INSANITY OF THE MAIN CHARACTER IN A NOVEL ENTITLED VERONIKA DECIDES
TO DIE BY PAULO COELHO
(An analysis of the main character’s insanity with Freudian psychoanalytic criticism)
LutfiNurFadlillah
08220124
[email protected]
Educational Program of English Language and Art Department
SekolahTinggiKeguruandanIlmuPendidikan(STKIP) Siliwangi Bandung
ABSTRACT
The objectives of this research paper entitled “Insanity of the Main Character In a Novel Entitled Veronika
Decides To Dieby Paulo Coelho (An Analysis of the Main Character’s Insanity with Freudian Psychoanalytic
Criticism)”were to analyze the main character’s insanity described in the text and to find out the factors causing
the main character’s insanity. The research method used descriptive qualitative method. The subject of this
research were all the texts of the novel entitled Veronika Decides to Die. The data of this research using
Freudian Psychology criticism theory. Based on the data analysis, the research found that the main character’s
insanity was described as the main character who had deadly and destructive instinct, could not identify her
ownself identity and other people’s identities, dominantly influencedby unconsciousness, hallucinations,
unstable thoughts and judgments, as well as unusual ideas and actions. The factor influenced that influences
the main character’s insanitywere the main character had repressedsexual desire to a skizofrenian man, trauma
because of the memories of her family and childhood, parent’s treatment,and her dreams to become a pianist.
Those causes are internal impulses that are improperly repressed by the ego and external traumatic events. In
conclussion, the main character’s insanity was related the neuroses: the combination of sexual hereditary
condition, childhood experiences, and traumatic experiences.
Keyword: Insanity, Character, Novel, Psychoanalytic
A. Introduction
“Literature is a vague term which usually
denotes works which belong to the major genres:
epic, drama, lyric, novel, short story, ode. If we
describe something as literature as opposed to
anything else, the term carries with it qualitative
connotations which imply that the work in
question has superior qualities: that is well above
the
ordinary
run
of
written
works”
(Cuddon,1979:365-66 in Minderop, 2010:76)
Based on Kimtafsirah (Handout:2011) The
importance of studying literature is to improve
pronouncation,vocabulary, knowledge, the four
language skills, to have self-confidence, learning
the culture of other nation, building our character,
for appreciating the literary, and for having
entertainment.
Being future teacher, studying novel has positive
objectives, for example, the writer can motivate
her students later on to have the habit of reading,
she can advise her students to read novels as
novels can improve their knowledge and she can
know her student’s personality through
psychology literature.
The writer focusses on the novel entitled Veronika
Decides to Dies writen by Paulo Coelho, a
Brazil’s writer. It tells us about a woman who
rises from death instinct. This novel reveals the
characters’s minds, feelings and love. By focusing
on the main character’s neuroses, the writer would
critisize it based on Freudian psychoanalysis
theory because those novels are full with
psychology of someone who has mental disorder
and the author was much influenced by Freudian
Freudian psychology.
The Aim of The Study:
Based on the research questions formulated above,
the aims of the study :
1. To analyze and find out the main character’s
insanity described in the text.
2. To analyze and find aspects in the text that
cause the main character’s insanity.
the way the writer presents the character in his
story.
B. Theoritical foundation
d. Plot
According to Hawthorn (2001:13
2001:13-96)plot is an
ordered, organized, science of events and action.
In other state, plot involved some sense that the
actions we have talked about represent a whole
rather than merely a succession of unconnected
events.. plot is the development of the story, which
is by correlation between cause and result.
According to Klarer (1962:15) plot is the
logical interaction of the various thematic
elements of the text which lead to change the
original situation as presented at the outset of the
narrative. An ideal traditional plot line
encompasses the following four sequential levels
as follow:
1. Definition of Novel
According to Kimtafsirah (in handout:2011) a
novel is an extended fictional work in prose.
According to Hawthorn (2001:4) a novel is a
fictitious prose narrative or tale of considerable
length (how usually one long enough to fill one
ormore volumes)in which characters and actions
representative at the real life of past or present
times are portrayed in a plot of more or less
complexity.
2. The Elements of Novels
Based on Peck and Coyle (1986) and Kimtafsirah
(Handout: 2011) the elements of novels
els are:
a. Theme
Theme is the large idea or concept it is dealing
with.
b. Characters
Peck and Coyle (1989:105)
:105) said that the people in
a novel are referred to as characters. The
characters are part of a boarder pattern
pattern. They are
members of a society, and the author’s distinctive
view of how people relate to society will be
reflected in the presentation of every character.
Details are not included just for their own sake but
relate to the overall pattern of the novel.
“Character
Character is intimately bound up with
w
individualism: a character is unique: not just the
property of a person but somehow simultaneously
both the person and the sign or token of the
person. “ (Hawthorn, 2001:87)
There are two kinds of characters in a novel.
They are round character or major character and
flat character or minor character:
a). Round Character - Main Character
Round character means an individual complexity
incapable of being wisely defined. Round
character is the main character who has a complex
problem and played in general story.
b). Flat Character – Minor Character
A flat character means a character described
only from one side. The character are repressed in
black or white categories without other things.it
also known as character with one or two
personalities (Hawthorn, 2001:90).
c. Characterization
Characterization is the process by which the
writer reveals the personality of the character. It’s
2. Rising
Action
3. Climax
1.
Exposition
4. Falling
Action
5.
Resolution
Figure 2.1 Plot
a) The exposition
The exposition provides the background
information needed to properly understand the
story, such as protagonist, antagonist, basic
conflict, and setting.The exposition ends with the
inciting moment, which is the incident without
which there would be no story. The inciting
momonet sets remainder of the story in motion
beginning with the second act, the rising action.
b). Rising action
During rising action, the basic internal conflict is
complicated by the introduction of related
secondary conflict, including various obstacles
that frustated the protagonist’s attempts to reach
his goal. Secondary conflict can include
adversaries of lesserr importance than the story’s
antagonist, who may work with the antagonist or
separately, by and for themselves or actions
unknown.
c). Climax
Climax is the third act, or turning point, which
mark a change, for the better or the worse, in the
protagonist’s affairs. If the story in a comedy,
things will have gone badly for the protagonist up
to the point;now, the tide, so to speak, will turn,
and things will begin to go well for him or her. If
the story is tragedy, the opposite state of affairs
will ensue, with things going from good to bad for
the protagonist.
d).Falling action
During the falling action, which is the momnet of
reveal after climax, the conflict unreveals, with
the protagonist winning or losing againts the
antagonist. The falling action might contain a
moment of final suspense, during which the final
outcomes of the conflict is in doubt or resolution.
e).Resolution
The comedy ends with a denouement ( a
conclusion) in which the portagonist is better off
than at the story’s outset. The tragedy ends with a
catasthrope in which the protagonist is worse off
than at the beginning of the narrative.
a. Realism
Realism is realistic is the table we apply to these
novels that seek to provide a convincing illusion
of life as we normally think of it. The realistic
novel can seem like a clear window in the world.
Realism often feels most comfortable for the
reader because they appear relative straight
forward. A realistic approach allows the writer to
create a very full impression of what it must be
like for certain people to be caught in certain
dilemmas there is a searching presentation of the
full range of psychological and social factors that
are involved in every experience.
e. Setting
Setting is where the novel takes place. Setting
can create atmosphere for the fiction, help the
reader imagine the scenes, convey information
about a character and provide plot opportunities.
c. Romance
Romance is a novel to describe where the
story is more adventurous or more fanciful than in
realistic novels.
Based on Peck and Coyle’s satement, the writer
apply the consclusion that novel of Paulo Coelho
entitled Veronika Decides to Die is the kind of
naturalsm’s novel because it describes about
Veronika’s mental disorder.
f. Point of View
The point of view or narrative perspective,
characteriez the way in which a text presents
persons, events, and settings. The subtitles of
narrative perspectives developed parallel to the
emergence of the novel can be reduced to three
basic position as follows : the action of a text is
either mediated through an exterior, unspecified
narrator; through a person involved in the action;
or presented without additional commentary.
g). Style
Peck and Coyle (1989:121) said:
“Style means the writer’s characteristic manner of
expression.what in the end distinguishes one
writer from another – so that the experienced
reader could identity a passage as coming from,
say, a Lawrence novel – is the style”.
Every novelist has his own voice. A critical
approach that looks closely at style is a productive
one, for the style of a novel reveals the author’s
attitudes, and from a small section of the text we
can infer a great deal about the works as a whole.
The style is detached and educated.
3. Kinds of Novel
According to Peck and Coyle (1989) there are
three kinds of novel among others:
b. Naturalism
Naturalism is principally associated with the
French novelist. In naturalism a more
documentary like approach is in evidence, with a
great stress on how environment and
heredityshape people.
4. The Importance of Studying Novel
According to Hawthorn (2001) there is some
importance of studying novel, among others:
a. Justifying their response and interpretations by
reference to textual another evidence.
b. For discussing of literature has to insist upon
such standard in order to establish ground-rules
for discussion and debate.
c. To remain within the boundaries of the
authorized
d. To imagined roles and situation which offer the
only constraints.
2. Psychoanalytic Critism
According to Barry (2002:95) Psychoanalytic
critism is a form of literary criticism which
applies some of the techniques of psychoanalysis
to the interpretation of. On psychoanalytic, there
are two kinds of psychoanalytic, they are:
Freudian psychoanalytic criticism and Lacan
psychoanalytic
criticism.
The
writer
chooseFreudian psychoanalytic criticism for
analyzing Veronika Decides to Die’s novel.
a. Freudian Psychoanalytic criticism
The term psychoanalysis is a theory developed by
Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939). Freud in Minderop
(2010:56) explains that psychoanalysis has four
definitions. First,psychological of the writer as a
type or individual. Second, it is a research method
used to explain some mental processes (such as
dreams) which have not yet discussed by a
scientific research. Third, it is a technique to cure
mental disorders of neurosic patients. Last, it is
holistic psychological knowledge constructed by
those methods and techniques.
b. Three Fundamental Principles of Freudian
Psychoanalytic
Based on Barry (2002:98) Freud accept three
fundamental principles of psychoanalytic which
forms all mental processes. They are the principle
of constancy, the pleasure principle, and the
reality principle. The principle of constancy shows
the tendency to keep mental tension on the
possible lowest point or on the stable point. The
pleasure principle shows the tendency of psych to
avoid displeasure and get pleasure maximilly. It is
the subjective version of the principle of
constancy. On the other hand, the reality principle
shows the adaptation of the pleasure principle to
reality.
c. Three elements of Freudian Psychoanalysis
According to Freud in Minderop (2010:21)
psychic life can classified In Ego, Id and
Superego. Id ( Das Es) is unconsciousness –
power to live, drives, instinct, and desires
(biological aspects). Freud said that id as a king or
queen.Ego ( Das Ich) is the psychologycal aspect
of personality arises from the need of organism to
cope with the reality principle. It controls the way
to fulfill Id’s desires. When we want to have a
new clothes, we will consider how much money
we have, what kind of clothes we need, how to
buy it, and where to buy it. It transforms Id into
practice.Superego is the sociological and moral
aspect of personality as the representation of
traditional values and society expectations as
being taught by parents to their children, including
instructions and restrictions. It is a moral aspect of
personality determining the proper and improper
conducts or actions.
d. Free Association Method
Barry (2002:99) tells that the classic method of
psychoanalysis giving patients a chance to talk
freely in order to bring the buried repressed
wishes in the unconscious area into the conscious
area. It is called as Free Association Method. In
this method, patient should leave any critical
attitude on the realized facts and just say whatever
comes into their minds. In the view of
psychoanalysis, every utterance has its meaning
and it can give us a way to understand the cause of
one’s neurosis.
e. A Defence Mechanism
of Freudian
Psychoanalysis
Based on Krech (1974:585 in Minderop, 2010:29)
A defence mechanism in which a drive or feeling
is shifted to a substitute object, one that
psychologically more available. For example
aggresive impulses may be displaced, as in
scapegoating, upon people ( or even inanimate
objects ) who are not sourcs of frustation but are
safer to attack.
b. Neuroses in Freudian Psychoanalysis
Freud says that neurosis is a mental illness that
causes distress in sufferers and impedes sufferer’s
abilities to function normally, though the term
neuroses is no longer used formally within
medical community, it is still a common umbrella
term used for mental illnesses such as anxiety,
pyromania,
absessive-compulsive
disorder,
hysteria, and phobias. (Minderop,2010:26)
Furthermore, Freud explains that neurosis is a
result of conflict between libido and ego, in which
libido cannot be fulfilled by reality so that it tries
to find new form for its satisfaction. Under the
presure of ego, libido can have a fixation to get
satisfaction from happy experiences in the
previous time. Freud relates the previous
experiencec with childhood sexual experiences.
Therefore, Freud thinks that the cause of neuroses
is the combination of hereditary sexual condition,
childhood experiences, and traumatic experiences.
C. RESEARCH METHOD
1. Research Method
In this research, the writer employs a descriptive
analysis method. Since the data used in this
research is a text in form of a novel,document
analysis (content analysis) is chosen to be the
most appropriate methodology in this research.
Content analysis is taking the essence of a
problem which is immersed in texts and a variety
of approaches to analysis.
a. Stages of Research
There are some steps conducted in this
research,amongothers: Reading the novel chapter
by chapter, Finding textual data to support the
major character’s chatacterization, Finding
additional textual data to support the description
of events happening to the main chatacter’s life,
his reaction to these events, and his reason of
reacting so, Collecting these textual data,
Analyzing these textual data by employing
psychoanalysis to describe the main character’s
construction of insanity and to find out the
psychological reason of the main character’s
insanity, Interpreting these textual data.
b. Subject of Research
The subject of this research is a novel entitled
Veronika Decides to Die. This novel is written by
Paulo Coelho, a Brazilian author.
2. Research Instrument
In this research, the instrument which is used by
the writer is novel entitled Veronika Decides to
Die. In addition the writer provides question
which are insanity of the main character based on
Freudian Psychoanalysis.
3. Population and Sample
a. Population
A population was the whole subject in this
research. According to Burn (1995:62) population
is an entire group of the people or object or
events. Based on the definition above the
population of this research is a novel of Paulo
Coelho entitled Veronika Decides to Die.
b. Sample
According to Burn (1995:63) sample is any part of
population regardless of whether it is
representative or not. Based on the statement
above the sample of this research is page 1 until
258 in novel Veronika Decides to die by Paulo
Coelho.
4. Limitation of the Topic
The writer will limit the study only to analyze
insanity of the main character and the cause of
insanity of the main character in a novel Veronika
Decides to Die by Paulo Coelho.
5. Clarification of Term
To avoid missunderstanding of the problem
investigated in this research, the writer would like
to clarify the rerm used in this research, as
follows:
a. Insanity. Such unsoundness ( mental disorder)
of mind as excuses one from criminal or civil
responsibility.
b. Main Character. A complex individual
incapable of being easily defined.
c. Veronika Decides to Die. Veronika as a main
character in novel of Paulo Coelho decides to
kill herself by consume sleeping pills very
much because she felt her life was unhappy.
d. Literature. A piece of writing valued as work
of art compared to technical english.
e. Novel. Fictitious phrose narrative or tale of
considerable lenght i which characters and
action representative of the real life of past or
present times are potrayed in a plot of more or
less complexity.
f. Psychoanalysis Criticism. Psychoanalytic
critism is a form of literary critism which
applies some of the techniques of
psychoanalysis to the interpretation of
literature.
2. Synopsis of The Novel
Veronika Decided to Die tells about a woman who
suffered from a mental disorder. She tries to kill
herself with many ways from injured her artery
until consumed alot of pills because she is boring
with her life. Based on her point of view, there are
told some events happening in her life, most of
which frightened her so much. Since she was
helped by a nun and carried out to Villete hospital,
the arrangement of her story is not in a linear
order. She was decided that she could stand living
only one week more because her heart was broken
by consuming the pils. Finally Veronika stays at
the hospital. There, her life was changed. In fact,
it’s not only veronika will the changed, but other
people tought the same about her changed. In the
Villete she felt something new that she didn’t find
before. Like hesitate, hate, affraidness, happyness,
satisfaction, and the awarness the future. The most
exitful feeling that is love and the conciousness of
sexual. The love that she felt is to the man who
suffered scizofrenia.
3. Author of the Novel
Paulo Coelho born August 24 th, 1947 is
a Brazilianlyricist and novelist. He has become
one of the most widely read authors in the world
today.
Paulo Coelho was born in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil. He attended a Jesuit school. As a
teenager, Coelho wanted to become a writer.
In 1982 Coelho published his first book, Hell
Archives, which failed to make any significant
impact. In 1986 he contributed to thePractical
Manual of Vampirism, although he later tried to
take it off the shelves since he considered it “of
bad quality." After making the pilgrimage
to Santiago de Compostela in 1986, Coelho
wrote The Pilgrimage. The following year,
Coelho wrote The Alchemist and published it
through a small Brazilian publishing house who
made an initial print run of 900 copies and
decided not to reprint. He subsequently found a
bigger publishing house, and with the publication
of his next book Brida, The Alchemist became a
Brazilian bestseller. The Alchemist has gone on to
sell more than 65 million copies, becoming one of
the best-selling books in history, and has been
translated into more than 70 languages, the 71st
being Maltese, winning the Guinness World
Record for most translated book by a living
author.
D. Research Finding andDiscussions
1. Presentation Data
a. Main Character’s Characterization
In Veronika Decides to Die’s novel, the main
character
is
Veronika.She
has
unique
characterization.
atheist
4. Having death
instinct and self
destructive
behavior
Table 4.1 The Main Character’s Characzation
Characterizations
1. Being
a
repression
person
2.
Being
sublimation
person
3.
being
a
an
Textual Evidence
Thinking that dying is good
choose
th
7 November 1891 Veronika
decided that it was the right
time to end her life. Finally, she
tidied her rent room up in that
bishop area. She switched the
room heater off, brushed her
teeth then she laid down (on her
bed) ( P. 1 )
The lasting that she could do of
her explained that Slovenia is
one of the five countries
separated Yugoslavia. The letter
tell about her suicide but the
reason
is
not
actually
mentioned why she had to do
that. When the people found her
dead body, they would conclude
that she suicide because of the
magazine that did not know her
country that Veronika wrote
before shedied.Veronika smiled
thinking the controversy in a
newspaper. That some of them
agreed with her and some
denied her suicide even she did
it to support the dignity of her
country. ( page 7-8)
Thinking that God is never exist
If God exist, while I am sure
that God never exist. He
certainly understand what that
human comprehension is limited
the problem that made her
complicated why He made the
misery, injustice, gluttonous and
loneliness. He certainly has the
best conformity, but even the
disorder should be accomplish
by
people
He
will
acompassionate to the people
that decided to leave this world
sooner or He will ask
forgiveness to us because the
people has to accomplish our
life. (page 11)
Thinking that the death is the
end of the life in her age of
24with her life experience and it
not the simple reachment,
Veronika was fully sure that
everything will be ended with
the death, because of that she
decided to end her life by
suiciding as the last freedom.
(page 10)
It means that God propose her
deed.
In this world, Veronika with
having fuly knowledge would
later end her life by suiciding
and God’s would not be
surprised at such action.
b. Main Character Events
Table 4.2 The Main Character’s Events
Events
1. She had a
great
suffering and
decided
to
kill herself
by eating a
sleeping pills
Textual Evidence
She got four sucks of sleeping
pills from the table near her bed,
she decided to take pill then
wisking and masking the
medicine with water by drinking
the pill she feel better,
confidence. All the pills was not
thing left after she ate them. (p 1)
it was almost six months,
veronica tried to consume the
sleeping pills.she supposed that
she would never get the pill. She
decided to hurt her wrist before,
but she did not do it because she
was afraid that the blood would
spread inside the room. The
nuns will be confused and upset
2. she thought
that suicide
is the best so
pleasure and
smart
decision
for suicide to seize the people
think herself before she tought
the other people. She prepared
everything before, so that it did
not make anyone troubled with
her death. But by slicing her
wirst is the best choice for her.
The nuns could clean the room
then forgot the story wich
happened. Otherwise the kill get
difficult to rent the room we live
twenties country but a lot of
people still believe in ghost. (p –
4)
Veronica was dying and she had
her self business. She guesses
about the life after death
(hereafter) weather it would
really exist or not and when the
body would be found or her
suicide might be the right
decision. (p – 6)
-
3. She did not
however she would have the
experience in her life, the
experience
that
had
primised
her
anything
different. (p- 9)
- How many minutes again?
She did not know, but she
enjoyed it she would know
soon the answer if what the
people always asked if the
God exist? In the age of 24,
with all experience she had
and that was not simple
question. Veronica was
nearly fully sure that
everything will be ended by
death it was why she
decided to do suicide the
last freedom was forgotten
forever ( p. 10)
Veronica had decided to suicide
in the beautiful afternoon, while
the musician Boulivia playing
the music in the square with a
young man cross away the
window and it was happy with
what she heard seen by her eye
and ear. She was more happy as
what she lied to see the same
thing, thirty, fourty, fifty more
years. Because everything would
lost the truth and change and
became a tragedy of life when
everything was going and the
same day would found persisely.
( p. 13)
If God exist, while I am sure that
God never exist. He certainly
trust God
understand what that human
comprehension is limited the
problem
that
made
her
complicated why He made the
misery, injustice, gluttonous and
loneliness. He certainly has the
best conformity, but even the
disorder should be accomplish
by
people
He
will
acompassionate to the people
that decided to leave this world
sooner or He will ask
forgiveness to us because the
people has to accomplish our
life.
4. The Construction of The Main Character’s
Insanity in Veronika Decides to Die
a. The Description of The Main Character’s
Insanity in Veronika Decides to Die.
Once of Freudian’s statement, there is an
explaination that psychoanalysis is a technique to
cure mental disorders of neurosic patients. In
Veronika Decides to Die, Veronika as the main
character seems to become a mental disorder of
neurotic patient with way her activities
dominantly unconciousness and includes to
insanity.
a). The main character has death or destructive
instinct
7th November 1891 Veronika decided that
it was the right time to end her life. Finally, she
tidied her rent room up in that bishop area. She
switched the room heater off, brushed her teeth
then she laid down (on her bed). Page 1
b). The main character has a self-identity crisis.
She does not know her self-identity, as we can see
from these parts of the novel :
“ was that me ?in the reality ?Veronika
asked herself. The people who knew, they did not
care. She had to learn to know the other
feeling.Veronika decided to exercise as she could
be concentrating to find who she was. ( page 126 )
In that state, the main character plays her
defence mechanism for rising up from anxiety and
she becomes an apathy’s people.
b. The Cause of The Main Character’s
Insanity in Veronika Decided to Die
Insanity in Freudian psychoanalysis is called as
anxiety. In Veronika decided to die, there are
several parts showing the main character’s
repressed internal impulses and traumatic
experiences from external events.
a). The main character has a sexual desire to a
askizofrenia’s man
The repressed desire comes into her preunconsciousness in a form of hallucination about a
man and her dad with whom the man is thought to
have a secret affair. The several suffering has
influenced her mental integrate so that she has
some symptoms of insanity as explained in the
descriptions of the main character’s insanity. Her
suffering gets worse when she finds Eduard as a
skizofrenia’s man.
b). The main character of veronika decided to die
is traumatic because of the memory her family
and her childhood, her life’s treatment. He is
enchanted by her father’s interest but at the same
time she hate him very much.
E. Conclusionsand Suggestions
1. Conclusions
This study attempts to explain the description of
the main character’s insanity and the cause of the
main character’s in Veronika Decides to Die, the
main character’s insanity is described as the main
character has death and destructive insninct, the
main character’ self-identity crisis that she cannot
identify her identity and other people’s identities,
dominant influence of unconsciousness and
hallucinations, unstable thoughts and judgments,
as well as unusual ideas and actions, and has death
instinct.The main character’s insanity is caused by
the
repressed
sexual
desire
to
a
skizofrenia’sman,as well as trauma because of the
memories of her family and childhood, parent’s
treatment, and her dreams to become a pianist.
2. Suggestions
In this research the writer hopes as future
teacher can be make a teacher more be
professional in teaching the subject in the class.
During the study, the writer found a problem. It
was hard to apply Freudian psychoanalysis to
literature, especially for the analysis of character
by using psychoanalysis. The problem occurred
when the writer realized that character in the
novel are actually not real human beings with
flesh and blood Therefore ,is was not easy to
analyze fictional characters with a theory that is
originally intenced for human . It is true that some
writers may apply particular psychoanalysis
patterns to characterization of the novel so that the
characters are created as human –ape. However,
there is no guarantee that they really apply it to
their works since the motives of their writings are
hidden inside of their minds. None knows for sure
what actually their motives are.
By analysing this novel, as future teacher can be
taken the beneficial input from the novel and can
give the advices to the student in the class. In the
novel a teacher can learn personality of the main
character, the other cultures, for improving four
language skill and for character building.
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