which
provided support for H3 and H4. However, green consumer confusion did not influence green trust
significantly (.10, p = .26). Therefore, H5 was not supported. Green trust had significant negative
effects on switching intention (-.43, p < .001) and NWOM (-.18, p < .05) and positive influence on
intention to participate in the towel reuse programs (.42, p < .001). Thus, H6, H7, and H8 were
supported.
Table 4 Structural Model Results (n=270)
Path
GW → GPR
GW → GCC
GW → GT
GPR → GT
GCC →GT
GT→ SI
GT→NWOM
GT→IP
**p < .001; *p < .05
Coefficients
.64
.67
-.46
-.16
.10
-.43
-.18
.42
P
**
**
**
*
.26
**
*
**
Results
Supported
Supported
Supported
Supported
Not supported
Supported
Supported
Supported
Following the guidelines provided by Baron and Kenny (1986), hierarchical multiple
regression analyses were used for the moderation tests (see Table 5). The interaction of green trust
and previous experience was significant for both switching intention (β=.19, p < .05) and intention to
participate (β= -.22, p < .05), which supported H9 and H11. For NWOM, the interaction was not
significant (β=.16, p = .052) , rejecting H10. The interaction plots (Figure 2) indicate that the negative
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relationship between green trust and switching intention is significantly reduced for customers with
green hotel stay experience (simple slope = -.26, p < 0.05) compared to customers with no such
experience (simple slope = -.64, p < 0.05). Figure 3 shows that the positive relationship between
green trust and intention to participate in towel reuse program is strengthened for consumers who
have not stayed with green hotels (simple slope = .83, p < 0.05) than those with green hotel
experience (simple slope = .38, p < 0.05).
Table 5 Moderation Test Results (n=270)
Dependent Variables and Standardized Regression Weights (β)
Independent Variables
Switching Intention
Negative WoM
Intention to participate
Green trust
-.47**
-.22*
.62**
Previous experience
-.06
.06
.30*
R2
.12**
.03*
.16**
Green trust× Previous
experience
.19*
.16
-.22*
ΔR2
.02*
.02
.02*
F
23.91**
8.24
30.79*
Total R2
.14**
.05
.18*
Step 1
Step 2
**. p＜.001. *. p＜.05.
Notes: Previous experience with green hotel stay was dummy coded (1= with previous experience, 0= no
previous experience)
3.8
3.6
3.4
SI
3.2
3
No PREX
2.8
With PREX
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
Low GT
High GT
Figure 2 Effect of Green Trust and Previous Experience on Switching Intention
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6
5.8
5.6
5.4
IP
5.2
No PREX
5
With PREX
4.8
4.6
4.4
4.2
4
Low GT
High GT
Figure 3 Effect of Green Trust and Previous Experience on Intention to Participate in Towel Reuse
Program
Discussion and Implications
The current study advanced the theory of perceived risk and expectation disconfirmation to
show major consequences of hotel greenwashing. It also filled the gap in hospitality extant literature
by examining the effects of green trust on hotel consumers’ switching intention, NWOM and
intention to participate in green practices. The moderating effect of previous experience on
relationships between green trust and consumers’ behavioral intentions was also not studied before
in a green hotel context.
All the results echo previous mainstream studies (Chen & Chang, 2013; Aji & Sutikno, 2015)
except green consumer confusion, which did not affect green trust significantly (Chen & Chang,
2013). This suggests that hotel consumers’ inability to develop a correct interpretation of green
hotel practices will not influence their expectations of the hotel’s green performance. In order to
reduce consumers’ green perceived risk and increase their green trust, green hotels need to stop
deceptive advertisements and claims with regard to green practices and seek credible green hotel
certifications from agencies such as Green Globe, Green Seal, and LEED. Results also showed that the
more green trust consumers have in the green hotel, the less they intend to switch and spread
NWOM, and the more they are willing to participate in the towel reuse program, which align with
previous findings (Rahman et al., 2015; Aji & Sutikno, 2015). The moderation effects indicate that
the behavioral intentions of consumers who have never stayed with green hotels tend to be
influenced by the green trust more. This suggests that green hotels should focus more on potential
consumers instead of existing ones when developing their green trust.
There were a few limitations that need to be addressed in future research. These include
social desirability bias and use of a single scenario. Future research can utilize different green hotel
practice scenarios to test the versatility of the proposed model.
References
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Chen, Y. S., & Chang, C. H. (2013). Greenwash and green trust: The mediation effects of green
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Travelers Plan Greener Trips. TripAdvisor. Retrieved from
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Appendix: Measures and List of Items
Measure
Greenwashing
(Laufer, 2003)
Green Perceived Risk (Mohr,
1998)
Green Consumer Confusion
(Walsh & Mitchell, 2010)
Green Trust
(Chen, 2010)
Switching Intention (Ping,
1995)
Negative Word of Mouth
(Grégoire, Laufer & Tripp,
2010)
Intention to Participate
(Rahman et al., 2015)
Items
1. This hotel misleads with words in its environmental features
2. This hotel misleads with visual or graphics in its environmental features
3. This hotel has a green claim that is vague or seemingly unprovable
4. This hotel overstates or exaggerates how its green functionality actually is
5. This hotel leaves out or masks important information, making the green
claim sound better than it is
1. There is a chance that there will be something wrong with the
environmental performance of this hotel
2. There is a chance that this hotel will not work properly with respect to its
environmental design
3. There is a chance that staying at this hotel will negatively affect the
environment
4. Staying at this hotel would damage your green reputation or image
1. Due to the great similarity of many hotels with respect to environmental
features it is often difficult to detect this hotel
2. It is difficult to recognize the differences between this hotel and other
hotels with respect to environmental features
3. There are so many hotels I can purchase that I am really confused with
respect to environmental features when purchasing this hotel
4. There are so many hotels that it is difficult to decide which one I should
choose with respect to environmental features when purchasing this hotel
5. When purchasing this hotel you rarely feel sufficiently informed with
respect to environmental features
6. When purchasing this hotel, you feel uncertain about its environmental
features
1. I feel that this hotel’s environmental reputation is generally reliable
2. I feel that this hotel’s environmental performance is generally dependable
3. I feel that this hotel’s environmental claims are generally trustworthy
4. This hotel’s environmental concern meets my expectation
5. This hotel keeps promises and commitment for environmental protection
1. I will consider changing hotels
2. I have no intention to stay at this hotel again
3. I intend to stay at another hotel in the future
1. I spread negative word-of-mouth about this hotel
2. I will denigrate this hotel to my friends
3. When my friends are looking for a similar hotel, I will tell them not to stay at
this hotel
1. I would like to do my part in protecting the environment by participating in
this hotel’s towel reuse/energy saving program
2. I am willing to participate in the towel reuse/energy saving program of this
hotel
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Hotel’s Environmental Management Practice: Scale Development and Validation
Woody G. Kim, PhD.,
Professor, Florida State University
Yong Joong Kim, PhD.,
Research Associate, Florida State University
Hyung-Min Choi, PhD.,
Research Associate, Florida State University
and
Min Tian, PhD.,
Research Associate, Florida State University
Introduction
Environmental protection is a vital issue for the natural environment (hereafter,
“environment”) itself and the future of mankind. In response, business organizations have made
environmental commitment an important task since it makes business to contribute to naturally
sustainable development (Bohdanowicz et al., 2011; Buysse & Verbeke, 2003). Consistent with this
phenomenon, even in the hotel industry, many firms have gradually devoted resources to
environmental management (Chou, 2014; Park et al., 2014; Rahman et al., 2012).
Previous studies have viewed environmental management dimensions from a variety of
perspectives. While some scholars often operationalize environmental management using a
unidimensional measure that aggregates these activities, others suggest that environmental
management consists of multiple dimensions (Molina-Azorín et al., 2015; Yen et al., 2013). For
instance, López-Gamero et al. (2009) noted that a hotel’s environmental management can be divided
into two dimensions: organizational and technical. The organizational aspect consists of knowledge
and learning in the development of environmental practices, whereas the technical aspect includes
lower resource consumption, low energy consumption, and recycling (López-Gamero et al., 2009).
Similarly, Park et al. (2014) combined two dimensions: technical practices—operational practices to
reduce the negative impact on the natural environment and system practices—practices applied to
organizational activities that monitor and support environmental technical practices. Molina-Azorín
et al. (2015) proposed that environmental management has four dimensions (formative second-order
constructs): operational systems, information systems, strategic systems, and technical systems.
However, only a few studies address common dimensions underlying environmental measurement
from a theoretical approach.
On the other hand, many researchers have recently suggested that environmental
management shapes employees’ behaviors and attitudes and, consequently, contribute positively to
environmental performance (Chan & Hawkins, 2010; Kim & Choi, 2013; Paillé et al., 2014; Yen et al.,
2013). In the context of the hotel industry, empirical studies have revealed evidence that measures of
environmental management lead to firm performance and employee outcome. For example, Kim and
Choi (2013) found a positive association between hotel employees’ perception of environmentally
friendly practices and their organizational commitment. Molina-Azorín et al. (2015) revealed that
environmental management improves environmental performance by reducing environmental
impacts. Yet, the environmental management measures employed in these studies were not
subjected to construct validation efforts and, therefore, not replicated steadily in other studies.
Without substantive deliberation to the environmental management construct, it is problematic to
evaluate its antecedents and consequences.
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In short, measures of employees’ perception of hotel environmental management remain
underdeveloped and fragmented. Limited studies in the area of organizational behavior address
environmental management. To enrich the understanding of the relationship between perceived
environmental management and its consequences, attention needs to be directed towards various
considerations with regards to environmental management conceptualization and its measurement
(Lo et al., 2012).
The purpose of this study is to develop a comprehensive and valid measure of employees’
environmental management practices perception using the Hotel’s Environmental Management
Practice (HEMP) scale, which is uniquely suited for the hotel industry. This study refines
methodological inconsistencies of measures and facilitates theory building. This study also establishes
a new measure that provides a more inclusive explanation by which the hotel environmental
management construct may maximize its returns. In addition, the results help hotel managers to
become more competent in implementing environmental management and assessing how their
employees perceive and subsequently react to it.
Theoretical background: the resource-based view
Many scholars propose that the resource-based view of a firm is an appropriate tool for
understanding a firm’s environmental management (Barney et al., 2011; Christmann, 2000; Hart &
Dowell, 2010; Russo & Fouts, 1997). The resource-based view suggests the heterogeneity of resources
across a firm affects a firm’s performance (Christmann, 2000). Barney (1991) referred to the resources
as assets, capabilities, and organizational processes controlled by a firm, where capability is the firm’s
ability to deploy resources, usually in combination. Accumulating resources and capabilities that are
valuable, rare, and inimitable, a firm can achieve competitive advantages (Barney, 1991). On the other
hand, Grant (1991) categorized the resources as physical, human, technological, and so forth, yet
stated that the categories are not necessarily exhaustive or mutually exclusive.
Based on a comprehensive review of the literature on the resource-based view and existing
measures of environmental management perceptions, this study operationalizes the resources and
capabilities into three dimensions: (1) energy conservation effort, (2) environmental policy
implementation, and (3) environmental public relations. These dimensions are consistent in a general
sense with the practices that hotels have implemented. Via these dimensions, this study can classify
the allocation of resources for hotel environmental management. This study also defines HEMP as a
hotel’s efforts through their activities and policies that aim to reduce the environmental impact
caused by the hotel’s business operations and to support for environmental protection. An initial pool
of 41 items was derived from prior studies (Hsiao et al., 2014; Kim et al., 2012; Molina-Azorín et al.,
2015; Yen et al., 2013) and from the TripAdvisor GreenLeaders Program (TripAdvisor, 2015), the most
popular online travel community (Lee et al., 2011). Based on the above-mentioned sources, the
researchers generated the initial 41-item pool and then finally selected 26 items with content validity
by consulting three academic faculty members and two hotel executives.
Pilot study for scale purification
This study employed a valid sample of 126 full-time employees—working for an upscale hotel
located in Tsingtao, Shandong, China—to refine the items of the HEMP scale and to explore the
dimensionality of the scale. 55.6% of the sample were female, 61.1% were in their twenties, 77.0%
were working in front of the house, 70.6% have an entry-level position, and their average working
experience at the hotel was 2.76 years (SD = 3.08). Not only to purify the improper items from the 26item scale but also to determine the factor structure of the items, the researchers conducted an
exploratory factor analysis (EFA) using a maximum likelihood estimation method with a rotation
technique of direct oblique minimization. After the deletion of nine items, which had low factor
loadings or high cross-loadings, three factors were extracted with the eigenvalues over 1.0 and
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accounted for 55.1% of the total variance of the 17 items. Moreover, the results of the EFA in Table 1
indicate that the factor loadings of each items ranged from 0.562 to 0.865. In the reliability test for
the scale, the minimum Cronbach’s α coefficient was 0.858.
Table 1. Results of exploratory factor analysis for initial items
Items
Energy conservation effort
ES1
ES2
ES3
ES4
ES7
ES8
Environmental policy implementation
EC1
EC3
EC4
EC5
EC6
EC9
Environmental public relationship
ER1
ER2
ER3
ER5
ER6
Factor 1
Factor 2
Factor 3
Cronbach's α
.858
.767
.668
.565
.764
.640
.749
.861
.727
.695
.699
.735
.688
.562
.892
.772
.832
.641
.865
.743
6.715
2.291
1.242
Note. A maximum likelihood extraction method with rotation by direct oblique with minimization was used.
Nine items were dropped for those low factor loadings or high cross-loadings. KMO=.885; Approximatedχ2(136) = 1073.041 (p < .001); Total variance = 55.113; Cronbach's α = .901.
Major study for scale confirmation
Sample and procedures.
In the major study, the researchers confirmed the HEMP scale, which already has been
purified in our pilot study. For this research, the top management of five mid-size and six upscale
hotels located in middle-east China and South Korea distributed the online-based questionnaires,
including the 17-item HEMP scale and the 9-item organizational citizenship behavior toward
environment. 768 valid cases (373 from Chinese hotels and 395 from Korean hotels) out of 874
completed questionnaires were utilized for further statistical analysis. 52.1% were female, 45.3% were
in their twenties, 66.3% were working in front of the house, 64.6% had an entry-level position, and
their average working experience at the hotels was 3.92 years (SD = 4.15).
Construct validity and reliability.
A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was respectively conducted with the sample of Chinese
hotels, the Korean hotels, and the overall sample which is the combined sample of both countries.
The model fit indices in Table 2 indicate that three covariance matrices respectively drawn from three
samples fit the measurement model—seventeen observed variables and three latent variables.
Concerning a convergent validity, the results of the CFA (Table 2) manifested that all the factor
loadings of 17 items were significant in each occasion. In addition to this, all the values of the average
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variance extracted (AVE) exceeded the Fornell and Larcker’s (1981) threshold of 0.50. Therefore,
HEMP’s 17-item scale has the convergent validity of those three dimensions in all situations. To
evaluate the discriminant validity, the researchers compared each dimension’s root squared values of
AVE with bivariate correlation coefficients (φ). The HEMP scale had adequate discriminant validity in
all subjects because none of the root squared values of AVE was even or smaller than the relevant phi
(φ) coefficients as reported in Table 3. Regarding the scale reliability, all the construct reliability (CR)
scores in each different sample, as shown in Table 1, surpassed the Fornell and Larcker’s (1981)
threshold of 0.70. Furthermore, not only all the high alpha (α) coefficients of the whole HEMP scale
but also those of each dimension supported the solid reliability of the HEMP scale in three of the data
sets. In summation, the HEMP scale had sufficient construct validity and reliability in assessing the
environmental management practice of a hotel.
Table 2. Results of confirmatory factor analysis for purified items
Chinese hotel (n=373)
Korean hotel (n=395)
Overall sample (n=768)
Dimensions
and items
SFL
α
AVE
CR
SFL
α
AVE
CR
SFL
α
AVE
CR
EC
.925
.747 .946
.924
.742 .945
.925
.744 .945
EC1 .776
.752
.768
EC2 .649
.741
.699
EC3 .872
.852
.860
EC4 .887
.882
.884
EC7 .842
.834
.838
EC8 .915
.855
.885
EP
.920
.732 .942
.909
.714 .937
.915
.723 .939
EP1 .677
.650
.664
EP3 .763
.766
.765
EP4 .847
.855
.852
EP5 .773
.696
.734
EP6 .920
.884
.901
EP9 .914
.917
.917
ER
.915
.720 .927
.914
.715 .926
.915
.717 .927
ER1 .722
.759
.738
ER2 .777
.786
.781
ER3 .887
.894
.890
ER5 .910
.856
.884
ER6 .849
.836
.845
Model fit indices
Chinese hotel [χ2(116) = 299.937, p < .001; RMR = .041; NFI = .942; TLI = .957; CFI = .964; RMSEA = .065]
Korean hotel [χ2(116) = 300.819, p < .001; RMR = .033; NFI = .941; TLI = .956; CFI = .963; RMSEA = .064]
Overall sample [χ2(116) = 488.285, p < .001RMR = .033; NFI = .952; TLI = .956; CFI = .963; RMSEA = .065]
Notes. EC is energy conservation effort. EP is environmental policy implementation. ER is environmental
public relationship. All SFLs (standardized factor loadings) are significant (p < .001). SMC is the squared
multiple correlations AVE is the values of average variance extracted. CR is the values of construct reliability.
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Table 3. Correlation matrices and results of discriminant validity tests
Means
SDs
1
2
3
Chinese hotel
1. Energy conservation effort
3.237
.728
.864
2. Environmental policy implementation
3.067
.758
.492
.856
3. Environmental public relationship
3.363
.814
.462
.390
.849
Korean hotel
1. Energy conservation effort
3.379
.720
.862
2. Environmental policy implementation
3.107
.723
.406
.845
3. Environmental public relationship
3.476
.805
.488
.435
.846
Overall sample
1. Energy conservation effort
3.310
.727
.862
2. Environmental policy implementation
3.087
.740
.449
.850
3. Environmental public relationship
3.421
.811
.480
.412
.847
Note. The bold diagonal components show the root squared values of AVEs. The lower triangular matrices
are the correlation coefficients between dimensions.
Conclusion and Implications
The study contributes to the development of the multidimensional measurement scale of
environmental management practices in the hotel industry. By using multiple and independent
samples, this study provides a robust and valid tool to measure the perception of HEMP. Future studies
in the area of hospitality can adapt this new HEMP scale and test its theoretical prediction.
The HEMP scale helps further integrate environmental management and the resource-based
view. For example, scholars can investigate which environmental management practice is related to
employees’ attitudes and behaviors. In addition, this HEMP scale provides a clear understanding of
how employees perceive hotels’ efforts in environmental management. Comprehending the gap
between employees’ perceptions and reality helps hotel managers regulate and tailor hotels’
environmental management. Hotels can evaluate more specifically how their employees in different
departments perceive various environmental management practices.
The findings of this study are limited to the Chinese and Korean context. Following studies
may replicate the HEMP in western countries in North Americas and Europe where environmental
concerns and environmental management initiatives may be different than in Asia.
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Millennial Consumers’ Perception of Green Practices of Airbnb Hosts
Shaniel Bernard, MS.,
Doctoral Student, Auburn University
and
Alecia C. Douglas, PhD.,
Associate Professor, Auburn University
Introduction
The continued impacts of environmental degradation have prompted consumers globally to
be freely involved in efforts to preserve the environment (Kilbourne & Pickett, 2008; Cheah & Phau,
2011). Although a growing number of consumers are demanding green products and services, the
popular online home sharing network, Airbnb, has fallen short in its ability to provide green or
environmentally friendly products and services to its consumers. Airbnb released a report in 2014
indicating that its North American guests use up to 63 percent less energy when compared to hotels
(Airbnb, 2014) yet there was no mention of the methodology, measurement, or analysis used to
present their findings and conclusion.
Airbnb also touts that 60 percent of its guests, globally, are millennial users and acknowledge
a 128% growth in bookings from this demographic over the 2015-2016 period (Airbnb, 2016). Although
many studies have focused on consumer’s perception of green products, only a few academic research
have focused on Millennials’ perception of green practices, with none specifically done in an Airbnb
context. Recent studies that have focused on the Millennial consumer investigated green marketing
and attitude towards green practices (Gunelius, 2008; Hanks, et al., 2008; Henrichs, 2008; Lu, Bock &
Joseph, 2013). Millennials are ideal for this study since there is an estimated amount of 79 million
Millennials living in the USA (ComScore, 2012) and, as mentioned earlier, they are a fast growing
demographic on Airbnb. Also, research indicates that the millennial population is more
environmentally conscious in comparison to other generations (Henrichs, 2008; Smith, 2010) with a
strong purchasing power that will continue to increase between 2020 to 2050 (Forbes, 2014).
According to Neilson Global Survey (2011), 51 percent of Millennials would pay more for sustainable
products while an earlier study by California Green Solutions (2007) indicated that up to 77 percent
were willing to pay more because they simply ‘care about the environment’.
Although limited data is available regarding Airbnb user demographics, approximately 40
percent of its guests were Americans (Taylor, 2012) while a 2015 report indicated that the average
guest age was 35 (Airbnb, 2015) suggesting that most of its users are Millennials in the workforce. As
such, it is important that we explore this population’s perception of specific green practices at Airbnb
host residences to determine their willingness to pay more or intention to visit. This study will use
stern and Dietz’s (1994) value orientations theory to assess its influence on consumer’s perception of
green practice in Airbnb as will be measured using Baker’s (1987) three factors of the service
environment (design, ambient and social).
Literature review
The idea of a person’s value system as an antecedent of their attitude towards environmental
issues is well documented in literature (Stern, Dietz & Kalof, 1993; Stern & Dietz, 1994; Stern, Kalof &
Guagnano, 1995). According to Schwartz (1992), a value is “a desirable trans-situational goal varying
in importance, which serves as a guiding principle in the life of a person or other social entity” (p.454).
Particularly, values are ordered sets of priorities that may change depending on the competing values
in a specific situation that is most relevant to act on (De Groot & Steg, 2008). The literature suggests
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that it is important to study the characteristics of values in that this understanding is relevant when
explaining certain beliefs and behavior that can further be used as predictors for variables such as
attitudes and behavioral intentions (Stern, 2000; Stern & Dietz, 1994).
According to Stern and Diez (1994) concerns for the environment are based on three valuebased groups; egoistic, social-altruistic and biospheric; therefore, attitudes of environmental concerns
are deep-rooted in a person’s value system. “Egoistic values predispose people to protect aspects of
the environment that affect them personally, or to oppose protection of the environment if the
personal costs are perceived as high” (Stern & Diez, 1994, p. 70). It was also noted that a person with
egoistic values are often perceived as a threat to the natural environment (Schultz, 2002). This
assumption was later empirically tested and proved to have a negative relationship to environmental
concerns (De Groot & Steg, 2008).
Also, Han’s (2015) study indicated that biospheric value influence travelers’ proenvironmental behavior in a green hotel context; while Passafaro et al (2015) study showed that
egoistic and biospheric value are indicative of sustainable tourism choices. Persons with biospheric
values were more likely to select tourism activities and services with low environmental and social
impact, while persons with egoistic values were less likely the make such choices (Passafaro et al.,
2015). Futhermore, Schuitema and De Groot (2015) argued that values can influence purchasing
intentions when consumers pay much attention to specific product attributes such as price and
environmental impact. Based on this analysis from literature, it is expected that persons with strong
altruistic and biospheric values will have a strong commitment to the environment and are more likely
to pay more or visit Airbnb properties that offer green practices while the opposite effect will be seen
for persons with egoistic values. Therefore, this study hypothesized:
H1: Egoistic values will have a significant and negative relationship to (a)
environmental commitment (b) willingness to pay more (c) intention to visit a
green Airbnb facility.
H2: Biopheric values will have a significant and positive relationship to (a)
environmental commitment (b) willingness to pay more (c) intention to visit a
green Airbnb facility.
H3: Altruistic values will have a significant and positive relationship to (a)
environmental commitment (b) willingness to pay more (c) intention to visit a
green Airbnb facility.
Since Airbnb is service oriented by nature, Baker’s (1987) three-factor typology was chosen to
assess millennial consumers’ perception of green practices due to its usefulness in prior research set
in a service environment (Garaus, Wagner & Kummer, 2015; Beverly, Lim, Morrison & Terziovski,
2006). Baker (1987) introduced the notion that consumption settings consisted of both physical and
social elements; ambience and design were constructs used to measure physical environmental
factors and social factors. The influence of the service environment on consumer behavior decisions
and evaluations has been studied predominantly in retail environments.
Ambient factors are ‘intangible background conditions that tend to affect the non-visual
senses” (Baker & Cameron, 1996, p. 340). In Baker’s (1987) study, these factors were divided into
three categories: cleanliness, air quality, and noise however other studies include lighting as a factor
and to a lesser extent, temperature (Heerwagen, 1990). Empirical studies in a retail and service
context has indicated that positively perceived ambient cues trigger positive reactions (Hightower,
Brady, & Baker, 2002; Wakefield & Baker, 1998; Wakefield & Blodgett, 1999). Therefore, this study
hypothesized:
H4: Perceptions of preferable ambient cues will have a significant and positive
influence on (a) willingness to pay more (b) intention to visit a green Airbnb facility.
Design factors are ‘the components of the environment that tend to be visual and more
tangible in nature’ (Baker & Cameron, 1996, p. 340). The literature suggests that positively perceived
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design cues can influence positive effects in retail and service fields. Therefore, this study
hypothesized:
H5: Perceptions of preferable design cues will have a significant and positive influence
on (a) willingness to pay more (b) intention to visit a green Airbnb facility.
Social factors take into consideration the influence of other customers based on the amount of
customers participating in an activity, their appearance and their behavior to include service personnel
and audience (Baker, 1987). According to Thakor, Suri and Saleh (2008) it was found that service
environments attracted old vs young patrons depending on the service context. This suggests that
consumers tend to mirror the actions of others and would be influenced to visit a venue or perform
an activity if it is observed that others are doing the same. Therefore, this study hypothesized:
H6: Perceptions preferable social cues will have a significant and positive effect on (a)
willingness to pay more (b) intention to visit a green Airbnb facility.
Methodology
A pilot study will first be conducted via a convenience sampling of undergraduate college students
at a Southeastern university in the United States (U.S.), since this group consists of millennial
consumers who also work part-time in the industry. The purpose of this pilot study is to verify that the
questions were clear and easily understood by respondents; especially since the items measuring
perceptions of environmental practices is novel to the Airbnb context.
Following this, the researchers will communicate with an Airbnb representative about the
potential for the company to cooperate on the study by providing access to Airbnb consumers. Based
on the anticipated challenges with this method of recruitment as experienced by prior researchers
(Guttentag, 2015), other recruitment strategies will be used to access as many Millennial consumers
who have used or intend to use Airbnb services within the next 12 months. Therefore, samples will
also be drawn using Facebook and Amazon M-Turk. According to several authors, these two websites
are quite effective when recruiting respondents from hard to reach populations (Baltar & Brunet,
2012; Gilligan, Kypri, & Bourke, 2014; Ramo & Prochaska, 2012; Smith, Sabat, Martinez, Weaver, & Xu,
2015). Furthermore, Millennials are technologically savvy (Hood, 2012) and are said to gravitate
toward social media platforms where they can participate in discussions about different ideas and get
involved in cultural conversations (Dye, 2007). Therefore, this recruitment medium is ideal for
targeting the millennial population. Additionally, several authors recommend both websites since they
are inexpensive options that produce high-quality data that can be compared to common alternatives
(Baltar & Brunet, 2012; Berinsky et al., 2012; Buhrmester, Kwang, & Gosling, 2011; Goodman, Cryder,
& Cheema, 2013; Paolacci, Chandler, & Ipeirotis, 2010; Ramo & Prochaska, 2012; Simons & Chabris,
2012). This study will screen participants based on their age (participants must fall within the
Millennial age group) and occupation (participants must also be full-time employees in the workforce).
Data analysis
A confirmatory factor analysis will be performed on all scales used in this study to verify that
the items underneath each construct are adequately represented. According to Ford et al., (1986)
standardized factor loadings above .40 is recommended. Also, to test if these items are highly
correlated, the researcher will employ maximum likelihood method with a promax rotation (Le &
Agnew, 2003). Since the other variables to be used in this model were used and tested by prior
researchers for validity and reliability purposes, a path analysis will then be performed using the LISREL
software (Joreskog & Sorbom, 2006) to analyze the influence of value orientations on commitment to
the environment, perception of environmental practices, willingness to pay more and intention to
visit. Following this, the model with the best fit will be used in the study to analyze the results.
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